MARY REVIEW1.Chan, G. & Yanos, P. T. (2018). Media depictions .docx

MARY REVIEW
1.Chan, G. & Yanos, P. T. (2018). Media depictions and the
priming of mental illness stigma. Stigma and Health, 3(3), 253-
264. http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=8&sid=66
026bf7-aa09-4bcd-a73a-7b9d3e35bcc7%40pdc-v-
sessmgr01&bdata=JkF1dGhUeXBlPXNoaWImc2l0ZT1lZHMtbG
l2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=2017-15491-001&db=pdh (Links to an
external site.)
2. Neuman, W. L. (2017). Understanding Research (2nd ed.).
New York, NY: Pearson.
3. The topic discussed in the article I chose is mental illness.
The article discusses the question of the affect the media plays
in regards to one's perception of mental illness. The study
designed involves the random assignment of individuals to
descriptions of a violent accident. Some descriptions were left
unaltered while others were manipulated to mention the term
and concept of mental illness. Chan and Yanos (2018) state "we
also examined the potential moderating impact of cognitive
styles and preexisting attitudes and beliefs."
4. I would say this research is descriptive
5. Experimental
6. Results found that participants are likely to associate mental
illness with violent outbursts when stated throughout media. I
think this was used for applied social research. Chan and Yanos
(2018) state "roughly, 43% of the participants in the
experimental condition reported the cause of the incident as
related to mental illness, in contrast with only 2% of
participants in the control condition." When asked to provide a
recount of the article 42% of participants mentioned mental
illness while none of the participants of the control group did
(Chan & Yanos, 2018).

7. In an unscientific method one can simply ask the question of
does mental illness make one violent? Asking a question such
as this doesn't entail proper research but a simple yes or no
question. Research isn't completed to discover why individuals
may have these particular beliefs.
8. Do you think or know of research that discovered why
individuals may have these beliefs?
Kenneth Review
1. Article citation.
Steffens, N. K., Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., & Mols, F. (2018).
Our Followers Are Lions, Theirs Are Sheep: How Social
Identity Shapes Theories About Followership and Social
Influence. Political Psychology, 39(1), 23–42.
https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12387
2. Book citation.
Neuman, W. L. (2017). Understanding research. Boston, MA:
Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
3. Title and topic.
Our Followers Are Lions, Theirs Are Sheep: How Social
Identity Shapes Theories About Followership and Social
Influence.
This article is fascinating to say the least. It speaks on the idea
that people see followers of other groups as being less of an
ideal follower, see them as not being an effective follower, and
see members of their own group as being “better” overall. This
non effective follower is seen as more conformist, blindly
following what they are told, and unable to be think for
themselves. Conversely, they see their own group as dynamic
free thinkers, active, thoughtful, and more engaged with the
overall ideas of the group. This drives the mindset of sheep or
lions, with sheep being the weak or stupid follower, and the lion
being the ferocious free spirit that is strong and something to be
admired.

One other interesting thing about the study is the tendency to
persuade versus coerce. People tend to try to persuade people
from their own group into thinking in a particular manner, and
try to coerce out group members into thinking in a manner more
in line with their own. This means that if I think you are part of
my in group then I would talk to you in a more persuasive
manner, seeking to convince you of something, and in the end I
would hope to bring you more in line with what my social group
believes. Interestingly enough, outgroup members are treated
more harshly when trying to bring someone into a certain type
of thought, and forceful tactics are more favored in this setting.
Basically it comes down to convincing someone to think one
way versus forcing somewhat to submit and “surrender” to the
superior idea.
4. Research Type
This type of research would be explanatory research because it
sought to explain a certain type of behavior. The behavior was
identified at the beginning of the research, the author gave some
base ideas on what he thought, and then he sought out an
explanation to the problem. His research helped to explain why
there is such a large instance of see opposing political parties as
bad and their followers as being “sheep.”
5. Variety of Research Applied?
This study utilized a lot of different types of research such as
surveys and experiments. Much care was taken to ensure a fair
and unbiased approach was taken to this issue. Then, after the
first study was conducted, a second study was conducted to
replicate the first one so that there would be no doubt to he
validity of the data found.
6. Overall Intended Application?
The purpose of this study was basic social research. It is meant
as a way to identify and explain a problem and not to test a fix.
7. Your UNSCIENTIFIC Re-Do Ideas
To destroy this study, I would eliminate the care taken to gather

the participants. I would list a add on Facebook or other social
media platforms looking for people to participate in a study
about politics. This would mean that people are already entering
into the study with some thoughts already preloaded into their
brains, with various intentions, and in turn this would skew
their thoughts. I could also seek out people to participate in the
study from groups that tend to lean more radically in one
direction of the political spectrum, which would provide me
with people who tend to be more emotional over rational
thinkers, and this would heavily skew my results.
1
Running head: TRANSCULTURAL NURSING
23
TRANSCULTURAL NURSING
Transcultural Nursing Culture of Care by Madeleine Leininger
Gabrel Crabb, Koleen Dumindin, Deborah Edokpayi,
Javier Enriquez, Simone Gordon, & Heather Hammaker
South University
NSG5002- Advanced Theoretical Perspectives for Nursing

Week 4, Assignment 2
Dr. Crystal Fuller, DNP
February 28, 2017
PowerPoint Outline
I. Dr. Madeleine Leininger
A. Brief Overview of the Background
B. The Sunrise Model
II. Four Metaparadigms
A. Nurse
B. Patient

