ASAS PSIKOLOGI thinking, language and intelligence
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ASAS PSIKOLOGI thinking, language and intelligence
- 1. Chapter 7: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
- 2. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Thinking and Reasoning Thinking – The manipulation of mental representations of information Mental images – Representations in the mind in the form of object or event being represented
- 3. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Categorizing the World Concepts – Categorizations of objects, events, or people that share common properties that enable us to organize complex phenomena into simpler cognitive categories Prototypes – Typical, highly representative examples of a concept What is a tree?
- 4. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Reasoning: Making Up Your Mind Syllogistic reasoning – Formal reasoning in which people draw a conclusion from a set of assumptions (or premises) All men are mortal (premise) Socrates is a man (premise) Therefore, Socrates is mortal (conclusion)
- 5. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Reasoning: Algorithms and Heuristics Algorithm – A rule which, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem Heuristic – A cognitive shortcut that may lead to a solution Availability heuristic – Involves judging the probability of an event by how easily the event can be recalled from memory
- 6. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems Well-defined problem – Both the nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve it are available and clear Ill-defined problem – Both the specific nature of the problem and the information to solve it are unclear 2 + 2 = ?
- 7. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Kinds of Problems Arrangement problems – Require that a group of elements be rearranged or recombined in a way that will satisfy a certain criterion Problems of inducing structure – Identify the relationships that exist among the elements presented and construct a new relationship among them 14-24-34-44-54- 64-?
- 8. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Kinds of Problems Transformation problem – Consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a series of methods for changing the initial state into the goal state
- 9. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Representing and Organizing the Problem Our ability to represent the problem and the kind of solution we eventually come to is affected by the way a problem is phrased, or framed Will it take a person the same amount of time in order to climb up 8 stories as it does to climb down 8 stories?
- 10. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
- 11. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Production: Generating Solutions Trial and Error – Most primitive means of seeking a solution Means-end analysis – Repeated testing for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists
- 12. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Production: Generating Solutions Subgoals – Dividing a problem into intermediate steps, and solving each of those steps Insight – A sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be unrelated to one another
- 13. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Impediments to Solutions Functional fixedness – The tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use Mental set – The tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist
- 14. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Impediments to Solutions Inaccurate evaluation of solutions Confirmation bias – Initial hypotheses are favored and contradictory information supporting alternative hypothesis or solutions is ignored
- 15. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Creativity and Problem Solving Creativity – The combining of responses or ideas in novel ways Divergent thinking – The ability to generate unusual, yet nonetheless appropriate, responses to problems or questions Convergent thinking – Responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic Cognitive complexity – The preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking patterns
- 16. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Language The communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules
- 17. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Grammar: Language’s Language Grammar – The system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed Phonology – The study of the smallest basic sound units, called phonemes that effect the meaning of speech
- 18. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Grammar: Language’s Language Syntax – The rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences Semantics – The rules governing the meaning of words and sentences
- 19. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Language Development Babble – Speechlike but meaningless sounds made by children from the ages of around 3 months through 1 year Critical period – Time period where child is particularly sensitive to language cues and where language is most easily acquired Telegraphic speech – Sentences that sound as if they were part of a telegram, in which words not critical to the message are left out
- 20. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Language Development Overgeneralization – The phenomenon where children apply rules even when the application results in an error, e.g. “he runned”
- 21. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Understanding Language Acquisition Learning-theory approach – Language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning Universal grammar – All the world’s languages share a similar underlying structure Language-acquisition device – Neural system that permits the understanding of language
- 22. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Influence of Language on Thinking Linguistic-relativity hypothesis – The notion that language shapes and, in fact, may determine the way people of a particular culture perceive and understand the world
- 23. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Defining Intelligent Behavior Intelligence – The capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges Intelligence tests – Tests that are developed in order to identify a person’s level of intelligence
- 24. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Measuring Intelligence Mental age – The average age of individuals who achieve a particular level of performance on a test Chronological age – Physical age
- 25. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Measuring Intelligence IQ = MA CA X 100
- 26. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. IQ Tests: Gauging Intelligence Stanford-Binet IV Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – III (WAIS-III) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - III (WISC-III)
- 27. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Achievement and Aptitude Tests Achievement test – A test designed to determine a person’s level of knowledge in a given subject area Aptitude test – A test designed to predict a person’s ability in a particular area or line of work
- 28. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Reliability and Validity: Taking the Measure of a Test Reliability – A tests ability to consistently measure what they are trying to measure Validity – The tests ability to measure what it is supposed to measure Norms – Standards of test performance
