Winter 2011 • Morality in Education 35Workplace Bullying .docx

Winter 2011 • Morality in Education 35
Workplace Bullying: Costly and
Preventable
By Terry L Wiedmer
W orkplace bullying is a pervasive practice by malicious
individuals who seekpower, control,domination, and
subjugation. In businesses or schools, such bullying is an
inefficient
way of working that is both costly and preventable. Senior
management and executives are
ultimately responsible for creating and sustaining bully-free
workplaces. Workplace bullies can be
stopped if employees and employers work together to establish
and enforce appropriate workplace
policies and practices. This article presents information about
workplace bullying, including its
prevalence, targeted individuals, bullying behaviors, employer
practices, and steps to prevent
bullying. In the end, leadership and an environment of respect
provide the ultimate formula for
stopping workplace bullying.
Bullying occurs between and among people in all venues—in
the home, community, and

workplace. It is a pervasive, targeted, and planned effort that
can be overtly obvious or
can fly under the radar and is conducted by practiced and
malicious individuals who seek
power, control, domination, and subjugation. The impacts of
such actions—in terms of
finances, emotions, health, morale, and overall productivity—
are destructive, and the
ramifications are limitless (Mattice, 2009). Because no one is
immune from the potential of
being subjected to bullying in the workplace, this topic merits
further review and analysis
(Van Dusen, 2008). :
To combat workplace bullying, often referred to as
psychological harassment or
violence (Workplace Bullying Institute [WBI], 2007),
employers must have a full range of
policies in place and means available to them to create and
maintain a healthy workplace
culture and climate. Although they are not generally for-profit
endeavors, schools and
school systems are purposeful businesses that share the same
concerns and have the same
responsibility to ensure that each employee works in a
respectful environment and is not
subjected to workplace bullies.
Workplace Bullying •
According to the Workforce Bullying Institute (WBI),
workplace bullying is
the repeated, health-harming mistreatment of one or more
persons (the targets)
by one or more perpetrators that takes one or more of the
following forms: verbal

abuse; offensive conduct/behaviors (including nonverbal) which
are threatening,
humiliating, or intimidating; and work interference—sabotage—
which prevents
work from getting done. (Definition of Workplace Bullying,
para. 1)
Bullies seek to induce harm, jeopardize one's career and job,
and destroy interpersonal
relationships. The behaviors of bullies harm people and ravage
profits.
36 The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin
Prevalence of Workplace Bullying
Thirty-seven percent of U.S. workforce members report being
bullied at work; this amounts
to an estimated 54 million Americans, which translates to nearly
the entire population of
the states of Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, Arizona,
and Utah (Namie, 2007).
These statistics are based on the August 2007 responses of
7,740 participants in the
online WBI-Zogby U.S. Workplace Bullying Survey; the
respondents comprised a sample
representative of all American adults. The WBI-Zogby survey is
the largest scientific
study of bullying in the United States. Other key and depressing
findings of the 2007
study included the following:
• Most bullies are bosses (72%);
• 60% of bullies are men;
• 57% of targets are women;

• Bullying is four times more prevalent than illegal forms of
harassment;
• 62% of employers ignore or worsen the problem;
• 45% of targets suffer stress-related health problems;
• 40% of bullied individuals never tell their employers; and
• only 3% of bullied people file lawsuits. (WBI, Key Findings,
para. 2)
These workplace bullying activities resulted in the targets
reporting stress-related health
problems such as debilitating anxiety, panic attacks, clinical
depression, and even post-
traumatic stress (WBI).
Another significant finding of the WBI-Zogby survey was that,
in 72% of cases,
bullies had control over the targets' livelihood and consequently
used this leverage to inflict
pain or to block transfers, thus forcing employees to quit or lose
their jobs (Namie, 2007).
In addition to having to leave a job or a profession of choice,
other reported economic
impacts imposed by bullies included the target being forced to
transfer (13%), being
discharged without reasonable cause (24%), and quitting to
address a decline in health and
sanity (40%) (Namie, 2007). Controlling bullies seek to make
targets resign, which results
in unemployment, loss of health insurance, and the inability to
seek medical attention.
Accordingly, the bottom line is that all members of society pay
for the consequences
of unacceptable workplace behaviors and practices. According
to the WBI, workplace
bullying is thus a silent epidemic.