C. Environment
D. Health
III. Two Unique Concepts to Transcultural Nursing
A. Care
B. Culture
IV. The Theoretical Assertions and Propositions
A. Care
B. Culture
V. Leininger’s Culture Care Theory Critique and Analysis
A. Description of Model
B. Strengths
C.
Weaknesses
VI. Leininger Bullets
A. Theory's Implications
VII. References
References
Leininger, M. (2002, July 3). Culture care theory: A major

contribution to advance transcultural nursing knowledge and
practices. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 13, 189-192.
Purnell, L. (2009). Transcultural Health Care: A Culturally
Competent Approach (3rd ed.). [Digital Bookshelf]. Retrieved
from
https://digitalbookshelf.southuniversity.edu/#/books/978080362
0735/
Transcultural Nursing Theory Article Review 1
The Culture care theory: a major contribution to advance
transcultural nursing knowledge and practice article by
Madeleine Leininger elaborated about the importance and
evolvement of culture based nursing and how it can affect the
future of nursing. Culturally competent healthcare
professionals are the major factors in increasing patient
satisfaction and reducing the different causes of disparities such
as gender, races and health complications (Purnell, 2009). Have
you ever wondered how much intricacy in healthcare we can
avoid and cost we can save if we equipped our healthcare
personnel to be competent in caring a diverse population?
The article focused on the major and unique features of the
culture care diversity and universality theory as a major
reinforcement to increase advance transcultural nursing
knowledge and to use the results in education, practice, research
and collaboration. The theory has remained one of the oldest,
most holistic and most comprehensive to produce wisdom to
differentiate and recognize the similarities of cultures
worldwide. The theory has been a great tool to explore the
unknown knowledge in the world of nursing and health care.
The assurance to provide transcultural congruent nursing care,
competent and safe was made possible by the theory. The
central purpose of the theory is to explore and understand
various and common culturally based circumstance affecting the
health, well-being, illness, or death of people (Leininger, 2002).
Some of the feature of the theory is that it is the most holistic
and multidimensional to discover specific culturally based care
practices. It has abstract and practical features to deliver

culturally congruent care.
Conclusion
With the many tragic events happening around the world, the
importance of understanding of transcultural violence, racism,
hatred and killing of innocent people should be a priority. The
amount of troubles we can avoid would be significant if we
have the knowledge to care for the diverse society. The article
has proven strong correlation about the transcultural theory and
patient satisfaction.

References
Gustafson, D. (2005). Transcultural Nursing Theory from a
Critical Cultural Perspective. Advances in Nursing Science, 28,
2-16.
Purnell, L. D. (2014). GUIDE TO Culturally Competent Health
Care (3rd ed.). Retrieved from Digital Bookshelf. Retrieved
from:
1181/cfi/0!/4/2/[email protected]:74.4
“Culture is defined as a composite of multiple differences
producing, individual identity” (Gustafson, 2005, p. 2). We
have established in many situations especially in nursing that
being culturally competent is important to reach a successful
outcome. Culturally competent is an individual who possess a
set of skills, attitudes and communication ability to work
harmonically with clients and families from diverse
backgrounds. A health care professional who has a good
understanding of her own culture, beliefs, values and their
clients is in a good position to increase opportunity to promote
health and wellness, prevent injuries and restore health and
wellbeing (Purnell, 2014).
The article “Transcultural Nursing Theory from a Critical
Cultural Perspective” by Diana Gustafson, identified two
problems of the transcultural nursing theory. The author
believes that the transcultural nursing theory works from a
liberal perspective. It concentrates on a broadly defined limited
concept of culture. Although the transcultural nursing theory
shapes the nursing program and institutional policy, the author
identified two problems in the theory. First the social and
political framework of transcultural nursing theory misrepresent
the suitable nursing care in a broadly defined but narrow
concept of culture. Secondly, it is inaccurate because it roots
from a liberal and depoliticizing point of view that maintains

rather than separate the primary ways of approaching the human
irregularities.
Conclusion
It is important to treat client in a holistic way; addressing all
their needs in every aspect. The physical, mental, social,
spiritual and cultural demands of patients and families will vary
from one another. Self-awareness of our own values, beliefs
and culture and a better understanding of multicultural
diversities will assist us in promoting health, wellness and a
state of equilibrium.

Reference
Busher Betancourt, Daniel A. 2015. Madeleine Leininger and
the Transcultural Theory
of Nursing. The Downtown Review, Volume 2 Issue 1 Article 1.
Retrieved from
http://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?artic
le=1020&context=tdr.
In 2015, Daniel Busher Betancourt’s article for The
Downtown Review, he examined Madeleine Leininger’s Theory
of Transcultural Nursing. He explored her principles and how
they are relevant to past present and future nursing. Within his
article he also determined how this theory affected his current
nursing practice.
Betancourt explains that Leininger’s theory helps to layout
the nurse patient relationship more thoroughly. The nurse is at
the bedside with the patient more often than any other medical
personnel and is the one who implements the care of the patient.
The objective for a nurse is for him or her to engulf him or
herself into acquiring a thorough knowledge of cultures and the
diversities that exist. Following the acquisition of this
knowledge, the nurse must implement care that follows the
cultural practices of the patient and to the patient’s standards.
The author further states that with the globalization of
healthcare the importance of transcultural nursing is growing
rapidly. Nurses have the benefit of meeting people from many
different countries and backgrounds. While patients get benefit
from the nursing care, the nurse also gains benefit from giving
culturally sensitive care. Nurse provide interventions that cause

curing but there can be no curing without care, and no care
without being culturally sensitive to the patient’s needs. When
a patient requires care outside the usual realm of care, nurse
need to communicate with the patient and provide and
accommodate what they can.
The author of this article clearly states and explains the
Theory of Transcultural Nursing by Madeleine Leininger. He
identifies the key feature and a clear understanding of her
message about the advantages of providing care congruent with
the cultural needs of the patient. Since Betancourt is of Puerto
Rican descent, he could provide a personal perspective of the
significance of living in an environment that is not of his
cultural majority.
Conclusion
I believe it is critical for nurses to gain knowledge of their
patients’ cultural realities to provide the very best care for their
patients. I believe we are living in a world that enables us to
encounter patients of many different cultural back grounds, and
that our sensitivities to the patients must include
acknowledgements of cultural needs to meet not only physical
needs of the patients but also emotional needs.

