The Effects Of Bone On Healthy Adults

The Effects Of Bone On Healthy Adults
Abstract. Bone loss usually starts after maturation and accelerates in osteoporotic bones. It is known
that in healthy adults, the number of osteocytes decreases with aging. On the other hand, it has been
reported, based on experimental findings, that osteoporotic patients have a greater osteocyte density
than healthy mature adults. Based on a semi–mechanistic bone remodeling theory, and knowing that
osteocyte density increases in osteoporotic patients, and decreases in healthy adults as they age, this
study investigated if the reduction in osteocyte density, in healthy adults, and in osteocyte
mechanosensitysensitivity, in osteoporotic bones can correctly predict bone density loss as we age.
A two– dimensional finite element model of spongy bone was developed in order to simulate bone
remodeling. Simulation results indicated that the semi–mechanistic model used in this investigation
can satisfactorily explain the bone loss in healthy adults and in osteoporotic patients.
Keywords: Trabecular bone; bone remodeling theory; Osteocyte density; Mechanosensitivity;
Osteoporosis; ; Finite element method.
1. Introduction Bone is a dynamic tissue which adapts its mass and architecture to the external loads
constantly. Bone's adaptation is finished through a coupled process of bone resorption by
osteoclasts, and subsequent bone formation by osteoblasts, the so–called bone remodeling process
[1, 2]. Optimal remodeling is responsible for bone health and strength throughout
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Case Study On Osteoporosis
PART 1
INTRODUCTION
Our group has been given the task for subject Anatomy and Physiology to do a research about
disease.The title of our study is Osteoporosis.The aim of our assignment is to find the information
about the clinical condition that change the normal structures of the bones and how the disease
affect our daily life.
Osteoporosis is a disease that arise when our normal structures of the bone changes as it becomes
fragile and break easily.One interesting fact is that, almost one in two women and one in five men
over the age of 50 will break a bone,mainly due to poor bone health("An Introduction to
Osteoporosis,"n.d.).
Osteoporosis is common for post menopausal women.However men, younger women, children and
pregnant women can also be affected.To simply put it,osteoporosis affects all individuals and it is a
part of normal aging although some can develop at an earlier age. However, osteoporosis cannot be
cured but the progression can be delayed or even prevented.
Figure 1 : Normal standing posture and osteoporosis ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thus, bone modeling and remodeling preserve skeletal function throughout human life. The bone
remodeling unit normally couples the bone resorption and bone formation. Research by Teitelbaum
and Ross (2003) indicated that, the bone remodeling process regulates the gain and loss of bone
mineral density in the human skeleton and directly influenced bone strength and vice versa. In bone
remodelling process, resorption of extra–cellular matrices by osteoclasts is followed by osteoblastic
invasion of the cavity, and subsequent secretion of extra– cellular matrix that is then mineralized
(Ducy et al., 2000). These two processes, which together are called bone remodeling, occur
continuously (Riggs et al., 2002). However, due to some of listed factors mentioned above, these
processes turn out to be distracted and cauce osteoporosis (Rouhi,

Skeletal System Case
Skeletal System Case Study Molly Hennard Wright State University Skeletal System Case Study In
this case study, an 18–year old boy was brought to the emergency room after a football game injury.
He had an open fracture on his wrist and after an x–ray was taken, it showed that his wrist was
broken into three parts and a small part of that was showing through the skin. The patient was
admitted to the hospital so that he could undergo surgery to repair the fracture. Case Study Question
1 In this patient, factors that could influence the bone healing are diabetes, any medications he is
taking, poor nutrition and circulatory problems. There are also some complications of the bone
healing. Delayed union is when the bone takes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Osteomyelitis is caused by parasites, bacteria, viruses and fungi getting into the bone and bone
marrow. Since the patient had an open fracture, this allowed for bacteria and viruses to get past the
skin and enter into the bone. This greatly increases his risk for osteomyelitis. Also, having to have
surgery to fix the fracture also increases the risk. Infection could be caused in the bone as well as
septic joints during joint replacement surgery can all lead to osteomyelitis. There can also be
infections that occur during the healing process after surgery that lead to osteomyelitis. Overall,
anything that will keep the wound open and allow possible bacteria and viruses into the body can
lead to osteomyelitis (Porth,

Advanced Pathophysiology Across Lifesp Case Study
Advanced Pathophysiology Across Lifespan
Case Studies 1 and 2
Amani Kappi
Case 1: Q1: What is the most likely cause of this patient's hypocalcemia? Explain your answer?
The most cause of hypocalcemia for this patient is osteomalacia for many reasons. First, this patient
had a history of Crohn disease and multiple bowel resection surgeries. That effect on the absorption
of vitamin D or breaking down food to release vitamin D. As a result, calcium was decreased
because vitamin D decreased which helps to absorb calcium. The second reason is her weight loss
32 pounds after she had surgery three years earlier, which also lead to decrease vitamin D that helps
to decrease calcium absorption.
Q2: Which of the following statements regarding laboratory tests in metabolic bone disease is false?
Explain your answer?
A) serum calcium is typically normal in the patient with osteoporosis.
b) alkaline phosphatase is typically elevated is osteoporosis.
c) serum phosphorus is typically normal in the patient with Paget disease.
d) patient with hyperparathyroidism often develop hypercalcemia.
a) Serum calcium is typically normal in patient with osteoporosis this is a wrong statement because
calcium plays an important role in the bone remodeling process, and the deficiency of calcium leads
to impaired bone deposition. So, patient with osteoporosis has low bone strength as a result of
calcium deficiency.
Q3: For each of the following metabolic bone disease listed below, give a brief

Tooth Movement Of The Dental Arch
The positioning of teeth in the dental arch is dependent upon an equilibrium that exists between soft
tissues exteriorly and interiorly (dog article). It is the imbalance of the forces within this equilibrium
that results in the movement of a tooth. Although extensively researched, there is still significant
controversy as to the 'ideal' pressure that should be applied to a tooth to result in maximum
efficiency in movement. A number of theories of the mechanics of tooth movement exist, revolving
around the effect on the periodontal ligament and corresponding effect of alveolar bone remodeling.
There are two main theories relating to orthodontic tooth movement, which are crucial to understand
the assessment of the 'ideal' force for tooth movement. The bone–bending theory, otherwise referred
to as the biological electric theory, proposes that forces applied to teeth stimulate electron release,
which are then involved in remodeling alveolar bone. Possibly more accepted, however, is the
pressure–tension theory. This theory suggests that forces applied to a tooth result in compression of
the periodontal ligament on one side of the root, and a tension force applied to the other.
Compression for an extended time, exceeding approximately four hours, results in a release of
chemical mediators, including prostaglandins and cytokines, in addition to decreased oxygen
associated with reduced blood flow. These mediators act to directly, and indirectly through
secondary messengers