- 29. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Intelligence G or G-factor – Early theory that proposed a single, general factor underlying every aspect of intelligence Fluid intelligence – Reflects information processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory Crystallized intelligence – Accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that people have learned through experience
- 30. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Musical Bodily Kinesthetic Logical- mathematical Linguistic Spatial Interpersonal Intrapersonal
- 31. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Intelligence Practical intelligence – Intelligence related to overall success in living Emotional intelligence – Set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions
- 32. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
- 33. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Variations in Intellectual Ability Mental retardation – Significantly below-average intellectual functioning, plus limitations in at least two areas of adaptive functioning involving – Communication skills – Self-care – Ability to live independently – Social skills – Community involvement – Self direction – Health & safety – Academics – Leisure & work
- 34. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Mental Retardation Classification Mild Retardation IQ Range Moderate Retardation Profound Retardation 55 - 69 40 - 45 Below 25 Severe Retardation 25 -39
- 35. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Identifying Roots of Mental Retardation Biological causes – Down syndrome Familial retardation Care and treatment – Least restrictive environment – Mainstreaming – Full inclusion
- 36. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Intellectually Gifted 2 to 4 % of the population have IQ scores greater than 130 Stereotypes
- 37. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Individual Differences in Intelligence Culture-fair IQ test – A test that does not discriminate against members of any minority group Heritability – A measure of the degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors The bell curve
Editor's Notes
- Psychologists define thinking as the manipulation of mental representations of information. The representation may be in the form of a word, a visual image, a sound, or data in any other modality. The function of thinking is to transform that representation of information into new and different forms for the purposes of answering questions, solving problems, or reaching goals. Mental images are representations in the mind in the form of the object or event being represented. They are not just visual representations; our ability to “hear” a tune in our head also relies on a mental image. In fact, it may be that every sensory modality produces corresponding mental images. Research has found that our representations of mental images have many of the properties of the actual perception of objects being represented. For example, it takes longer to scan mental images of large objects than of small ones, just as the eye takes longer to scan an actual large object than an actual small one. Similarly, we are able to manipulate and rotate mental images of objects, just as we are able to manipulate and rotate them in the real world. The production of mental images has been heralded by some as a way to improve various skills. For instance, many athletes use mental imagery in training. Basketball players may try to produce vivid and detailed images of the court, the basket, the ball, and the noisy crowd. They may visualize themselves taking a foul shot, watching the ball, and hearing the swish as it goes through the net (May, 1989; Issac & Marks, 1994). Systematic evaluations of the use of mental imagery by athletes suggest that it provides a means for improving performance in sports (Druckman & Bjork, 1991).
- Concepts are categorizations of objects, events, or people that share common properties. By employing concepts, we are able to organize complex phenomena into simpler, and therefore more easily usable, cognitive categories (Margolis & Laurence, 1999). Concepts allow us to classify newly encountered objects on the basis of our past experience. For example, we can surmise that a small rectangular box with buttons that is on a chair near a television is probably a remote control—even if we have never encountered that specific brand before. Ultimately, concepts influence behavior; we would assume, for instance, that it might be appropriate to pet an animal after determining that it is a dog, while we would behave differently after classifying the animal as a wolf. Prototypes are typical, highly representative examples of a concept. For instance, a prototype of the concept “bird” is a robin; a prototype of “table” is a coffee table. Relatively high agreement exists among people in a particular culture as to which examples of a concept are prototypes, as well as which examples are not. For instance, most people in western cultures consider cars and trucks good examples of vehicles, whereas elevators and wheelbarrows are not viewed as very good examples.
- Syllogistic reasoning is formal reasoning in which people draw a conclusion from a set of assumptions. In using syllogistic reasoning, we begin with a general assumption that we believe is true and then derive the implications of the assumption. If the assumption is true, then the conclusions must also be true. A major technique for studying syllogistic reasoning involves asking people to evaluate a series of statements that present a series of two assumptions, or premises, that are used to derive a conclusion. syllogistic reasoning is only as accurate as the accuracy of the premises and the validity of the logic applied to the premises.
- An algorithm is a rule which, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem. We can use an algorithm even if we cannot understand why it works. For example, you may know that the length of the third side of a right triangle can be found using the formula a2 + b2 = c2, although you may not have the foggiest notion of the mathematical principles behind the formula. A heuristic is a cognitive shortcut that may lead to a solution. Heuristics enhance the likelihood of success in coming to a solution but, unlike algorithms, they cannot ensure it. For example, when I play tic-tac-toe, I follow the heuristic of placing an “X” in the center squares when I start the game. This tactic doesn’t guarantee that I will win, but experience has taught me that it will increase my chances of success. Similarly, some students follow the heuristic of preparing for a test by ignoring the assigned textbook reading and only studying their lecture notes—a strategy that may or may not pay off (Nisbett et al., 1993). Although heuristics often help people solve problems and make decisions, certain kinds of heuristics may lead to inaccurate conclusions. For example, we sometimes use the availability heuristic, which involves judging the probability of an event by how easily the event can be recalled from memory. According to this heuristic, we assume that events we remember easily are likely to have occurred more frequently in the past—and are more likely to occur in the future—than those that are harder to remember. For instance, people are usually more afraid of dying in a plane crash than in an auto accident, despite statistics clearly showing that airplane travel is much safer than auto travel. The reason is that plane crashes receive far more publicity than car crashes, and are therefore more easily remembered. The availability heuristic leads people to conclude that they are in greater jeopardy in an airplane than in a car.