Reference
Murphy, Sharon C. 2006. Mapping the Literature of
Transcultural Nursing. Journal of the
Medical Library Association, Volume 94. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1463039/.
Cultural care is not simply being aware of the need for
culturally sensitive care but engaging in understanding and
educating yourself to this care. Knowing as a nurse you need to
provide holistic care is not enough. We, as nurses, must never
stop educating ourselves and other nurses on the importance and
existence of different cultural practices. We must know, largely
know, and vaguely know cultural practices.
The author of this article, Sharon C. Murphy, identifies the
need to implement a process for educating and expanding
nurse’s knowledge of transcultural care; the basis for Madeleine
Leininger’s theory. This article identifies the role of
transcultural nurses. According to Murphy, nurses are open to
new and current cultural care symbols, expressions, and
meanings. Murphy proposes in her article that transcultural
care has become recognized as one of the most rapidly growing
and important aspects as the global community as it becomes
more closely tied and complex. In the past thirty years nursing
leaders and educators have identified this as a major part of
education for nurses, as well as an urgent need for expansion.
The article referenced the lack of citations relevant to

transcultural nursing with the bulk of citations being during the
years 1982-2000. The author also refers to the major
contributors as being from the United States. This shows the
recent trend in acceptance to cultural nursing, but it also
identifies the need to expand both locally in the United States
but also in other nations.
Conclusion
Murphy clearly states the need for transcultural nursing as
well as those dedicated to the expansion of this theory in
practice and education in her article. I believe that we must
further develop research as well as implementation of
transcultural nursing into course work for new and current
nurses. The dedication of understanding the cultures is, in my
opinion, pivotal to our care of patients. I also believe that this
article is extremely important in identifying the need to
establish further education of nurses into the need for this
holistic care approach. Research is gaining popularity into this
field, but it is easy to see that expansion of this theory is needed
to further provide our practice with best care methods.

References
Dougerty, Molly C. 1979. Transcultural Nursing Concepts,
Theories, and Practices. Medical
Anthropology Newsletter, Vol. 10, No. 4 (Aug., 1979), pp.
23-25. Retrieved from
https://www.jstor.org/stable/648185?seq=1#page_scan_tab_cont
ents.
Transcultural nursing is not debated on importance in nursing
care. With this being said, as nurses we must never accept one
theory’s model and need to look at all available models and
develop improved versions of current knowledge. Madeleine
Leininger’s theory of Transcultural Nursing is a building block
for furthering nursing care but will need building as more is
understood about diverse cultures and how they continue to
evolve.
Molly Dougerty, in Transcultural Nursing Concepts, Theories,
and Practices article, reviewed Madeleine Leininger’s theory of
Transcultural nursing and agreed about the importance of the
concept but states her belief of the need to further its model.
She identifies the practical use of its application for
undergraduate and beginning graduate nursing students. She
states in Leininger’s book that the chapters provide insights by
other writers, and she thinks there is a clear lack of

correspondence into their publishing’s. Dougerty believes that
a greater continuity is needed between the groups of authors.
She does state that there is good data about the multiple cultural
groups within the United States and the relevance of this data to
caring for a diverse population, but she points out that much of
the data is old and needs to continually be updated. She
acknowledges Leininger’s role in the nursing community and
regards her and her theory as the originator of transcultural
nursing and culturally sensitive care.
Conclusion
This article reminds us as nurses that we must always continue
to build and mold theory and practices to fit the ever-changing
needs of our patients. I believe this article has extreme
importance for nurses in remembering to critique nursing
theory. We must not just accept what is placed in front of us.
As one of my nursing professors stated in my undergrad “trust
but verify” what we are given as practice. Often it is difficult
to go against leaders in the field, but we will not become
leaders without questioning and building current practice.
Transcultural practice as stated, is relevant to positive patient
outcomes, but there is an ever-changing need to grow all current
practices.

Chart
Definitions
1. Care- assistive, supportive, and enabling experiences or ideas
towards others with evident or anticipated needs to ameliorate
or improve a human condition or lifeway. Caring refers to
actions, attitudes and practices to help others with healing and
wellbeing (Leininger, 2008).
2. Culture- Leininger 2008, defined culture as “...the learned,
shared, and transmitted values, beliefs, norms, and lifeways of a
particular culture that guides thinking, decisions, and actions in
patterned ways and often intergenerationally."
3. emic and etic care- The term emic refers to the local,
indigenous, or insider’s cultural knowledge and view of the
phenomena; whereas, etic refers to the outsiders view and the
health professional's view and knowledge of the phenomena
(Leininger, 2008).

4. Ethnohistory- past facts, events, instances, and experiences
of human beings, groups, cultures, and institutions that occur
over time that help explain past and current views on cultural
care influencers of health and wellbeing (Leininger, 2008).
5. Culture Care Universality- the commonly shared or similar
culture care phenomena features of human beings or a group
with recurrent meanings that serve as a guide for care givers to
provide assistive, supportive, facilitative, or enabling people for
healthy outcomes (Leininger, 2008).
PowerPoint Handout
Slide 1
Slide 2
Madeleine Leininger started her nursing career at St. Anthony’s
School of Nursing in Denver Colorado in 1948. In 1950 she

earned her B.S. from Benedictine College. In 1954 she earned
her M.S. degree in psychiatric and mental health nursing from
Catholic University of America in Washington D.C. Finally, in
1965 she completed her PhD in cultural and social anthropology
at the University of Washington.
Slide 3
Dr. Leininger recognized the need for culture care early in her
career and started to work on the concepts to build the theory of
culture care and universality for many years with many
publications and trips abroad to assist and promote research
with her ethnonursing technique. She was recognized for her
achievements and cultural diversity is taught in healthcare
worldwide. She was awarded the living legend award in 1998
by the American Academy of Nursing. Her life and work can
be viewed at www.Madeleine-Leininger.com
Slide 4
The four metaparadigms of nursing, nurse, patient, health and
environment, are essential concepts that are mutual to all areas
of nursing and nursing theories. (Butts & Rich, 2015).
These common concepts, though maybe spoken of differently in
all the nursing theories, are all addressed at some point or
another. One such nursing theory is the “Transcultural
Nursing” developed by Madeleine Leininger in the 1950s.
Understanding the differences and similarities of values, beliefs
and practices of individuals or a group by studying their culture
with the aim of providing nursing care that is universal and
culture-specific to promote health and well-being is the premise
of the Transcultural Nursing theory described by Kraut (2013).