Case Study Osteoporosis
Case Study 1. What is meant by a "complete, comminuted, intertrochanteric fracture of the right
hip"? A. Complete – refers to a fracture completely through the bone: B. Comminuted – refers to a
fracture in which the broken bone has shattered into several smaller pieces: C. Intertrochanteric –
refers to a fracture located between the greater trochanter and lesser trochanter of the femur: 2.
Draw a picture of what you think Margaret's fracture looks like. 3. The radiologist reported signs of
osteoporosis. Describe the characteristics of an osteoporotic femur as seen on an X–ray. (How does
it differ in appearance from a normal femur?) Osteoporosis is marked by a decreased bone volume.
Loss of spongy ("cancellous") bone is greater than ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
cartilage–forming cells) and lay down a fibrocartilage splint (i.e. soft tissue callus) | C. bony
callus(starting 3 to 4 weeksafter the injury) | – osteoblasts begin to replace the fibrocartilage splint
with spongy and compact bone, forming a bulge that is initially wider than the original bony shaft |
D. bone remodeling | – as the patient starts to use (or bear weight on) the bone, the bone starts to
remodel along lines of maximal stress (this remodeling process requires the activity of both
osteoblasts and osteoclasts | 7. During her long recovery, Margaret is advised by her physician to
begin weight–bearing as soon as she can. How does weight–bearing influence the process you
described in question #6? (Be specific in your answer and describe what weight–bearing does to
bone at the microscopic level.) The most popular hypothesis regarding the effect of weight–bearing
on bone remodeling is called Wolff's law . Wolff's law states that bone grows and remodels in
response to the mechanical stresses placed upon it (e.g. from muscle pull or gravitational pull).
Thus, bone is laid down along lines of maximal stress. This is presumably why: A. long bones are
the thickest midway down the diaphysis, where the stresses are the greatest. B. curved bones are the
thickest where they are most likely to buckle (e.g. note the thick greater

Chemistry Of Caffeine
Caffeine is considered to be the most consumed psycho pick–me–up and is present in more than
sixty plants. It is part of our everyday consumptions, such as coffee, tea, energy drinks and even
chocolate even its small amount, around 90% of individuals use caffeine in one form or another.
Caffeine has many similar traits with more of the bigger drugs such as cocaine, amphetamines and
even heroin. The thing is that caffeine uses similar biochemical mechanisms as the other drugs
which in fact are known to stimulate the brain function. Caffeine is also known as 1, 3, 7–
trimethylxanthine, and derives from a methylxanthine group and includes theophylline and
theobromine (5). Methylxanthine inhibits the neurotransmitter adenosine by stimulating by ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Not only it is a major component for bones in humans, it also serves other vital roles. Caffeine also
may contribute to loss of bone by increasing calcium excretion and also a decrease in intestinal
absorption efficiency of calcium (4). Calcium provides structure and hardness in bones and teeth, it
allows muscle to contract and nerves to send signals, makes blood vessels expand and contract,
helps to move blood clots, and it also plays a roles in supporting protein function and hormone
regulation (3). Knowing calcium role, it is easy to see how it can lead to a decrease in bone density.
Inadequate calcium intake can lead to decreased bone mineral density, which can increase the risk of
bone fractures (13). A few ways an agent may increase fracture risk and/ or skeletal fragility include
an interference with the bone remodeling process designed to detect and repair fatigue damage in
bone structures and also a decrease in bone tissue mass either generally or in key architectural
elements (12). Osteoporosis is a medical condition, in which the bones become brittle and fragile
from loss of tissue. It is

Losing Bone Is Common Of The Ageing Process
Losing bone is common of the ageing process, but for some individuals it can lead to osteoporosis
and a multiplied risk of fractures. Osteoporosis ("porous bone"), is a disease that intensifies the loss
of bone mass and strength. It often advances without any symptoms or pain. Thus, osteoporosis is
not detected until weakened bones cause painful fractures typically in the back or hips. These brittle
fractures result in serious morbidity and may have lasting effects through associated depression,
disability, and lower health–related quality of life. For example, two thirds of patients who suffer a
hip fracture never regain the level of function they had before the fracture. Approximately 20% of
hip fracture patients die within a year of the fracture, and were listed as the cause of death on 12,661
death certificates in 1999 Nine out of one hundred women with a hip fracture will die as a result of
the fracture. Fractures resulting from osteoporosis can lead to pain, decrease in height, inability to
stand, and inability to walk. There are roughly 10 million people with osteoporosis, women are 80%
of the sufferers. After the first few years of menopause, women experience bone loss rapidly.
Although, this disease also affects men, they usually have stronger, bulkier bones and do not lose
their mass as naturally. In addition, men who actually have from osteoporosis, often get it later in
life than women, and at drastically lower rates.
Bones are dense and

Osteoporosis Case Study Summary
Case Study Summary:
Louise a 55 year old woman who cares for her 15 year–old granddaughter Marissa, just found out
that she has been diagnosed with osteoporosis after visiting the doctor for long–lasting hip and wrist
pain. Louise is a small framed, underweight woman and has recently had a significant amount of
bone loss which caused her to loss a half of an inch in height in the last year. Her lifestyle consists of
junk food, lots of soda, no exercise and she recently quit smoking a pack a day of cigarettes a year
ago and she occasionally has a drink of alcohol.
Louise's granddaughter Marissa is worried and she wonders if she has the possibility of developing
osteoporosis herself and if there are ways to prevent the disease.
Background of Case Study Disease: When the reduction in bone mass is sufficient to compromise
normal function, the condition is known as Osteoporosis. The brittle bones that result are likely to
break when exposed to stresses that younger individuals could easily tolerate. Any fractures in aged
individuals lead to loss of independence and immobility that future weakens the skeleton. Once the
bones have weakened some symptoms may consist of back pain, caused by a fractured or collapsed
vertebra, loss of height, a stooped posture (kyphosis) and bone fractures can occur more easily.
There are two types of Osteoporosis; controllable and uncontrollable. Some unchangeable risks may
include family history, age, race, sex and frame size. Life style

The Piece On Osteoporosis About Marissa 's Grandmother By...
SUMMARY:
The case at hand is what sounds like a common occurrence in the older generations. The piece on
osteoporosis about Marissa's grandmother by Lisa Rubin highlighted the main concerns and
questions of the diagnoses. After Marissa had learned of the new diagnosis for her grandmother after
she visited her doctor with pain in both her hip as well as her wrists, soon following a DEXA (bone
density) scan had showed a large amount of bone loss making her osteoporotic. Lifestyle plays a
large role in the on the strength in ones bone density. Marissa is very unfamiliar to this diagnosis
with many questions such as a better understanding of it as well as her own potential to develop
osteoporosis as well as prevention.
BACKGROUND:
Osteoporosis is a medical condition in which the bones become brittle from the loss of tissue,
generally as a result of specific changes. Risk factors that take part in the disease are things such as
unchangeable risks like sex, age, race, family history and the size of the individual. Other risk
factors include hormone levels and medication as well as dietary factors and life choices. Life
choices that play a role are sedentary lifestyle these are people who spend a lot of time sitting have a
higher risk of osteoporosis than do their more–active counterparts, weight–bearing exercise is
beneficial for your bones to ensure the bone remolding cycle ensures them to grow strong
(MayoClinic, 2013). Common symptoms that one should take into