- If the problem is a novel one, they are likely to pay particular attention to any restrictions placed on coming up with a solution as well as the initial status of the components of the problem. If, on the other hand, the problem is a familiar one, they are apt to spend considerably less time in this stage. Problems vary from well-defined to ill-defined (Reitman, 1965; Arlin, 1989). In a well-defined problem—such as a mathematical equation or the solution to a jigsaw puzzle—both the nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve it are available and clear. Thus, straightforward judgments can be made about whether a potential solution is appropriate. With an ill-defined problem, such as how to increase morale on an assembly line or bring peace to the Middle East, not only may the specific nature of the problem be unclear, but the information required to solve the problem may be even less obvious.
- Arrangement problems require that a group of elements be rearranged or recombined in a way that will satisfy a certain criterion. There are usually several different possible arrangements that can be made, but only one or a few of the arrangements will produce a solution. Anagram problems and jigsaw puzzles represent arrangement problems. In problems of inducing structure, a person must identify the relationships that exist among the elements presented and construct a new relationship among them. In such a problem, it is necessary to determine not only the relationships among the elements, but the structure and size of the elements involved. In the example shown in Figure 8-4, a person must first determine that the solution requires the numbers to be considered in pairs (14-24-34-44-54-64). It is only after that part of the problem is identified that the solution rule (the first number of each pair increases by one, while the second number remains the same) can be determined.
- The Tower of Hanoi puzzle represents a third kind of problem. Transformation problems consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a series of methods for changing the initial state into the goal state. In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the initial state is the original configuration; the goal state consists of the three disks on the third peg; and the method consists of the rules for moving the disks.
- Our ability to represent a problem—and the kind of solution we eventually come to—is affected by the way a problem is phrased, or framed.
- Consider, for example, if you were a cancer patient having to choose between surgery or radiation, and you were given the two sets of options shown in Figure 8-6 (Tversky & Kahneman, 1987). When framed in terms of the likelihood of survival, only 18 percent of participants in a study chose radiation over surgery. However, when the choice was framed in terms of the likelihood of dying, 44 percent chose radiation over surgery—even though the outcomes are identical in both sets of framing conditions.
- At the most primitive level, solutions to problems can be obtained through trial and error. Thomas Edison was able to invent the light bulb only because he tried thousands of different kinds of materials for a filament before he found one that worked (carbon). The difficulty with trial and error, of course, is that some problems are so complicated it would take a lifetime to try out every possibility. For example, according to one estimate, there are some 10120 possible sequences of chess moves. In place of trial and error, complex problem solving often involves the use of heuristics, which, as we discussed earlier, are cognitive shortcuts that can lead the way to solutions. Probably the most frequently applied heuristic in problem solving is a means-ends analysis. In a means-ends analysis, people repeatedly test for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists. Consider this simple example (Newell & Simon, 1972): In such a means-end analysis, each step brings the problem-solver closer to a resolution. Although often effective, if the problem requires indirect steps that temporarily increase the discrepancy between a current state and the solution, means-ends analysis can be counterproductive
- Another commonly used heuristic is to divide a problem into intermediate steps, or subgoals, and to solve each of those steps. For instance, in our modified Tower of Hanoi problem, there are several obvious subgoals that could be chosen, such as moving the largest disk to the third post. If solving a subgoal is a step toward the ultimate solution to a problem, then identifying subgoals is an appropriate strategy. There are cases, however, in which the formation of subgoals is not all that helpful and may actually increase the time needed to find a solution. For example, some problems cannot be subdivided. Others are so difficult to subdivide that it takes longer to identify the appropriate subdivisions than to solve the problem by other means. Some approaches to problem solving focus less on step-by-step processes than on the sudden bursts of comprehension that one may experience during efforts to solve a problem. Just after World War I, German psychologist Wolfgang Köhler examined learning and problem-solving processes in chimps (Köhler, 1927). In his studies, Köhler exposed chimps to challenging situations in which the elements of the solution were all present; all that was needed was for the chimps to put them together. For example, in one series of studies, chimps were kept in a cage in which boxes and sticks were strewn about, with a bunch of tantalizing bananas hanging from the ceiling out of reach. Initially, the chimps engaged in a variety of trial-and-error attempts at getting to the bananas. But then, in what seemed like a sudden revelation, they would abandon whatever activity they were involved in and stand on a box in order to be able to reach the bananas with a stick. Köhler called the cognitive processes underlying the chimps’ behavior insight, a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be unrelated to one another.
- The reason that most people experience difficulty with the candle problem is a phenomenon known as functional fixedness, the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use. For instance, functional fixedness probably leads you to think of the book you are holding in your hands as something to read, as opposed to its value as a doorstop or as kindling for a fire. In the candle problem, functional fixedness occurs because the objects are first presented inside the boxes, which are then seen simply as containers for the objects they hold rather than as a potential part of the solution. Functional fixedness is an example of a broader phenomenon known as mental set, the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist. This phenomenon was demonstrated in a classic experiment carried out by Abraham Luchins (1946). As you can see in Figure 8-9, the object of the task is to use the jars in each row to measure out the designated amount of liquid. (Try it yourself to get a sense of the power of mental set before moving on.) Mental set can also affect perceptions. It can prevent you from seeing your way beyond the apparent constraints of a problem.