According to Petiprin (2016), Madeleine Leininger’s theory of
Transcultural Nursing practice encompasses the nurse, the
patient, the patient’s environment, and the patient’s approach to
health and healthcare. Consideration of the patient’s culture is
the focus of the nursing practice. The nurse performs an
assessment of the patient’s healthcare perceptions and the
cultural environment. This assessment allows the nurse to apply
holistic and complimentary nursing care to the resources that
the patient might access through his/her faith and culture. Each
metaparadigm has been addressed in her theory. The “nurse” is
the professionally trained individual with the knowledge and
skills who will offer assistance and support to the “patient”,
person, human being, with the focus on their cultural
“environment”, values and practice in mind to promote the well-
being of their “health” familiar to their cultural lifestyle.
Slide 5
Two other unique concepts that Madeleine addresses are care
and culture. She spoke of the essence of nursing being care.
Caring makes a human being human. Caring gives humans self-
worth and inspiration to help others and get well. Leininger
further went on to say that caring can exist without curing, but
you cannot cure without caring. (Leininger, 2008). Culture was
another unique concept that was discussed by Leininger.
Leininger (2008) believed that the most comprehensive,
holistic, broadest, and universal feature of any human being is
culture. The phenomenon of cultural care is vital to the
understanding and discovery of nurses as it relates to healing,
advance nursing, and health care on a whole. (Leininger, 2008).
As per Leininger (2008), the two most powerful hypothetical
constructs vital to the survival, wellbeing and health of any
human are care and culture. She further stated that to unlock
the affluence of knowledge of health and nursing practices, an

in-depth understanding of specific beliefs, culture care values,
and human beings life experiences should be of the utmost
importance.
Slide 6
Slide 7
Slide 8
Leininger, M., & McFarland, M.R. (2002). Transcultural
Nursing: Concepts, theories, research,
& practice (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill Medical
Publishing Division.
Slide 9
Slide 10

Slide 12
Slide 13
References
Leininger, M. (2008). Overview of Leininger’s Theory of
Culture Care Diversity and Universality. Retrieved from
http://www.madeleine-leininger.com/cc/overview.pdf
Sitzman, K., & Eichelberger, L. W. (2015). Understanding the
Work of Nurse Theorists. United States: Jones and Bartlett
Publishers. Retrieved from
http://nursing.jbpub.com/sitzman/ch15pdf.pdf
Slide 14
Slide 15
Slide 16

References
Culture Care Diversity and
Universality. Retrieved from http://www.madeleine-
leininger.com/cc/overview.pdf
Presented by: G. Crabb, K. Dumindin, D. Edokpayi, J. Enriquez,
S. Gordon & H. HammerSouth University NSG 5002March
2017TRANSCULTURAL NURSINGCULTURE OF CARE
BYMADELEINE LEININGER
Presented by: G. Crabb, K. Dumindin, D. Edokpayi, J. Enriquez,
S. Gordon & H. Hammer
South University NSG 5002
March 2017
Transcultural nursing
culture of care
by
Madeleine Leininger
1
•Born July 13, 1925•Educated as a nurse at Anthony's Hospital
School of Nursing•Undergraduate degrees: Benedictine College
and Creighton University•Graduate degree: Catholic University

of America•Doctorate degree: University of
Washington•Faculty positions at University of Cincinnati and
University of Colorado•Dean of Nursing at University of Utah
and University of WashingtonDR. MADELEINE LEININGER
Born July 13, 1925
Educated as a nurse at Anthony's Hospital School of Nursing
Undergraduate degrees: Benedictine College and Creighton
University
Graduate degree: Catholic University of America
Doctorate degree: University of Washington
Faculty positions at University of Cincinnati and University of
Colorado
Dean of Nursing at University of Utah and University of
Washington
Dr. Madeleine Leininger
Madeleine Leininger started her nursing career at St. Anthony’s
School of Nursing in Denver Colorado in 1948. In 1950 she
earned her B.S. from Benedictine College. In 1954 she earned
her M.S. degree in psychiatric and mental health nursing from
Catholic University of America in Washington D.C. Finally in
1965 she completed her PhD in cultural and social anthropology
at the University of Washington.
2
•1955 –1975 developed and promoted transcultural nursing
•1975 Published the Sunrise Model to promote the
concept•1998 Received Living Legend Award from American
Academy of NursingDR. MADELEINE LEININGER
1955 – 1975 developed and promoted transcultural nursing
1975 Published the Sunrise Model to promote the concept