The Effects Of Osteoporosis On A Person Skeletal System
Osteoporosis Osteoporosis, meaning porous bone from the Greek language, is bone disease that
gradually and steadily wears down bone tissue and its living cells. This wearing down will
eventually cause the cells of bone tissue to degrade and die, leaving their "scaffolding" to be the
only things only bone together. Without living cells to take up a home in this scaffolding, minor
injuries such as falls, bumping into objects, and pressure that would normally be completely and
would not pose any threat to bone tissue suddenly becomes a real hazard that can easily pose a threat
to one's well–being. Osteoporosis affects a person skeletal system.
in the development and onset of this disease. Sex hormones, such as estrogen previously mentioned,
as well as testosterone in men can help build and maintain healthy bones. When these hormone
levels decrease, which is not uncommon in old age, the chance for osteoporosis increase
significantly.
Also, overly active endocrine glands that produce hormones, such as the thyroid which produces
thyroid hormone, parathyroid glands that produce parathyroid hormone, and the adrenal glands, that
produce many "stress" hormones such as epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, have been linked to
decreased bone health and risk of osteoporosis. The pituitary gland located on the bottom of your
brain releases many hormones, but a notable one linked to osteoporosis is known as growth
hormone. As previously mentioned, lifestyle

Osteoporosis and Bone
Dorothy Nicoll
A & P 171
Izy Grooms
Osmosis: Marissa, Jeremy, and Eleanor
Question on front of packet
Calcium helps to keep bones strong but just drinking milk doesn't mean that you won't get
osteoporosis. You may be genetically inclined to get it even though you drink milk every day. There
are also many other things that contribute to getting osteoporosis, like not eating enough calcium,
doing steroids causes bones to become weak and look like sponges when looking at it under a
microscope. Scenarios A,B, and C help to explain that it's not just the calcium that can cause
osteoporosis
Scenario A:
1. The skeleton is a metabolically active organ that undergoes continuous remodeling throughout
life. Bone remodeling involves the removal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Scenario B:
1. It is essential for muscle contraction, but also essential to the structure and health of bones. Bones
are continually remodeling and reforming and calcium is a vital part of this process. Without
calcium bones can become very thin. Bones are structured to provide strength, protection, and
movement. In addition the structure allows the bones to serve as a reservoir for several minerals
including calcium because calcium can quickly move between the bone and the blood.
2. Foods high in calcium consist of spinach, kale, okra, collards, soybeans, white beans, some fish
(such as sardines, salmon, perch, and rainbow trout), some orange juice, oatmeal and breakfast
cereal.
3. Vitamin D promotes calcium absorption in the gut and maintains serum calcium and phosphate
concentrations to enable normal mineralization of bone and to prevent hypocalcemia tetany. It is
also needed for bone growth and bone remodeling by osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Without
significant vitamin D bones can become brittle, thin, or misshapen. Vitamin D sufficiency rickets in
children and osteomalacia in adults. Together with calcium and vitamin D also helps protect older
adults form osteoporosis.
4. Men and women have different allowances such as men : 19–50 1,000mg 51–71 1,000mg 71–
older 1,200mg
Women
19–50 1,000mg 51–older 1,200mg
And there are also supplements Calcium carbonate (40% of elemental calcium) Calcium citrate
(21% elemental

Fracture Hematoma Research Paper
– A fracture occurs when there is a break in a bone. It can usually be healed, so long as portions of
the blood supply, periosteum, and endosteum are still intact. A fractured bone undergoes repair
through a series of four steps.
– The first step in bone fracture repair is the formation of a hematoma. When blood vessels within
the bone tear, they hemorrhage. This results in the formation of a clot at the site of the break. Thus, a
fracture hematoma is formed, stopping the flow of blood into the fracture site which, in turn, cause
swelling.
– Capillaries then grow into the fracture hematoma, while phagocytes start to clean up the dead cells
within the injury site. The fracture hematoma becomes more organized into a procallus. Fibroblasts
from

Maxiella Case Study
As the maxilla develops in the region posterior to the maxillary tuberosity, the anterior cranial fossa,
the palate, and the body of the mandible also has to follow the growth pattern of maxilla and
increase in length.21 The mandible follows this growth pattern by remodeling the anterior part of
the ramus posteriorly, leaving an offset relationship between the upper and lower arches with the
maxilla more forward than the mandible (Class II type relationship).19,21 To keep pace with the
anteriorly forwarding maxillary growth, the distal portion of the ramus starts remodeling. Ramus
resorbs anteriorly while the posterior portion remodels, thus maintaining the same width of the
ramus and at the same time relocating it more posteriorly to allow for increase in length of the body
of the mandible and achieve the perfect positioning of the mandible with the maxilla returning to a
Class I position of the teeth. The upward and backward repositioning of the ramus occurs to increase
the length of vertical dimension and to provide horizontal expansion of the mandible with a further
descent of the mandibular arch and occlusal separation.
As growth and development continues, the cranial base also remodels due to dimensional growth
changes in the temporal lobes of the cerebrum and the middle cranial fossa. Resorption on the
endocranial side ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Both are counterparts of the pharyngeal space. The middle cranial floor and the pharyngeal space
are connected by the skeletal structure of the ramus in order to place the mandibular arch in proper
anatomic position with the maxilla. This makes the antero–posterior position of the ramus an
essential component for the balanced position of the craniofacial structures. Thus the previous
forward growth of the maxilla is now matched by the mandibular protrusion. The molars once again
return to a dental Class I position, and the upper anteriors no longer have an

Bone Remodeling : A Form Of Tissue
The trabecular bone is a form of osseous tissue that is found in the proximal and distal ends of long
bones, along with the bones of the skull, pelvis, ribs and the vertebral bodies. The trabecular bone
undergoes remodeling every two to eight months in order to accommodate the load of physiological
stress and mechanical forces on the bone (Huiskes et al. 2000). Bone remodeling is the reshaping or
replacement of bone during growth and following injuries such as fractures, but it also occurs in
cases of micro–damage (Kini and Nandeesh, 2012). This supports Wolff's Law, which states if
loading on a particular bone increases, the bone will remodel over time to strengthen itself to resist
that type of loading (Frost, 1994) The use of trabecular ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In order to establish a positive identity, a scientific comparison between premortem and post mortem
biological features needs to be conducted. This is done by analyzing fingerprints, radiology, DNA,
and odontology (Quatrehomme, 2014). In circumstances when these methods are not able to be
utilized based on the completeness of the skeleton, the individualizing features of the bone such as
the external shape or the radiography of the internal structure, otherwise known as the trabecular
bone pattern, are used (Mann 1998). The trabecular bone is used in this setting because it acts as a
"fingerprint" to every individual (Kahana 1994, 1998, Mann 1998, Quatrehomme 2014, Cateneo et
al 2006). The architecture of the trabecular bone is unique between individuals because everyone
puts different types of physiological stress on their bodies. The variables that affect the way the rate/
design of the bone pattern are diet, exercise, sex, disease, work load, and age (Mann 1998, Raisz
1999). A significant number of these attributes can be linked to an individual's culture and
environment one resides in, and ultimately can affect the amount of loading that the bones undergo.
Despite there being a strong relationship between the individual's cultural background and the
remodeling of the trabecular bone, no studies have been