- When the nuclear power plant at Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania suffered its initial malfunction in 1979, a disaster that almost led to a nuclear meltdown, the plant operators were faced immediately with solving a problem of the most serious kind. Several monitors indicated contradictory information about the source of the problem: One suggested that the pressure was too high, leading to the danger of an explosion; others indicated that the pressure was too low, which could lead to a meltdown. Although the pressure was in fact too low, the supervisors on duty relied on the one monitor—which was faulty—that suggested the pressure was too high. Once they had made their decision and acted upon it, they ignored the contradictory evidence from the other monitors (Wickens, 1984). One reason for the operators’ mistake is the confirmation bias, in which initial hypotheses are favored and contradictory information supporting alternative hypotheses or solutions is ignored. Even when we find evidence that contradicts a solution we have chosen, we are apt to stick with our original hypothesis. There are several reasons for the confirmation bias. One is that it takes extra cognitive effort to rethink a problem that appears to be solved already, so we are apt to stick with our first solution. Another is that evidence contradicting an initial solution may present something of a threat to our self-esteem, leading us to hold to the solutions that we have come up with first (Fischoff, 1977; Rasmussen, 1981;).
- One of the enduring questions that cognitive psychologists have sought to answer is what factors underlie creativity, the combining of responses or ideas in novel ways. Several factors, however, seem to be associated with creativity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997; Ward, Smith, & Vaid, 1997; Root-Bernstein & Root-Bernstein, 1999). One of these factors is divergent thinking. Divergent thinking refers to the ability to generate unusual, yet nonetheless appropriate, responses to problems or questions. This type of thinking contrasts with convergent thinking, which produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic. For instance, someone relying on convergent thinking answers “You read it” to the query “What do you do with a newspaper?” In contrast, “You use it as a dustpan” is a more divergent—and creative—response (Baer, 1993; Runco & Sakamoto, 1993; Finke, 1995). Another aspect of creativity is cognitive complexity, the preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking patterns. Similarly, creative people often have a wider range of interests and are more independent and more interested in philosophical or abstract problems than are less creative individuals (Barron, 1990).
- Our ability to make sense out of nonsense, if the nonsense follows typical rules of language, illustrates both the sophistication of human language capabilities and the complexity of the cognitive processes that underlie the development and use of language. The use of language—the communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules—clearly represents an important cognitive ability, one that is indispensable for communicating with others. Not only is language central to communication, it is also closely tied to the very way in which we think about and understand the world, for there is a crucial link between thought and language. It is not surprising, then, that psychologists have devoted considerable attention to studying the topic of language (Forrester, 1996; Velichkovsky & Rumbaugh, 1996; Barrett, 1999; Owens, 2000).
- In order to understand how language develops and its relationship to thought, we first need to review some of the formal elements that constitute language. The basic structure of language rests on grammar. Grammar is the system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed. Grammar deals with three major components of language: phonology, syntax, and semantics. Phonology is the study of the smallest basic sound units, called phonemes, that affect the meaning of speech, and of the way we use those sounds to form words and produce meaning. For instance, the “a” in “fat” and the “a” in “fate” represent two different phonemes in English (Vihman, 1996; Baddeley, Gathercole, & Pagano, 1998). Although English speakers use just 42 basic phonemes to produce words, the basic phonemes of other languages range from as few as 15 to as many as 85 (Akmajian, Demers, & Harnish, 1984). Differences in phonemes are one reason people have difficulty in learning other languages: For example, to the Japanese speaker, whose native language does not have an “r” phoneme, English words such as “roar” present some difficulty.
- Syntax refers to the rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences. Every language has intricate rules that guide the order in which words may be strung together to communicate meaning. English speakers have no difficulty recognizing that “Radio down the turn” is not an appropriate sequence, while “Turn down the radio” is. The importance of appropriate syntax is demonstrated in English by the changes in meaning that are caused by the different word orders in the following three utterances: “John kidnapped the boy,” “John, the kidnapped boy,” and “The boy kidnapped John” (Lasnik, 1990). The third major component of language is semantics. Semantics refers to the rules governing the meaning of words and sentences (Larson, 1990; Hipkiss, 1995; O’Grady & Dobrovolsky, 1996). Semantic rules allow us to use words to convey the subtlest of nuances. For instance, we are able to make the distinction between “The truck hit Laura” (which we would be likely to say if we had just seen the vehicle hitting Laura) and “Laura was hit by a truck” (which we would probably say if asked why Laura was missing class while she recuperated).