1998 Received Living Legend Award from American Academy
of Nursing
Dr. Madeleine Leininger
Dr. Leininger recognized the need for culture care early in her
career and started to work on the concepts to build the theory of
culture care and universality for many years with many
publications and trips abroad to assist and promote research
with her ethnonursing technique. She was recognized for her
achievements and cultural diversity is taught in healthcare
worldwide. She was awarded the living legend award in 1998
by the American Academy of Nursing. Her life and work can
be viewed at www.Madeleine-Leininger.com
3
•The four metaparadigms of nursing, nurse, patient, health and
of nursing and nursing theories. (Butts & Rich,
2015).•According to Petiprin(2016), Madeleine
Leininger’stheory of Transcultural Nursing practice
encompasses the nurse, the patient, the patient’s environment,
and the patient’s approach to health and healthcare.•The “nurse”
is the professionally trained individual with the knowledge and
FOUR METAPARADIGMS

health and healthcare.
The “nurse” is the professionally trained individual with the
knowledge and skills who will offer assistance and support to
the “patient”, person, human being, with the focus on their
cultural “environment”, values and practice in mind to promote
the well-being of their “health” familiar to their cultural
lifestyle.
Four MetaParadigms
These common concepts, though maybe spoken of differently in
all the nursing theories, are all addressed at some point or
another. One such nursing theory is the “Transcultural
Nursing” developed by Madeleine Leininger in the 1950s.
Understanding the differences and similarities of values, beliefs
and practices of individuals or a group by studying their culture
with the aim of providing nursing care that is universal and
culture-specific to promote health and well-being is the premise
of the Transcultural Nursing theory described by Kraut (2013).
health and healthcare. Consideration of the patient’s culture is
the focus of the nursing practice. The nurse performs an
assessment of the patient’s healthcare perceptions and the
cultural environment. This assessment allows the nurse to apply
holistic and complimentary nursing care to the resources that
the patient might access through his/her faith and culture. Each

metaparadigm has been addressed in her theory. The “nurse” is
the professionally trained individual with the knowledge and
4
Care•Essence of nursing being care•Caring makes a human
being human•Caring gives humans self-worth and inspiration to
help others and get well.•Caring can exist without curing, but
you cannot cure without caring. (Leininger, 2008)Culture•The
most comprehensive, holistic, broadest, and universal feature of
any human being is culture.•Phenomenon of cultural care is
vital to the understanding healing, advance nursing, and health
care•Knowledge of health and nursing practices, an in-depth
understanding of specific beliefs, culture care values, and
human beings life experiences should be of the utmost
importance.TWO UNIQUE CONCEPTS TO TRANSCULTURAL
NURSING
Two Unique concepts to Transcultural nursing
Two other unique concepts that Madeleine addresses are care
and culture. She spoke of the essence of nursing being care.
Caring makes a human being human. Caring gives humans self-
worth and inspiration to help others and get well. Leininger
further went on to say that caring can exist without curing, but
you cannot cure without caring. (Leininger, 2008). Culture was
another unique concept that was discussed by Leininger.
Leininger (2008) believed that the most comprehensive,
holistic, broadest, and universal feature of any human being is
culture. The phenomenon of cultural care is vital to the
understanding and discovery of nurses as it relates to healing,
advance nursing, and health care on a whole. (Leininger, 2008).

As per Leininger (2008), the two most powerful hypothetical
constructs vital to the survival, wellbeing and health of any
human are care and culture. She further stated that to unlock
the affluence of knowledge of health and nursing practices, an
in-depth understanding of specific beliefs, culture care values,
and human beings life experiences should be of the utmost
importance.
5
Care
Caring makes a human being human
Culture
The most comprehensive, holistic, broadest, and universal
feature of any human being is culture.
Knowledge of health and nursing practices, an in-depth
understanding of specific beliefs, culture care values, and
human beings life experiences should be of the utmost
importance.
Phenomenon of cultural care is vital to the understanding
healing, advance nursing, and health care
Caring gives humans self-worth and inspiration to help others
and get well.
Caring can exist without curing, but you cannot cure without

caring. (Leininger, 2008)
Essence of nursing being care
•Care is the essence and the central dominant, distinct, and
unifying focus of nursing. •Humanistic and scientific care is
essential for human growth, wellbeing, health, •survival, and to
face death and disabilities. •Care (caring) is essential to curing
or healing for there can be no curing without •caring. (This
assumption was held to have profound relevance worldwide.)
•Culture care is the synthesis of two major constructs which
guides the researcher to discover, explain, and account for
health, wellbeing, care expressions, and other human
conditions. THE THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS
Care is the essence and the central dominant, distinct, and
unifying focus of nursing.
Humanistic and scientific care is essential for human growth,
wellbeing, health,
survival, and to face death and disabilities.
Care (caring) is essential to curing or healing for there can be
no curing without
caring. (This assumption was held to have profound relevance
worldwide.)
Culture care is the synthesis of two major constructs which
guides the researcher to discover, explain, and account for
health, wellbeing, care expressions, and other human
conditions.
The theoretical Assumptions

6
•Culture care expressions, meanings, patterns, processes and
structural forms are diverse but some commonalities
(universals) exist among and between cultures. •Culture care
values, beliefs, and practices are influenced by and embedded in
the worldview, social structure factors (e.g. religion, philosophy
of life, kinship, politics, economics, education, technology, and
cultural values) and the ethnohistoricaland environmental
contexts.•Every culture has generic [lay, folk, naturalistic;
mainly emic] and usually some professional [etic] care to be
discovered and used for culturally congruent care practice.THE
THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS
Culture care expressions, meanings, patterns, processes and
structural forms are diverse but some commonalities
(universals) exist among and between cultures.
Culture care values, beliefs, and practices are influenced by and
embedded in the worldview, social structure factors (e.g.
religion, philosophy of life, kinship, politics, economics,
education, technology, and cultural values) and the
ethnohistorical and environmental contexts.
Every culture has generic [lay, folk, naturalistic; mainly emic]
and usually some professional [etic] care to be discovered and
used for culturally congruent care practice.
7
•Culturally congruent and therapeutic care occurs when culture
care values, beliefs, expressions, and patterns are explicitly
known and used appropriately, sensitively, and meaningfully
with people of diverse or similar cultures. •Leininger’sthree
theoretical modes of care offer new, creative, and different