Early Intervention And Lifestyle Adjustment Essay
Abstract
Aging is inevitable, and for some the process is seemingly smooth with minimal adversity. The
habits we form throughout our life will strongly impact our development, and the potential
development of our offspring/s. The similarities each human being shares in regards to their
anatomy and physiology help the advancement of medicine and science to aid in living an optimal
life. The purpose of this research paper is to analyze one of the most debilitating diseases effecting
the elderly. Through my research, one of the most optimistic findings is that early intervention and
lifestyle adjustment can not only reduce the risk of developing osteoporosis, but alleviate the
harmful effects when prevention is unsuccessful or unnoticed.
Introduction
The skeletal system is a flawless adaption for its functions of body protection and movement. Our
bones form a tower of skeleton arrangement designed to keep humans standing upright and
balanced. The skeleton is partitioned into the axial skeleton, which encompasses the "bones of the
skull, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage" (E.N. Marieb 2015). The second partitioning of
the skeleton is the appendicular skeleton (E.N. Marieb 2015), which include the bones of the limbs
and the bones responsible for holding the limbs to the axial skeleton. The bones in the skeletal
system are essential for the shape, support, protection of soft body organs, movement, storage of fat,
and minerals, production of hormones and blood. To

Osteoblasts: A Case Study
As a results of osteoclast death, the remodeling site becomes free of osteoclasts (Del Fattore , Teti
,and Rucci 2008). Phase 3: osteoblast precursors proliferate and differentiate at the remodeling site
and start synthesizing new collagen matrix (Wilson 2011). They also initiate matrix mineralization
by releasing small matrix vehicles which include Ca and phosphate and ALP (Anderson 2003).
Additionally, the osteoblasts produce different factors that are stored within the newly synthesized
bone for future use and released during subsequent remodelling cycles (Kang 2012). Phase 4: As
bone formation persists, osteoblasts be come entrenched more deeply into the bone and eventually
become surrounded by bone and are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1997). The glands are composed of chief and oxyphil cells; both cells types contain PTH has a half–
life from 4–10 minutes due to rapid degradation in the liver (Aron et al. 1997). Parathyroid hormone
provides a powerful mechanism for controlling extracellular Ca and phosphate concentrations by
regulating intestinal re–absorption, renal excretion, and exchange between the extracellular fluid and
bone of these ions (Aron et al. 1997). Parathyroid hormone response to a decrease in blood Ca levels
(Bhattacharya 2014). Serum Ca levels normally average 9.5mg/dL (Kierszenbaum 2007). When Ca
intake or absorption is inadequate, PTH is secreted to avoid hypocalcemia by increasing the
conversion of 25(OH)vitamin D into 1,25(OH)2vitamin D and intestinal absorption, increasing the
renal tubular Ca reabsorption but also increasing bone resorption (Bagchi, Nair ,and Sen 2013).
Parathyroid hormone has biphasic effects on bone formation by causing an acute inhibition of
collagen synthesis with high concentrations, but, on the contrary, it increases bone formation with
prolonged intermittent administration (Rissanen 2013). If the stimulus persists, secondary
hyperparathyroidism will cause negative bone balance (Holick

Osteoarthritis Research Paper
Disease Osteoporosis Osteomalacia Rheumatoid arthritis Gout Osteoarthritis
Pathophysiology A metabolic bone disorder in which a reduction in bone mass and density can
combine with the loss of bone matrix and mineralization. During the bone remodeling process, bone
resorption exceeds bone formation which leads to thin, breakable bones that may fracture easily. A
disease from a deficiency of vitamin D and phosphates. An autoimmune disorder causing chronic
systemic inflammatory disease. The disease often starts with symmetric involvement of the small
joints such as the fingers, followed by inflammation and destruction of additional joints The
articular cartilage, o is damaged and lost through structural fissures and erosion resulting from
extreme

Bone Remodeling Research Paper
Bones are dynamic tissues that undergo changes need to maintain bone and calcium homeostasis
through a process called bone remodeling. Bone remodeling is an essential process that repairs
damaged bone and maintains mineral homeostasis. This process is regulated by two main cells that
perform opposite, but complementary function. Osteoblasts are the main bone forming cells that
originate from mesenchymal stem cell lineage. Osteoblasts produce bone matrix which they later
mineralized to form bone. During the process of bone formation, matured osteoblasts usually get
trapped in the bone matrix and become osteocytes. Osteoclasts on the other hand, are the main bone
resorbing cells; they resorb bone producing proteolytic enzyme and acid. In response ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Osteoblasts differentiation is induced by several extracellular signaling factors which include;
fibroblast growth factors, parathyroid hormone–related protein, bone morphogenic proteins (BMPs),
transforming growth factor, Wnts and members of the growth hormone/IGF family. These numerous
signaling factors activate a wide verity of intracellular mechanisms implicated in osteoblast
differentiation such as SMADs, protein Kinases, MAPK, and beta–catenin. In addition two
transcription factors, Runx2 and osterix (Osx) are known to regulate the commitment of pre–
osteoblast cells into the osteogenic lineage.169, 274 It is only recently that NF–κB signaling has
been added to the list of transcription factors capable of regulating osteoblast differentiation and
function. This is mainly because expression of inflammatory cytokines on sites of inflammation
inhibits bone formation. In contrast to osteoblast, osteoclast differentiation is driven primarily by a
single cytokine, RANKL, which regulates the expression of NFATc1 and c–Fos. These two genes
are the primary transcription factors responsible for osteoclast differentiation. In osteoclast, RANKL
signals macrophages to differentiate into osteoclasts through induction of NF–κB and NFATc1. Both
the canonical and non–canonical NF–κB activations are stimulated by RANKL157. NF–κB
activation is crucial for osteoclast differentiation