- Children babble—make speechlike but meaningless sounds—from around the age of 3 months through 1 year. While they babble they may produce, at one time or another, any of the sounds found in all languages, not just the one to which they are exposed. Babbling increasingly reflects the specific language that is being spoken in an infant’s environment, initially in terms of pitch and tone, and eventually in terms of specific sounds. Some theorists suggest there is a critical period for language development early in life, in which a child is particularly sensitive to language cues and during which language is most easily acquired. By the time the child is approximately 1 year old, sounds that are not in the language to which the infant is exposed disappear. It is then a short step to the production of actual words. In English, these are typically short words that start with a consonant such as “b,” “d,” “m,” “p,” or “t”. Of course, even before they produce their first words, children are capable of understanding a fair amount of the language they hear. After the age of 1 year, children begin to learn more complicated forms of language. They produce two-word combinations, which become the building blocks of sentences, and the number of different words they are capable of using increases sharply. By the age of 2 years, the average child has a vocabulary of more than fifty words. Just six months later, that vocabulary has grown to several hundred words. At that time, children can produce short sentences, although they use telegraphic speech—sentences that sound as if they were part of a telegram, in which words not critical to the message are left out. Rather than saying, “I showed you the book,” a child using telegraphic speech might say, “I show book”
- By age 3, children learn to make plurals by adding “s” to nouns and to form the past tense by adding “ed” to verbs. This ability also leads to errors, since children tend to apply rules too inflexibly. This phenomenon is known as overgeneralization, whereby children apply rules even when the application results in an error. Thus, although it is correct to say “he walked” for the past tense of “walk,” the “ed” rule doesn’t work quite so well when children say “he runned” for the past tense of “run” (Marcus, 1996).
- The learning-theory approach suggests that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning discussed in Chapter 5. For example, a child who utters the word “mama” is hugged and praised by her mother, which reinforces the behavior and makes its repetition more likely. This view suggests that children first learn to speak by being rewarded for making sounds that approximate speech. Ultimately, through a process of shaping, language becomes more and more like adult speech (Skinner, 1957). The learning theory approach is supported by research that shows that the more parents speak to their young children, the more proficient the children become in language usage (see Figure 8-11). The learning theory approach is less successful when it comes to explaining the acquisition of language rules. Children are reinforced not only when they use proper language, but also when they respond incorrectly. Pointing to such problems with learning theory approaches to language acquisition, Noam Chomsky (1968, 1978, 1991), a linguist, provided a ground-breaking alternative. Chomsky argued that humans are born with an innate linguistic capability that emerges primarily as a function of maturation. According to his analysis, all the world’s languages share a similar underlying structure called a universal grammar. Chomsky suggests that the human brain has a neural system, the language-acquisition device, that both permits the understanding of the structure of language and provides strategies and techniques for learning the unique characteristics of a given native language.
- The contention that the Eskimo language is particularly abundant in snow-related terms led to the linguistic-relativity hypothesis, the notion that language shapes and, in fact, may determine the way people of a particular culture perceive and understand the world (Whorf, 1956; Lucy, 1992, 1996; Smith, 1996). According to this view, language provides us with categories that we use to construct our view of people and events in the world around us. Consequently, language shapes and produces thought. Let’s consider another possibility, however. Suppose that, instead of language being the cause of certain ways of thinking, thought produces language. The only reason to expect that Eskimo language might have more words for “snow” than English is that snow is considerably more relevant to Eskimos than it is to people in other cultures. Which view is correct? Most recent research refutes the linguistic-relativity hypothesis and suggests, instead, that thinking produces language. In fact, new analyses of the Eskimo language suggest that Eskimos have no more words for snow than English speakers, and that if one examines the English language closely, it is hardly impoverished when it comes to describing snow (consider, for example, sleet, slush, blizzard, dusting, and avalanche). In short, most current research is unsupportive of the linguistic-relativity hypothesis. It seems most appropriate to conclude that thought generally influences language—and not the other way around (Brown, 1986; Pinker, 1990; Laws; McFadyen, 1996).
- To psychologists, intelligence is the capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges (Wechsler, 1975). psychologists who study intelligence have focused much of their attention on the development of intelligence tests, and have relied on such tests to identify a person’s level of intelligence. These tests have proven to be of great benefit in identifying students in need of special attention in school, in diagnosing cognitive difficulties, and in helping people make optimal educational and vocational choices. At the same time, their use has proven quite controversial, raising important social and educational issues.
- The forerunner of the modern IQ test was based on an uncomplicated, but completely wrong, assumption: that the size and shape of a person’s head could be used as an objective measure of intelligence. The idea was put forward by Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911), an eminent English scientist whose ideas in other domains proved to be considerably better than his notions about intelligence. Galton’s motivation to identify people of high intelligence stemmed from his prejudices. He sought to demonstrate the natural superiority of people of high social class (of which he was one) by showing that intelligence was inherited. He hypothesized that head configuration, being genetically determined, was related to brain size, and therefore related to intelligence. Galton’s theories proved wrong on virtually every count. Head size and shape were not related to intellectual performance, and subsequent research has found little relationship between brain size and intelligence. However, Galton’s work did have at least one desirable result: He was the first person to suggest that intelligence could be quantified and measured in an objective manner. Following Galton’s efforts, the first intelligence tests were developed by Alfred Binet (1857-1911). His tests followed a simple premise: If performance on certain tasks or test items improved with chronological, or physical, age, then performance could be used to distinguish more intelligent people from less intelligent ones within a particular age group. Using this principle, Binet, a French psychologist, devised the first formal intelligence test, which was designed to identify the “dullest” students in the Paris school system in order to provide them with remedial aid.