therapeutic ways to help people of diverse cultures. •Qualitative
research paradigmatic methods offer important means to
discover largely embedded, covert, epistemic, and ontological
culture care knowledge and practices. •Transcultural nursing is
a discipline with a body of knowledge and practices to attain
and maintain the goal of culturally congruent care for health
and wellbeing.THE THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS
Culturally congruent and therapeutic care occurs when culture
care values, beliefs, expressions, and patterns are explicitly
known and used appropriately, sensitively, and meaningfully
with people of diverse or similar cultures.
Leininger’s three theoretical modes of care offer new, creative,
and different therapeutic ways to help people of diverse
cultures.
Qualitative research paradigmatic methods offer important
means to discover largely embedded, covert, epistemic, and
ontological culture care knowledge and practices.
Transcultural nursing is a discipline with a body of knowledge
and practices to attain and maintain the goal of culturally
congruent care for health and wellbeing.
Nursing: Concepts, theories, research,
& practice (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill Medical
Publishing Division.
8
•Leininger’sCCT is a significant framework in the nursing field;
it is largely responsible for facilitating the shift from a
unilateral cultural perspective of nursing to a multilateral form
(Leininger, 2008, p. 1). •Being that the theory was established
over half a century ago, it has had plenty of opportunity to be

well-integrated into nursing practice and education, which it
did. The theory is based on practical experience, which is a
strong component of any theoretical framework. In order for a
theory to be beneficial to a discipline, it must have practical
advantages. •Nursing as a professional field is already under a
lot of pressure, and generally does not spend time working out
theoretical aspects that have no practical basis or measure. •The
fact that Leininger’stheory also seeks to answer nursing issues
that were relevant to that period in nursing further supports this
idea (Sitzman, 2015, p. 93). So there is not a shadow of a doubt
that CCT is a cornerstone of modern nursing practice, in which
cultural diversity is an increasingly influential factor in
healthcare.LEININGER’SCULTURE CARE THEORY
CRITIQUE AND ANALYSIS
Leininger’s CCT is a significant framework in the nursing field;
it is largely responsible for facilitating the shift from a
(Leininger, 2008, p. 1).
Being that the theory was established over half a century ago, it
has had plenty of opportunity to be well-integrated into nursing
practice and education, which it did. The theory is based on
practical experience, which is a strong component of any
theoretical framework. In order for a theory to be beneficial to a
discipline, it must have practical advantages.
Nursing as a professional field is already under a lot of
pressure, and generally does not spend time working out
theoretical aspects that have no practical basis or measure.
The fact that Leininger’s theory also seeks to answer nursing
issues that were relevant to that period in nursing further
supports this idea (Sitzman, 2015, p. 93). So there is not a
shadow of a doubt that CCT is a cornerstone of modern nursing
practice, in which cultural diversity is an increasingly
influential factor in healthcare.
Leininger’s Culture Care theory
Critique and Analysis

9
•In general, there is not much to criticize in terms of
inefficiencies, specifically those that might be due to any lack
of practical perspective on the theorist’s part. Leiningeris well-
intentioned and articulate in her approach to transcultural care,
providing a general summary of the theory with 13 essential
tenets of the framework, and 11 inherent assumptions that
support its integration with practice (Sitzman, 2015, p. 95).
•These things have sufficiently served as the foundation of
transcultural nursing as it is today, and Leiningerhas even made
several attempts to keep the concept up to date by revising the
theory and adding to it as necessary (Leininger, 2008; Sitzman,
2015). •Yet at the same time, the theory seems a bit general in
some places, and in others even seems a bit off. For instance,
Leininger(2008) holds that “culture is the broadest, most
comprehensive, holistic and universal feature of human beings,”
which she further extrapolates to mean that culture is the
primary mechanism of health care (p. 2)•To support this point,
we should consider the role of culture in society. In complex
societies like America, culture’s role is much harder to define,
because a singular culture itself is less clear. However, a natural
tendency of people as humans is to form relationships with each
other. LEININGER’SCULTURE CARE THEORY CRITIQUE
AND ANALYSIS
In general, there is not much to criticize in terms of
of practical perspective on the theorist’s part. Leininger is well-

These things have sufficiently served as the foundation of
transcultural nursing as it is today, and Leininger has even made
2015).
Yet at the same time, the theory seems a bit general in some
places, and in others even seems a bit off. For instance,
Leininger (2008) holds that “culture is the broadest, most
primary mechanism of health care (p. 2)
To support this point, we should consider the role of culture in
society. In complex societies like America, culture’s role is
much harder to define, because a singular culture itself is less
clear. However, a natural tendency of people as humans is to
form relationships with each other.
10
•The way that these relationships are categorized can be said to
give rise to various cultures. For example, people of a common
culture would form strong, supportive relationships, while two
of a less common culture might identify with each other much
less due to a difference in values. •Consider, for example, civil
rights. In the U.S., this movement caused a swelling of “black
pride,” a unique culture in its own right.•Although the goal was
to achieve a unification of society, its mechanism was to
highlight the differences in quality between black and white
lifestyles, which in turn gave rise to the notion of two separate
cultures, even within the same social institution. •As such, how
can we truly suggest that culture is the most universal of

humanistic traits that would serve to benefit health care? Again,
it should not be taken to mean that culture is useless in
understanding care perspectives, but rather that culture is
secondary to the relationships that we as people establish with
each other based on our common
humanity.LEININGERSCULTURE CARE THEORY CRITIQUE
AND ANALYSIS
The way that these relationships are categorized can be said to
give rise to various cultures. For example, people of a common
culture would form strong, supportive relationships, while two
of a less common culture might identify with each other much
less due to a difference in values.
Consider, for example, civil rights. In the U.S., this movement
caused a swelling of “black pride,” a unique culture in its own
right.
Although the goal was to achieve a unification of society, its
mechanism was to highlight the differences in quality between
black and white lifestyles, which in turn gave rise to the notion
of two separate cultures, even within the same social institution.
As such, how can we truly suggest that culture is the most
universal of humanistic traits that would serve to benefit health
care? Again, it should not be taken to mean that culture is
useless in understanding care perspectives, but rather that
culture is secondary to the relationships that we as people
establish with each other based on our common humanity.
Leiningers Culture Care theory
11
•To further support this criticism, let us look at how the culture
of the United States has developed as a single unit, as opposed