Explain The Three Mechanisms Of Action Of Calcitriol...
1. Describe the pathway of calcitriol formation.
Calcitriol is form when epidermal cells called keratinocytes use UV radiation from the sun to
convert a steroid 7–dehydrocholesterol to previtamin D3. Then over the course of 3 days, the
warmth of the sunlight on the skin converts previtamin D3 to vitamin D3. Vitamin D3 binds to a
transport protein that carries it in the bloodstream. The vitamin D3 moves to the liver and the liver
add a hydroxyl group to the 25th carbon of the molecule and coverts the vitamin D3 to calcidiol.
The calcidiol moves to the kidneys through the bloodstream and another hydroxyl group is added to
the first carbon thus converting calcidiol to calcitriol.
2. Describe the three mechanisms of action of calcitriol.
One of the mechanisms of action calcitriol uses to increase calcium and phosphorus absorption is by
increasing the adsorption by the small intestine. It also increases the calcium and phosphorus
released from the bones and does this by binding to osteoclasts. The osteoclasts release a chemical
messenger called osteoclast stimulating factor. This causes precursor cells to change into osteoclasts
and the osteoclasts break down the bone, thus releasing calcium and phosphorus into the blood.
Lastly, it also promotes reabsorption of calcium ions by the kidneys and less calcium is excreted in
the urine.
3. Where is calcitonin produced? Describe how calcitonin lowers blood calcium levels.
Calcitonin is a hormone secreted by C cells of the thyroid

The Relationship Between Osteoporosis And Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis, also known as porous bone, is a disease characterized by low bone mass and structural
deterioration of bone tissue which leads to bone fragility and an increased risks of the hip, spine, and
wrist. Both men and women are affected by this (although it affects women more) but it can be
prevented and treated. In the United States, more than 40 million people either already have
osteoporosis or at a high risk because of low bone mass.
Sir Astley Paston Cooper was a famous English physician, anatomist, and surgeon who first
discovered the association between fractures and bone density reduction because of aging which
created the base for discovering Osteoporosis. Another person who helped with the discovery of
osteoporosis was Jean Lobstein. Around 1833, Lobstein was the first person to medically describe
the pathological condition and appearance of Osteoporosis. He described the condition as, "One
with holes in the bone associated with fragility". He was also the one who named the disease.
Another important discovery of the disease is the relationship between osteoporosis with the
postmenopausal state, which was discovered by Fuller Albright. Albright discovered that there is a
direct relationship between the lack of estrogen after menopause and the development of
osteoporosis. After menopause, bone breakdown outrun the building of new bone. Early menopause,
usually before the age of 45, and any prolonged period in which hormone levels are low and
menstrual

Human Bones Research Paper
Human Bones–Remodeling and Repair Bones are constantly growing and expanding; they are
undergoing replacement and remodeling. It is obvious that during childhood our bones grow, the
long bones (those in the arms, legs, and back) grow at the ends of the bones, while the flat bones
(like those in our skulls) have a different pattern of growth. What many people do not know is that
our bones are constantly growing and changing from the time we are born until we die. The process
is microscopic, constant and inconspicuous. When a bone breaks; however, the remodeling and
repair process is faster and much more noticeable after a bone is broken. When a bone breaks there
are a series of happenings that our body undergoes in order to repair and remodel. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Bony callus formation 1.The fibrocartilaginous callus is converted into a bony (stronger and thicker)
callus of spongy bone. 2.The osteoblasts continue to build up new bone, through the process of
endochondral ossification. 3.As Time progresses, the bone will become stronger and more firmly
joined at the previous sight of fracture. 4.The bony callus formation takes around two months from
the beginning, with fibrocartilaginous callus to the end with the bony callus formed and the two
ends of the broken bone are firmly joined. Bone Remodeling 1.The last and final stage of the
process of bone rebuilding and remodeling another cell comes into play, the osteoclasts! 2. The bony
callus is then remodelled by osteoclasts and osteoblasts. 3.Osteoblasts main function is to build up
new bone. These cells secrete the matrix for bone formation. 4.Osteoclasts are the other cell that are
present during bone remodeling. Osteoclasts are responsible for eating away at excess bone matrix
formed by the

Osteoporosis Is A Major Public Health Concern That Greatly...
Osteoporosis is a major public health concern that greatly affects the elderly population.
Osteoporosis is typically diagnosed and most prevalent in the older population due to the natural
aging process. As one ages, bone integrity begins to decline and can influence many aspects of one's
life. As the prevalence continues to increase, focus is placed not only on treatment methods for those
diagnosed, but also early prevention methods for those at an early age.1 These treatment and
prevention methods of osteoporosis, specifically exercise testing and prescription, will be continue
to be discussed in more detail, as well as the scope, pathophysiology, clinical considerations, and
recent topics in research. As generally stated in the introduction, osteoporosis is a skeletal disorder
that involves the strength and integrity of one's bones. The WHO defines osteoporosis as, "a
systemic skeletal disorder characterized by low–bone mass, deterioration of bone tissue, increased
bone fragility, and its susceptibly to recurrent fractures." 2 The most important factor to take into
account when addressing osteoporosis is the mass of bone, also referred to as, bone mineral density
(BMD). As bone mass begins to decline, typically in the older population, specifically
postmenopausal women, individuals are at an increased risk for fractures.3 As a result of this serious
condition, many people are affected by morbidity, mortality, and economic difficulty.1 With an
increase in the

The Structure Of The Skeletal System
The skeletal system, while appearing inert at first glance, is a dynamic organ responsible for a
number of vital functions in the body; including but not limited to providing protection and support
to other organ systems, as well as permitting movement through collaboration with the muscular
system. At the cellular level, bone provides a reservoir of growth factors and cytokines, maintains
the acid–base balance and mineral homeostasis, and is the site of hematopoeisis. Like other
connective tissue, bone has both a cellular and an extracellular matrix component. The matrix is
made up of collagen fibers and noncollagenous proteins, with type I collagen accounting for ~90%
of total protein, and the noncollagenous osteocalcin, osteopontin, and bone sialoprotein, and others
making up the other 10%. In contrast with other connective tissue, the extracellular matrix of bone is
mineralized physiologically, though the deposition of layers of carbonated hydroxyapatite. This
mineral component, making up 50–70% of bone, provides bone 's characteristic mechanical rigidity
and strength (Clarke 2008). Elasticity and flexibility are due to the organic matrix, which makes up
another 20–40%, lending bone incredible resilience without compromising its strength, and another
5–10% of bone is water.
There are two major types of bone; trabecular (also called cancellous or spongy), and cortical (also
called compact). Cortical bone is denser and hard, whereas trabecular bone is a honeycomb network