- On the basis of the Binet test, children were assigned a score relating to their mental age, the average age of individuals who achieve a particular level of performance on a test. For example, if the average 8-year-old answered, say, 45 items correct on a test, anyone who answered 45 items correct would be assigned a mental age of 8 years. Consequently, whether the person taking the test was 20 years old or 5 years old, each would have the same mental age of 8 years. Assigning a mental age to students provided an indication of their general level of performance. However, it did not allow for adequate comparisons among people of different chronological ages. By using mental age alone, for instance, we might assume that a 20-year-old responding at a 18-year-old’s level would be as bright as a 5-year-old answering at a 3-year-old’s level, when actually the 5-year-old would be displaying a much greater relative degree of slowness. A solution to the problem came in the form of the intelligence quotient, or IQ, a score that takes into account an individual’s mental and chronological ages. To calculate an IQ score, the following formula is used, in which MA stands for mental age and CA for chronological age: IQ score = MA x 100 CA Although the basic principles behind the calculation of an IQ score still hold, IQ scores actually are figured in a different manner today and are known as deviation IQ scores. First, the average test score for everyone of the same age who takes the test is determined, and this average score is assigned an IQ of 100. Then, with the aid of statistical techniques that calculate the differences (or “deviations”) between each score and the average, IQ scores are assigned.
- Remnants of Binet’s original intelligence test are still with us, although it has been revised in significant ways. Now in its fourth edition and called the Stanford-Binet IV, the test consists of a series of items that vary in nature according to the age of the person being tested (Hagen, Sattler, & Thorndike, 1985; Thorndike, Hagan, & Sattler, 1986). For example, young children are asked to copy figures or answer questions about everyday activities. Older people are asked to solve analogies, explain proverbs, and describe similarities that underlie sets of words. By examining the pattern of correct and incorrect responses, the examiner is able to compute an IQ score for the person being tested. In addition, the Stanford Binet provides separate subscores, providing clues to a test-taker’s particular strengths and weaknesses. The IQ test most frequently used in the United States was devised by psychologist David Wechsler and is known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—III, or, more commonly, the WAIS-III. There is also a children’s version, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—III, or WISC-III. Both the WAIS-III and the WISC-III have two major parts: a verbal scale and a performance (or nonverbal) scale. As you can see from the sample questions in Figure 9-2, the two scales include questions of very different types. Verbal tasks consist of more traditional kinds of problems, including vocabulary definition and comprehension of various concepts. In contrast, the performance (nonverbal) part involves the timed assembly of small objects and arranging pictures in a logical order. Although an individual’s scores on the verbal and performance sections of the test are generally within close range of each other, the scores of a person with a language deficiency or a background of severe environmental deprivation may show a relatively large discrepancy between the two scores. By providing separate scores, the WAIS-III and WISC-III give a more precise picture of a person’s specific abilities than other IQ tests (Kaufman & Lichtenberger, 1999).
- An achievement test is a test designed to determine a person’s level of knowledge in a given subject area. Rather than measuring general ability, as an intelligence test does, an achievement test concentrates on the specific material that a person has learned. High school students sometimes take specialized achievement tests in particular areas such as world history or chemistry as a college entrance requirement; lawyers must pass an achievement test (in the form of the bar exam) in order to practice law. An aptitude test is designed to predict a person’s ability in a particular area or line of work. Most of us take one of the best-known aptitude tests in the process of pursuing admission to college: the SAT and ACT. The SAT and ACT are meant to predict how well people will do in college, and the scores have proven over the years to be moderately correlated with college grades.
- In the same way, we hope that psychological tests have reliability—that they measure consistently what they are trying to measure. We need to be sure that each time we administer the test, a test-taker will achieve the same results—assuming that nothing about the person has changed relevant to what is being measured. A test has validity when it actually measures what it is supposed to measure. Knowing that a test is reliable is no guarantee that it is also valid. For instance, Sir Francis Galton assumed that skull size was related to intelligence, and he was able to measure skull size with great reliability. However, the measure of skull size was not valid—it had nothing to do with intelligence. In this case, then, we have reliability without validity. On the other hand, if a test is unreliable, it cannot be valid. Test validity and reliability are prerequisites for accurate assessment of intelligence—as well as for any other measurement task carried out by psychologists. Assuming that a test is both valid and reliable, one further step is necessary in order to interpret the meaning of a particular test-taker’s score: the establishment of norms. Norms are standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score on the test to the scores of others who have taken the same test. For example, a norm permits test-takers to know that they have scored, say, in the top 15 percent of those who have taken the test previously. Tests for which norms have been developed are known as standardized tests..