to the multitude of factions that it is actually comprised of.•If
we consider the history of the U.S.’s culture as beginning from
its foundation, there is no clear point of origin, as the first
settlers were from all over the world. •The culture of the U.S.
became largely based on race and sex, as the social structure
strongly favored Anglo Saxon males. Even so, the country
continued to be built on immigrants, who brought their own
unique health challenges that were not considered to be of
significant interest to the primary culture. •Although
Leininger’stheory is comprehensive to say the least, my biggest
concern is that the theory cannot be adapted quickly enough to
accommodate changes that a single culture itself may undertake.
•This becomes an even larger problem when we consider that we
must account for numerous intersecting cultural influences. I
understand that such is the nature of the theory, but I further
argue that its implications are far different from when it was
devised. LEININGERSCULTURE CARE THEORY CRITIQUE
AND ANALYSIS
To further support this criticism, let us look at how the culture
of the United States has developed as a single unit, as opposed
to the multitude of factions that it is actually comprised of.
If we consider the history of the U.S.’s culture as beginning
from its foundation, there is no clear point of origin, as the first
settlers were from all over the world.
The culture of the U.S. became largely based on race and sex, as
the social structure strongly favored Anglo Saxon males. Even
so, the country continued to be built on immigrants, who
brought their own unique health challenges that were not
considered to be of significant interest to the primary culture.
Although Leininger’s theory is comprehensive to say the least,
my biggest concern is that the theory cannot be adapted quickly
enough to accommodate changes that a single culture itself may
undertake.
This becomes an even larger problem when we consider that we
must account for numerous intersecting cultural influences. I

devised.
Leiningers Culture Care theory
12
•While this framework has been excellent for establishing some
critical nursing precepts for the culturally diverse society we
live in now, the origins of the theory were based in a time
where cultural growth and identification was not subject to so
many factors like media, and certainly not on such a wide scale.
•Now, as culture becomes more and more ambiguous, the
transcultural theory will likely have a harder time determining
exactly what cultures need to be transcended. •American culture
has different health implications than Latino culture, but what
about Latin American culture? •How do we approach when
someone’s beliefs indicate that they subscribe to one culture,
but their behaviors reflect the values of another? •Then, how do
we apply that approach on a wider scale, in the face of an
increasingly ambiguous yet common cultural identity?•By
focusing on the commonalities of the humans within the culture,
and their specific humanity, rather than the differences in their
cultures.LEININGER’SCULTURE CARE THEORY CRITIQUE
AND ANALYSIS
While this framework has been excellent for establishing some
critical nursing precepts for the culturally diverse society we
live in now, the origins of the theory were based in a time
Now, as culture becomes more and more ambiguous, the

exactly what cultures need to be transcended.
American culture has different health implications than Latino
culture, but what about Latin American culture?
How do we approach when someone’s beliefs indicate that they
subscribe to one culture, but their behaviors reflect the values
of another?
Then, how do we apply that approach on a wider scale, in the
face of an increasingly ambiguous yet common cultural
identity?
By focusing on the commonalities of the humans within the
culture, and their specific humanity, rather than the differences
in their cultures.
References
13
•Leininger’sCCT is a very significant framework.•It is well-
integrated into nursing practice and education.•The theory is
based on practical experience.•Nursing as is already under a lot
of pressure.•Nursing does not work out theoretical aspects that
have no practical basis.•There is no doubt CCT is a cornerstone
of modern nursing practice.•There is not much to criticize in
terms of inefficiencies.•Leiningeris well-intentioned and
articulate in her approach to transcultural care.LEININGER

BULLETS:
Leininger’s CCT is a very significant framework.
It is well-integrated into nursing practice and education.
The theory is based on practical experience.
Nursing as is already under a lot of pressure.
Nursing does not work out theoretical aspects that have no
practical basis.
There is no doubt CCT is a cornerstone of modern nursing
practice.
There is not much to criticize in terms of inefficiencies.
Leininger is well-intentioned and articulate in her approach to
transcultural care.
LEININGER BULLETS:
14
•Leiningerprovides a summary of the theory with 13 essential
tenets.•Leiningerhas made several attempts to keep the concept
up to date.•The theory seems a bit general in some
places.•Culture is the broadest feature of human beings.•We
should consider the role of culture in society.•The goal was to
achieve a unification of society.•It should not mean that culture
is useless in understanding care perspectives.•The culture of the
United States has developed as a single unit.•The U.S.’s culture
as beginning from its foundation.LEININGER BULLETS:
Leininger provides a summary of the theory with 13 essential
tenets.
Leininger has made several attempts to keep the concept up to
date.