Essay On Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a major problem and accounts for about 1.5 million fractures in the United States
every year. It also accounts for about 500,000 hospitalizations, 800,000 trips to the emergency room,
2.6 million trips to the doctor's office and about 180,000 people being placed into nursing homes.
This is such a costly disease that it currently reports costing Americans about 18 billion dollars each
year. Osteoporosis quite literally means "porous bone". According to The National Osteoporosis
Foundation, bones are in a very similar shape to a honeycomb and when you have osteoporosis the
holes and spaces are larger than that of a healthy bone. This occurs because your bones are not
replacing the "living tissue" that make them up causing them to ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
(n.d.). Retrieved November 13, 2015, from myclevelandclinic.org website:
http://my.clevelandclinic.org/services/orthopaedics–rheumatology/diseases–conditions/secondary–
osteoporosis
Terpos, E., Dimopoulos, M. A., Sezer, O., Roodman, D., Abildgaard, N., Vescio, R., & ... Durie, B.
M. (2010). The use of biochemical markers of bone remodeling in multiple myeloma: a report of the
International Myeloma Working Group. Leukemia (08876924), 24(10), 1700–1712.
doi:10.1038/leu.2010.173
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Surgeon General's Report on Bone Health and
Osteoporosis: What It Means To You. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the
Surgeon General, 2012.
Who Is at Risk for DevlopingOsteoporosis? (n.d.). Retrieved November 12, 2015, from
uchospitals.edu website: http://www.uchospitals.edu/specialties/osteoporosis/risk–factors.html
Wilson, J. F., MS., Davidson, T., AM., & Frey, R. J., PhD. (2011). The Gale Encyclopedia of
Medicine (4th ed., Vol. 6) (L. J. Fundukian, Ed.).
"Osteoporosis." Jennifer F. Wilson, MS., Tish Davidson, AM., and Rebecca J. Frey, PhD. The Gale
Encyclopedia of Medicine. Ed. Laurie J. Fundukian. 4th ed. Detroit: Gale, 2011. 6

Osteoporosis : A Progressive Bone Disease
Osteoporosis
Definition. Osteoporosis is a progressive bone disease that is characterized by low bone mass along
with continuous loss of bone tissue with increased fracture risk. The pathology is multi–factorial and
there are several modifiable and non–modifiabale factors that contribute to the development of this
disease. According to the World Health Organization, osteoporosis is defined as a systemic skeletal
disease illustrated by a decrease in bone mass and bone tissue, causing a decrease in bone and a
subsequent increase in fracture risk (1). Prevalence. Osteoporosis is seen worldwide and although it
varies by country, race, and gender, it is a disease most commonly found in the elderly, specifically
elderly women. An estimated 44 million Americans are affected by bone loss where 34 million of
those suffer from osteopenia (low bone mass) and 10 million of those have osteoporosis; the
prevalence of which is increasing and is projected to continue to increase over time (2, 3). Medical
Costs. Fractures related to osteoporosis are a major health issue that manifests in the form of skeletal
fractures that have detrimental effects on the quality of life of those who suffer and contribute to
high medical costs. Approximately 2 million fractures yearly are attributed to osteoporosis, which
amounts to about $17 billion dollars annually (4). Approximately 5–25% of those who suffer a hip
fracture die within one year and more than 50% of fracture victims suffer from

The Erk Mapk Pathway Causes Osteoporosis And Formation...
Disregulation of the ERK MAPK pathway causes osteoporosis and osteochondroma in mice
Abstract
Introduction
Bones are dynamic tissues that undergo a constant cycle of fracturing, resorbing, and remodeling.
Bone mass is reflected by the coupled balance of osteoblasts, which produce bone matrix proteins
and osteoclasts, which degrade bone (Miyamoto, 2003). This opposite and complementary activity
between these two lineages of cells maintains the homeostasis of bone resorption and formation
during bone remodeling. Dysregulation of this process is a major mechanism in the pathogenesis of
many human skeletal disorders such as osteoporosis and osteochondroma (Edwards, 2012).
Osteoporosis is one of the major contributors to the overall physical and psychological
manifestations of frailty associated with aging. Osteoporosis–related fractures are a common cause
of the morbidity and mortality associated with aging. Approximately 1 in 3 women and 1 in 5 men
will experience an osteoporosis–related fracture during their lifetime.14 Osteoporotic hip fractures
are associated with a high rate of subsequent mortality and a prolonged period of months to over a
year before mobility is regained.15 Predominantly, existing treatments for osteoporosis fail to
harness osteoblast biology precisely because many of the molecular pathways that regulate
osteoblast function remain largely unknown. Loss of bone mass is caused by high numbers of
osteoclasts. Decreased production of estrogen and

Osteoporosis Essay
Osteoporosis is a disease characterized by low bone mass and deterioration of bone tissues, leading
to bone fragility and, consequently, an increase in fracture risk. The term osteoporosis comes from
the Greek word osteon , meaning bone, and porus , meaning pore or passage. Osteoporosis literally
makes bones porous. The amount of calcium stored in human bones decreases over time, causing the
skeleton to weaken.
Demographics
The National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS) estimates that
10 million people (8 million women and 2 million men) in the United States have osteoporosis as of
2009, with another 34 million adults having low bone density, a condition called osteopenia.
Osteopenia can develop into osteoporosis ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Calcium is critically involved in muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and many
metabolic activities within cells. To remain healthy, the body must keep the level of free calcium
ions (Ca2+) within a very narrow concentration range. Besides providing a framework for the body,
bone acts as a calcium "bank." When excess calcium is present in the blood, osteoblasts deposit it
into bones where it is stored. When too little calcium is present, osteoblasts dissolve calcium from
bones and move it into the blood. This process is controlled mainly by parathyroid hormone (PTH)
secreted by the parathyroid glands in the neck. As people age, various conditions cause them to take
more calcium out of the "bone bank" than they deposit, and osteoporosis (which literally means
porous bones) eventually develops. A person's peak bone mass and the rate at which they lose it in
later life affects their risk of developing osteoporosis; the higher the peak bone mass at age 30, the
lower the risk of osteoporosis later on.
Doctors divide osteoporosis into three categories or types. Types 1 and 2 are considered primary
because they are not caused by other diseases or conditions. Type 3 osteoporosis is sometimes called
secondary osteoporosis because it results from taking certain drugs or having other

The Process And Implications Of Bone Remodeling
Abstract
This paper summarizes the process and implications of bone remodeling as proposed by Svetalana
V. Komarova, Robert J. Smith, S. Jeffrey Dixon, Stephan M Sims, and Lindi M. Wahl. Bone
remodeling in the human body is an intricate process where osteoclasts resorb existing mineralized
tissue and osteoblasts form new bone. Bone remodeling involves various interactions between
different cells in the osteoclasts and osteoblasts. A problem occurs when these interactions are
disturbed and can lead to numerous different bone disorders such as osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, or
Paget's disease. Manipulating Frost's mechanostat theory, a theory that describes bone biology, and
its corresponding biomechanical mathematical models of bone, Komoarova, Smith, Dixon, Sims,
and Wahl were able to form their own model that allowed them to analyze how a change in
interactions between cells can affect the bone remodeling process.
Introduction
Bone remodeling is an important process in the human body, that, when disturbed, can lead to
various disorders. The asynchronous process of bone remodeling involves bone resorption from the
osteoclasts followed by bone formation from the osteoblasts. Furthermore, autocrine and paracrine
regulators are involved and allow for interactions between the osteoclast and osteoblast.
In this paper we will look at the two different types of bone remodeling, targeted and random. We
will then form a model that serves to simplify this complex process in