- One central question addressed by researchers is whether intelligence is a single, unitary factor, or whether it is made up of multiple components. Early psychologists interested in intelligence assumed that there was a single, general factor for mental ability, which they called g, or g-factor (Spearman, 1927). This general intelligence factor was thought to underlie performance on every aspect of intelligence, and it was the g-factor that was presumably being measured on tests of intelligence (Jensen, 1998; Mackintosh, 1998). Fluid and crystallized intelligence. More recently, some psychologists have suggested that there are really two different kinds of intelligence: fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence (Cattell, 1967, 1987). Fluid intelligence reflects information processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory. If we were asked to solve an analogy, group a series of letters according to some criterion, or to remember a set of numbers, we would be using fluid intelligence. In contrast, crystallized intelligence is the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that people have learned through experience and that they can apply in problem-solving situations. We would be likely to rely on crystallized intelligence, for instance, if we were asked to participate in a discussion about the solution to the causes of poverty, a task that allows us to draw upon our own past experiences and knowledge of the world. The differences between fluid and crystallized intelligence become particularly evident in the elderly, who—as we will discuss further in Chapter 10—show declines in fluid, but not crystallized, intelligence (Schaie, 1993, 1994; Schretlen, 2000).
- In his consideration of intelligence, psychologist Howard Gardner has taken a very different approach from traditional thinking about the topic. Gardner argues that rather than asking “How smart are you,” we should be asking a different question: “How are you smart?” In answering the latter question, Gardner has developed a theory of multiple intelligences that has become quite influential (Chen & Gardner, 1997). Gardner argues that we have eight different forms of intelligence (described in Figure 9-5), each relatively independent of the others. He suggests that each of the multiple intelligences is linked to an independent system in the brain (Gardner, 1997, 1999). Although Gardner illustrates his conception of the specific types of intelligence with descriptions of well-known people, each of us has the same eight kinds of intelligence, although in different degrees. Moreover, although the eight are presented individually, Gardner suggests that these separate intelligences do not operate in isolation. Normally, any activity encompasses several kinds of intelligence working together. Gardner’s theory has led to the development of intelligence tests that include questions in which more than one answer can be correct, providing the opportunity for test takers to demonstrate creative thinking. These tests are based on the idea that different kinds of intelligence may produce different—but equally valid—responses to the same question.
- Practical intelligence is intelligence related to overall success in living Noting that traditional tests were designed to relate to academic success, Sternberg points to evidence showing that IQ does not relate particularly well to career success Sternberg argues that career success requires a very different type of intelligence from academic success. Whereas academic success is based on knowledge of a particular information base obtained from reading and listening, practical intelligence is learned mainly through observation of others’ behavior. People who are high in practical intelligence are able to learn general norms and principles and apply them appropriately. Emotional intelligence is the set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions (Goleman, 1995; Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Salovey & Sluyter, 1997). According to psychologist Daniel Goleman (1995), emotional intelligence underlies the ability to get along well with others. It provides us with the understanding of what other people are feeling and experiencing, and permits us to respond appropriately to others’ needs. Emotional intelligence is the basis of empathy for others, self-awareness, and social skills. Abilities in emotional intelligence may help explain why people with only modest IQ scores can be quite successful, despite their lack of traditional intelligence. High emotional intelligence may enable an individual to tune into others’ feelings, permitting a high degree of responsiveness to others.
- Although sometimes thought of as a rare phenomenon, mental retardation occurs in 1 to 3 percent of the population. There is wide variation among those labeled as mentally retarded, in large part because of the inclusiveness of the definition developed by the American Association on Mental Retardation. below-average intellectual functioning, plus limitations in at least two areas of adaptive functioning The association suggests that mental retardation exists when there is significantly involving communication skills, self-care, ability to live independently, social skills, community involvement, self direction, health and safety, academics, or leisure and work (AAMR, 1992; Burack, Hodapp, & Zigler, 1998). While below average intellectual functioning can be measured in a relatively straightforward manner—using standard IQ tests—it is more difficult to determine how to gauge limitations in particular adaptive skill areas. Ultimately, this imprecision leads to a lack of uniformity in how experts apply the label of “mental retardation.” Furthermore, it has resulted in significant variation in the abilities of people who are categorized as mentally retarded, ranging from those who can be taught to work and function with little special attention, to those who virtually cannot be trained and must receive institutional treatment throughout their lives (Durkin & Stein, 1996; Negrin & Capute, 1996; Detterman, Gabriel, & Ruthsatz, 2000).
- Most people with mental retardation have relatively minor deficits and are classified as having mild retardation. These individuals, who have IQ scores ranging from 55 to 69, constitute some 90 percent of all people with mental retardation. Although their development is typically slower than that of their peers, they can function quite independently by adulthood and are able to hold jobs and have families of their own. At greater levels of retardation—moderate retardation (IQs of 40 to 54), severe retardation (IQs of 25 to 39), and profound retardation (IQs below 25)—the difficulties are more pronounced. For people with moderate retardation, deficits are obvious early, with language and motor skills lagging behind those of peers. Although these individuals can hold simple jobs, they need to have a moderate degree of supervision throughout their lives. Individuals with severe and profound mental retardation are generally unable to function independently and typically require care for their entire lives.