The theory seems a bit general in some places.
Culture is the broadest feature of human beings.
We should consider the role of culture in society.
The goal was to achieve a unification of society.
It should not mean that culture is useless in understanding care
perspectives.
The culture of the United States has developed as a single unit.
The U.S.’s culture as beginning from its foundation.
LEININGER BULLETS:
15
•The culture of the U.S. became largely based on race and
sex.•Leininger’stheory is comprehensive to say the least.•We
must account for numerous intersecting cultural
influences.•This framework has been excellent for establishing
some critical nursing precepts.•Culture becomes more and more
ambiguous.•American culture has different health implications
than Latino cultureLEININGER BULLETS:
The culture of the U.S. became largely based on race and sex.
Leininger’s theory is comprehensive to say the least.
We must account for numerous intersecting cultural influences.
This framework has been excellent for establishing some
critical nursing precepts.
Culture becomes more and more ambiguous.
American culture has different health implications than Latino
culture
LEININGER BULLETS:

16
•References•Leininger, M. (2008). Overview of
Leininger’sTheory of Culture Care Diversity and Universality.
Retrieved from http://www.madeleine-
leininger.com/cc/overview.pdf•Sitzman, K., & Eichelberger, L.
W. (2015). Understanding the Work of Nurse Theorists. United
States: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Retrieved from
http://nursing.jbpub.com/sitzman/ch15pdf.pdf•Butts,J.B., &
Rich,K.T. (2015). Bookshelf Online. Retrieved from
8543/cfi/6/28!/4/26/2/[email protected]:8.63•Kraut,J. (2013,
March 29). Madeleine LeiningersCulture Care Theory by Julia
Kraut on Prezi. Retrieved from
https://prezi.com/lnessxo2usfn/madeleine-leiningers-culture-
care-theory/•Leininger,M. (2008). Overview of
Leininger'sTheory of Culture Care Diversity and Universality.
Retrieved from http://www.madeleine-
leininger.com/cc/overview.pdf•Leininger, M., & McFarland,
M.R. (2002). Transcultural Nursing: Concepts, theories,
research, & practice (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill Medical
Publishing Division. REFERENCES
References
Butts, J. B., & Rich, K. T. (2015). Bookshelf Online. Retrieved
from

8543/cfi/6/28!/4/26/2/[email protected]:8.63
Kraut, J. (2013, March 29). Madeleine Leiningers Culture Care
Theory by Julia Kraut on Prezi. Retrieved from
https://prezi.com/lnessxo2usfn/madeleine-leiningers-culture-
care-theory/
Leininger, M. (2008). Overview of Leininger's Theory of
Nursing: Concepts, theories, research, & practice (3rd ed.). New
York: McGraw Hill Medical Publishing Division.
References
17
Running Head: LEININGER’S THEORY OF CULTURAL
CARE
Critique and analysis:
1. Leininger’s CCT is a significant framework in the nursing
field; it is largely responsible for facilitating the shift from a
(Leininger, 2008, p. 1).
1. Being that the theory was established over half a century ago,
it has had plenty of opportunity to be well-integrated into
nursing practice and education, which it did. The theory is
based on practical experience, which is a strong component of

any theoretical framework. In order for a theory to be beneficial
to a discipline, it must have practical advantages.
1. Nursing as a professional field is already under a lot of
pressure, and generally does not spend time working out
theoretical aspects that have no practical basis or measure.
1. The fact that Leininger’s theory also seeks to answer nursing
issues that were relevant to that period in nursing further
supports this idea (Sitzman, 2015, p. 93). So there is not a
shadow of a doubt that CCT is a cornerstone of modern nursing
practice, in which cultural diversity is an increasingly
influential factor in healthcare.
1. In general, there is not much to criticize in terms of
of practical perspective on the theorist’s part. Leininger is well-
1. These things have sufficiently served as the foundation of
transcultural nursing as it is today, and Leininger has even made
2015).
1. Yet at the same time, the theory seems a bit general in some
places, and in others even seems a bit off. For instance,
Leininger (2008) holds that “culture is the broadest, most
primary mechanism of health care (p. 2)
1. To support this point, we should consider the role of
culture in society. In complex societies like America, culture’s
role is much harder to define, because a singular culture itself is
less clear. However, a natural tendency of people as humans is
to form relationships with each other.
1. The way that these relationships are categorized can be said
to give rise to various cultures. For example, people of a

common culture would form strong, supportive relationships,
while two of a less common culture might identify with each
other much less due to a difference in values.
1. Consider, for example, civil rights. In the U.S., this
movement caused a swelling of “black pride,” a unique culture
in its own right.
1. Although the goal was to achieve a unification of society, its
mechanism was to highlight the differences in quality between
black and white lifestyles, which in turn gave rise to the notion
of two separate cultures, even within the same social institution.
1. As such, how can we truly suggest that culture is the most
universal of humanistic traits that would serve to benefit health
care? Again, it should not be taken to mean that culture is
useless in understanding care perspectives, but rather that
culture is secondary to the relationships that we as people
establish with each other based on our common humanity.
1. To further support this criticism, let us look at how the
culture of the United States has developed as a single unit, as
opposed to the multitude of factions that it is actually
comprised of.
1. If we consider the history of the U.S.’s culture as beginning
from its foundation, there is no clear point of origin, as the first
settlers were from all over the world.
1. The culture of the U.S. became largely based on race and sex,
as the social structure strongly favored Anglo Saxon males.
Even so, the country continued to be built on immigrants, who
brought their own unique health challenges that were not
considered to be of significant interest to the primary culture.
1. Although Leininger’s theory is comprehensive to say the
least, my biggest concern is that the theory cannot be adapted
quickly enough to accommodate changes that a single culture
itself may undertake.
1. This becomes an even larger problem when we consider that
we must account for numerous intersecting cultural influences. I

devised.
1. While this framework has been excellent for establishing
some critical nursing precepts for the culturally diverse society
we live in now, the origins of the theory were based in a time
1. Now, as culture becomes more and more ambiguous, the
exactly what cultures need to be transcended.
1. American culture has different health implications than
Latino culture, but what about Latin American culture?
1. How do we approach when someone’s beliefs indicate that
they subscribe to one culture, but their behaviors reflect the
values of another?
1. Then, how do we apply that approach on a wider scale, in the
face of an increasingly ambiguous yet common cultural
identity?
1. By focusing on the commonalities of the humans within the
culture, and their specific humanity, rather than the differences
in their cultures.
References

MARY REVIEW1.Chan, G. & Yanos, P. T. (2018). Media depictions .docx

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MARY REVIEW1.Chan, G. & Yanos, P. T. (2018). Media depictions .docx