Bone : Distal Radius Fracture Essay
Bone: Distal radius fracture, non–displaced, in a healthy middle–age adult.
The primary cellular components of bone tissue are osteoblasts and osteocytes, and these are
distinguished by their location and their function.1 The osteoblast is the bone–forming cell that
eventually becomes an osteocyte. During this intermediate changeover, the cells are referred to as
intermediate cells. "Bone matrix is comprised of three elements: organic, mineral, and fluid. Organic
components constitute 39% of the total bone volume, which contains 95% type I collagen and 5%
proteoglycans. Minerals include primarily calcium hydroxyapatite crystals and contribute about half
of total bone volume."1 Within the matrix, collagen fibers are responsible for providing tensile
strength. Eventually, calcification and ossification of the fibrous matrix forms individual bony
trabeculae that together constitute a primary ossification center.2 The arrangement of the
collagen/trabeculae along the length of the bone give the bone its tensile strength; the resistive
strength against bending/breaking.1,2 The density of the bone is provided by calcium salts which are
necessary to provide resistive strength against compressive forces, such as load/weight bearing
activities.1 Stresses from weight bearing and using muscles provide the necessary stimulus for the
formation and organization of collagen/trabeculae to form architecturally strong bones. Typically,
when no injury or disease is present, bone

The Role Of Bisphosphonates In The Treatment Of Multiple...
Bisphosphonates Bisphosphonates are a class of drugs used in the treatment of multiple diseases that
result in the loss of bone mass. Such diseases include osteoporosis, multiple myeloma, and bone
metastasis as a result of breast or prostate cancer. (Lam et al., 2007). There are several different
mechanisms through which bisphosphonates work to prevent bone loss. One such method is to
inhibit bone resorption by: preventing recruitment of osteoclasts to the site of bone injury, inhibiting
osteoclast activity, and initiating apoptosis in osteoclasts. Certain classes of bisphosphonates are
capable of inhibiting the proliferation and stimulating the apoptosis of cancer cells by interfering
with the adhesion of the cells to the bone matrix. (Lam et al., 2007). ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
There are several factors that contribute to the high affinity of bisphosphonates for bone. They are
similar in structure to pyrophosphate with a P–C–P bone that is highly resistant to hydrolysis.
(Polymeri et al., 2015). They vary in the composition of their side chain (R2), which is the
determining structure when considering the potency of each bisphosphonate. They are also capable
of binding divalent metal ions such as calcium. (Polymeri et al., 2015). Because of these
characteristics, some bisphosphonates are capable of residing in the bony matrix for up to ten

Investigating And Determine Compatible Naturally Based...
The objective of this project is to investigate and determine compatible naturally based elements that
can potentially replace and be integrated into the bone tissue, for medical purposes. These elements
should be similar in characteristic and structure of the bone tissue, so that they can effectively
replace the tissue and help stimulate bone growth and cellular growth, in order to maintain bone
homeostasis. In order to achieve compatibility, factors such as 3–D polymeric structures within bone
scaffolding, cellular composition and many other aspects should be considered within all these
plausible elements.
After finding potential candidates for replacements of bone tissue, each element will be organized
based on their compatibility and traits that make them suited for implementation. Based on the
comparison of materials, we found that the bamboo was the most suitable candidate for the
implementation based on it's biocompatibility potential, biodegradability potential and mechanical
integrity.
Key Words
Biomaterials; scaffolds; bio composites; biodegradable; biocompatible; bamboo
Introduction
Over the course of this year, I have participated in a program called the Online Research Co–op
Program; where I was give the opportunity to work under a University mentor in the career of my
choice. For my co–op placement, I decided to investigate the field of biomedical engineering. As a
result, I was paired up with a professor from the University of Ottawa. Together, my

case study Essay
1. Describe bone physiology and the bone remodeling cycle. Be sure to emphasize the two types of
bone tissue and the roles of osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
During our adolescent years our bones are evolving to become protracted and broader. Therefore,
formation is occurring until we have reached our peak bone mass. The peak bone mass is usually
reached by the age of 30; therefore, as we age formation decelerates. Essentially, exercising is an
ethical verdict, especially during our matured years.
One of the key elements of regulating skeletal growth is the Osteoclasts. The Osteoclasts are
responsible for initiating the bone remodeling cycle. Blood vessels and nerves are able to penetrate
the bone once the chondrocytes die ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
An imbalance in the regulation of bone remodeling's two contrasting events, bone resorption and
bone formation, results in many of the metabolic bone diseases, such as OSTEOPOROSIS.
Year introduced: 1992
2. Explain the relationship between calcium and bones.
The bones are made up of two minerals, including calcium. Calcium is critical in order to maintain
the level of bone mass to support structures of the body. If calcium is truncated in other regions of
the body then it will be released from the bones into the bloodstream sending it to the appropriate
destination. Bones begin to weaken if an insufficient amount of calcium is not consumed. The body
will discontinue absorbing calcium if an abundant amount of calcium is consumed, in which vitamin
D aids this process.
3. Explain how the body controls calcium levels in the bones and blood. Be sure to describe the
roles of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin in detail.
According to National Institutes of Health, 99% of calcium is stored in our teeth and bones. Some of
our organs require calcium for certain process, such as muscle contraction; therefore, the remaining
one percent remains in our blood. The blood and bones regulates calcium levels by the means of
hormones. Two of the main systematic modifiers are Calcitonin and the Parathyroid hormone.
Calcitonin and the Parathyroid hormone both influence the calcium

Case Study: Osteoporosis
PART 1
INTRODUCTION
Our group has been given the task for subject Anatomy and Physiology to do a research about
disease.The title of our study is Osteoporosis.The aim of our assignment is to find the information
about the clinical condition that change the normal structures of the bones and how the disease
affect our daily life.
Osteoporosis is a disease that arise when our normal structures of the bone changes as it becomes
fragile and break easily.One interesting fact is that, almost one in two women and one in five men
over the age of 50 will break a bone,mainly due to poor bone health("An Introduction to
Osteoporosis,"n.d.).
Osteoporosis is common for post menopausal women.However men, younger women, children and
pregnant women can also be affected.To simply put it,osteoporosis affects all individuals and it is a
part of normal aging although some can develop at an earlier age. However, osteoporosis cannot be
cured but the progression can be delayed or even prevented.
Figure 1 : Normal standing posture and osteoporosis
DEFINITION OF OSTEOPOROSIS Osteoporosis comes from 'osteo' meaning bone and the greek
word por ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Osteoporosis person which if left untreated will lead to many more serious injuries and even lead to
death. Thus, few factors that lead to osteoporosis were investigated and significant factors due to
this were highlighted which came from mineral and hormone imbalance in body system. The
mechanisms due to these mineral and hormone imbalance were also explained in easiest picture to
be understood. Thus, many people will understand the way of how osteoporosis begin and
precautions to be taken in order to avoid and minimize the risks of suffering chronic and untreatable
osteoporosis in the