- The most common biological cause of retardation is Down syndrome, exemplified by Mindie Crutcher in the Prologue of this chapter. Down syndrome occurs due to the presence of an extra chromosome. In other cases of mental retardation, an abnormality occurs in the structure of a chromosome. Birth complications, such as a temporary lack of oxygen, may also cause retardation (Simonoff, Bolton, & Rutter, 1996; Selikowitz, 1997). The majority of cases of mental retardation are classified as familial retardation, in which no known biological defect exists, but there is a history of retardation within the family. Whether the family background of retardation is caused by environmental factors, such as extreme continuous poverty leading to malnutrition, or by some underlying genetic factor, is usually impossible to determine. Regardless of the cause of mental retardation, important advances in the care and treatment of those with retardation have been made in the last several decades. Much of this change was instigated by the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (Public Law 94-142). In this federal law, Congress ruled that people with retardation are entitled to a full education and that they must be educated and trained in the least restrictive environment. The law increased the educational opportunities for individuals with mental retardation, facilitating their integration into regular classrooms as much as possible—a process known as mainstreaming (Hocutt, 1996; Lloyd, Kameenui, & Chard, 1997). Some educators argue that an alternative to mainstreaming, called full inclusion, might be more effective. Full inclusion is the integration of all students, even those with the most severe educational disabilities, into regular classes. Teacher aides are assigned to help the children with special needs progress. Schools having full inclusion have no separate special education classes. However, full inclusion is a controversial practice, and it is not yet widely applied (Kellegrew, 1996; Hocutt, 1996; Siegel, 1996a).
- Composing 2 to 4 percent of the population, the intellectually gifted have IQ scores greater than 130. Although the stereotype associated with the gifted suggests that they are awkward, shy, social misfits unable to get along well with peers, most research indicates that just the opposite is true. Like Greg Smith, described in the Prologue, the intellectually gifted are most often outgoing, well-adjusted, popular people who are able to do most things better than the average person For example, in a long-term study by psychologist Lewis Terman that started in the early 1920s and is still going on, 1500 children who had IQ scores above 140 were followed and examined periodically over the next sixty years ( Terman & Oden, 1947; Sears, 1977). From the start, members of this group were more physically, academically, and socially capable than their nongifted peers. They were generally healthier, taller, heavier, and stronger than average. Not surprisingly, they did better in school as well. They also showed better social adjustment than average. And all these advantages paid off in terms of career success: As a group, the gifted received more awards and distinctions, earned higher incomes, and made more contributions in art and literature than typical individuals. Of course, not every member of the group Terman studied was successful. Furthermore, high intelligence is not a homogeneous quality; a person with a high overall IQ is not necessarily gifted in every academic subject, but may excel in just one or two. A high IQ, then, is no universal guarantee of success (Shurkin, 1992; Winner, 2000).
- In an attempt to produce a culture-fair IQ test, one that does not discriminate against members of any minority group, psychologists have tried to devise test items that assess experiences common to all cultures or emphasize questions that do not require language usage. However, test makers have found this difficult to do, because past experiences, attitudes, and values almost always have an impact on respondents’ answers. The efforts of psychologists to produce culture-fair measures of intelligence relate to a lingering controversy over differences in intelligence between members of minority and majority groups. In attempting to identify whether there are differences between such groups, psychologists have had to confront the broader issue of determining the relative contribution to intelligence of genetic factors (heredity) and experience (environment)—the nature-nurture issue that we first discussed in Chapter 1 Richard Herrnstein, a psychologist, and Charles Murray, a sociologist, fanned the flames of the debate with the publication of their book, The Bell Curve, in the mid-1990s. They argued that an analysis of IQ differences between whites and blacks demonstrated that, although environmental factors played a role, there were also basic genetic differences between the two races. Intelligence in general shows a high degree of heritability, a measure of the degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors. However, many psychologists reacted strongly to the arguments laid out in The Bell Curve, refuting several of the book’s contentions. For one thing, even when attempts are made to hold socioeconomic conditions constant, wide variations remain among individual households. Furthermore, no one can convincingly assert that living conditions of blacks and whites are identical even when their socioeconomic status is similar. It is also crucial to remember that IQ scores and intelligence have greatest relevance in terms of individuals, not groups. In fact, considering group racial differences presents some conceptually troublesome distinctions. Consequently, drawing comparisons between different races on any dimension, including IQ scores, is an imprecise, potentially misleading, and often fruitless venture. By far, the greatest discrepancies in IQ scores occur when comparing individuals, and not when comparing mean IQ scores of different groups. Other issues make the heredity-versus-environment debate somewhat irrelevant to practical concerns. For example, as we discussed earlier, there are multiple kinds of intelligence, and traditional IQ scores do not tap many of them. Furthermore, IQ scores are often inadequate predictors of ultimate occupational success.