Factors Contributing With The Bone Remodeling Mechanism Essay
Summary
Current reports in the literature show that microcracks involve with the bone remodeling process by
triggering the remodeling mechanism. Since the microcracks involve with remodeling, it can be
confirmed that the micro–damages have an indirect relationship to material changes in bone.
In this report, the chronological findings on the micro crack influence (linear and diffuse) will be
discussed and presented.
Introduction
Unlike engineering material, healthy bone can maintain its reliability by restoring the micro damage
and remodeling itself. Bone remodeling follows two steps handled by the cells named osteoclast and
osteoblast. Osteoclasts which digests the bone at a molecular level are responsible for the bone
resorption. On the other hand, new bone is formed by a group of osteoblasts cell by cell. This
process results bone to preserve itself and adjust to the person's daily activity. Although bone
maintains itself, the material property is changing with the remodeling process resulting bone to
gain its unique heterogeneous material distribution. Furthermore, the remodeling process, not only
involve with material properties, but architecture, besides. This transformation of bone occurs as a
response to altered loading conditions. The transformation can be seen in osteon density, porosity,
average osteonal area etc.
The healthy bone is capable of responding daily loads and fractures. These daily activities result in
micro damages which can be repaired by the bone

The Four Stages And Functions Of The Skeletal System
There are 270 bones in the human body at birth, decreasing to 206 by adulthood due to the fact that
some bones fuse together as we grow. The functions of the skeletal system are numerous. It provides
a framework for the body; produces blood cells; provides protection for organs; helps us breathe;
acts as a warehouse for mineral storage and allows for movement.
Bones in the human body form in the process called ossification. There are four stages in
ossification, 1.) Embryonic bone formation; 2.) Bone growth throughout life starting in infancy
through adulthood; 3.) Bone remodeling, and 4.) Fracture (breaks in the bone) repair.
The visible layer of a bone is called the periosteum, which is a type of tough connective tissue. The
periosteum contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves and cells that assist in rebuilding damaged
bone tissue. Additionally, ligaments and tendons attach to the periosteum. The end of the bone is
called the epiphysis, and the region between the ends is called the diaphysis. On examination of a
bone, you can see the epiphyseal plate, often called the growth plate. This looks like a line dividing
the diaphysis and epiphysis. Inside the bone is a hollow channel. This is called the medullary cavity,
and acts as a storage place for yellow and red bone marrow. Yellow marrow gets its color from high
fat content. Red marrow makes blood cells.
There are 2 types of bone tissue, spongy and compact bone. Compact bone is hard and usually found
in the shafts of long bones, and in the outer layer of other types of bones. (There are 4 types of
bones, long, short, flat and irregular bones.) Compact bone, as its name implies, is tightly packed,
making it strong and dense.
Spongy bone is the interior of the bone. Spongy bone has larger spaces than compact bone, giving it
the appearance of sponge. Spongy bone is also lighter, because it is not packed so tightly, and also
gives a space for the red bone marrow.
Intramembranous ossification is the simplest bone formation method. The flat bones of the skull,
most facial and mandibular bones, and the medial clavicle are formed this way. Chemical
messengers causes cells to the mesenchyme (tissue from which most connective tissue forms) to
cluster at an

The Three Types Of Carilage In The Human Body
There are three types of cartilages which are the hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and
fibrocartilage. The hyaline cartilage is the most abundant cartilage in the human body that provides
a firm support with pliability. Examples of the hyaline cartilage are the articular, costal, respiratory,
and nasal cartilage. The elastic cartilage is a cartilage that is more flexible than the hyaline cartilage.
Examples of the elastics cartilage are external ear and epiglottis. The fibrocartilage is a cartilage that
is highly compressible with thick collagen fibers. Examples of the fibrocartilage are the menisci of
the knee and discs between the vertebrae.
The bones have seven important parts that play a role in the human body which are support,
protection, movement, mineral and growth factor storage, blood cell formation, triglyceride storage,
and hormone production. Support are when the bones provide a framework of the body and soft
organs. Protection is when the bones that protect the brain which is called the skull, the vertebrae
protects the spinal cord and the rib cage protects the vital organs. Movement is also known as
anchorage are attached by tendons to help our body move by walking, grabbing objects, and
breathing. Mineral and growth factor storage is when the bone or bones are filled with calcium and
phosphorus to make the bones grow. The blood cell formation is also known as hematopoiesis
occurs in the red blood arrow in certain bones. Triglyceride storage also known as

Fixation: A Case Study
The stability and functionality of prosthesis depends on the fixation between the prosthesis and the
surrounding tissue (Ravagloli A & Krajewski A, 1992). Fixation is defined as "the joining or
bonding or coupling of the prosthetic component to the musculo–skeletal system such that the
prosthetic and biological elements may act together as a single unit in a harmonic way (Black J,
1988). However, stability maintaining between the prosthesis and surrounding tissue throughout the
life of the patient is a major problem (Miles A, 2001). Fixation failure is the main cause of failure of
total joint replacement. A solution to overcome the long term fixation would mean that total joint
replacement could be extended to younger, more active patients.

The Effects Of Osteoporosis On The Development Of The Disease
Osteoporosis is typically a silent disease characterized by low bone mass and decreased bone
density ending by fractures that occur following no or at least minimal trauma. Osteoporosis has
multiple pathophysiologic mechanisms that interact in the development of the disease (1, 2). The
disease simply results from the imbalance between bone resorption and bone formation. Increased
bone resorption or decreased bone formation may lead to osteoporosis. Bone is made of collagen
and mineral components. The former gives bone its flexibility and energy–absorbing capability,
while the later gives bone its stiffness and strength. Imbalances can impair bone quality and result in
reduced bone strength and subsequently fractures.
Bone mass increases ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
So the bone mass in older adults equals the peak bone mass achieved by age 18–25 minus the
amount of bone subsequently lost.
The process of bone remodeling may be considered a preventive maintenance mechanism that
maintains a healthy skeleton because of continually removing older bone and replacing it with new
bone. When this balance is altered, resulting in greater bone removal than replacement, bone loss
occurs (5).
Menopause and advancing age play the main role in this imbalance. With the onset of menopause,
the rate of bone remodeling increases.
Oestrogen deficiency
Accelerated bone loss can be affected by hormonal status as occurs in perimenopausal women.
Gonadal deficiency can impact elderly men and women and can be secondary to various disease
states and medications. Bone loss in women accelerates rapidly in the first years after menopause.
Osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts all express estrogen receptors.
Estrogen deficiency can affect bone density by(5):
1– Up–regulates osteoclast progenitor cells.
2– Cause increased recruitment of higher numbers of preosteoclasts.
3– Increased activity and lifespan of mature osteoclasts.
4– Estrogen affects bones indirectly through cytokines and local growth factors
Aging
Aging interacts mainly with bone deposition than bone resorption. The supply of osteoblasts, which
deposit bone, as compared to demand is progressively declining with aging. After the third decade
of life, bone

The Effects Of Bone On Healthy Adults

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The Effects Of Bone On Healthy Adults