Profiles of Targets
The WBI (2007) reported that 61% of bullying occurs within the
same gender, and 7 1 % of
female bullies target other women. In 2000, a WBI study found
that veteran employees—
often the best and brightest, not the weakest—are often selected
to be targets (WBI,
2010). Bullies typically target individual(s) they perceive to
pose a threat. Skilled targets
are often sabotaged by insecure bully bosses who take credit for
the work of the targets,
who are thus not recognized or rewarded for their talents and
contributions.
Based on findings from thousands of interviews in 2000, the
WBI researchers
Dr. Terry L. Wiedmer is an associate professor of curriculum in
the Educational
Studies Department of Teachers College at Ball State
University, Muncie, IN.
She currently teaches undergraduate teacher education courses
and graduate
courses specializing in supervision and instruction, staff
development, and
public relations. A 32-year member of Delta Kappa Gamma, Dr.
Wiedmer
belongs to Beta Mu Chapter, IN, and serves on the research
committee. She
is a graduate of the 1983 DKG Leadership Management
Seminar, recipient
of an Ola B. Hiller International Scholarship, and grantee of an
Educational '. - -
Foundation Self-initiated Study Grant, [email protected]

confirmed workplace bullies typically target independent
employees who refuse to
be subservient. Furthermore, in 2010 WBI confirmed that
targets were typically more
technically skilled than the bullies and that they were the "go
to" veteran employees from
whom new workers sought guidance. Collectively, the targets
were reportedly better liked,
had more social skills, likely possessed higher emotional
intelligence, and were appreciated
by colleagues, customers, and management (bullies excluded)
for the warmth and care
they brought to the workplace (WBI, Who Gets Targeted). The
principal weapons that
bullying bosses and coworkers reportedly employed were
alienating these targets from
social interaction and withholding validation. As a result,
coworkers often chose to separate
themselves from the target out of fear of being the next victims
(WBI, 2010).
Ethics and honesty are attributes often commonly possessed by
targets. In particular,
whistle blowers who expose illegal or fraudulent behaviors are
most vulnerable to being
bullied. Targets can be typified as morally superior to bullies
due to their generally
nonconfrontational, prosocial orientation focused on a desire to
help, heal, teach, develop,
and nurture others (Namie, 2007).
Practices of Employers and the Rights and Responsibilities of
Targets

Employers have a moral and social responsibility to protect
employees from bullying and
to safeguard those who comprise their workforce. Employees
need to be aware of bullying
practices and knowledgeable about their rights and
responsibilities, but ultimately managers
and supervisors are the key players who are responsible for
building and maintaining healthy
and bully-free work cultures. When managers and supervisors
commit time and effort to
talk with their employees about the ecology of relationships in
the workplace, employees
better understand what factors foster the evolution of bullying.
Such conversations can
aid in policy refinement, improved employee guidance, and
professional-development
initiatives that contribute to a healthy and bully-free workplace.
Employees deserve and should be assured their place of
employment is one where
respect and civility prevail. Managers, supervisors, and other
identified leaders of employees
need to be foot soldiers to lead the fight against bullying—to
identify bullies, to protect
the bullied, and to intervene and stop bullying behaviors
(Namie, 2007). Employees need
to feel physically, emotionally, and socially safe and to believe
they are valued and belong.
Practices of Bullies
Bullying is typically a series of calculated incidents that
accumulate over time, carefully
planned and executed by the bully to avoid legal grounds for
grievance or disciplinary
actions (Bully Online). Bullies may engage in some or all of the
following behaviors toward

their target(s): t- -
• consciously undermine the position, status, worth, value, and
potential;
• marginalize, ignore, overrule, and freeze out;
• set unrealistic (and even undesirable) goals, timelines, and
expectations;
• distort, misrepresent, and twist anything said or done;
• single out, treat one differently from others, or ostracize;
• increase responsibility and simultaneously reduce authority;
• overload with work or have work taken away to trivialize
existence;
• deny leave, even when provided for contractually;
• steal or plagiarize work and take credit for it;
• deny opportunities for training that are requisite for job
performance; and
• coerce into leaving (constructive dismissal) through no fault
of the target and
activate early or ill-health retirement (Bully Online, para. 2).
Profile of the Typical Workplace Bully
Bullies engage in predictable and recurring practices to debase
and debilitate their targets
(Bully Online). Individuals who engage in such uncivil and
amoral workplace bullying
tactics demonstrate common elements and behaviors. Are any of
these behaviors evident
in your workplace? If so, you, too, may be subject to potentially
being bullied. Workplace
bullies often

• possess a Jekyll and Hyde nature (vindictive in private but
charming in public);
• display self-assuredness and certitude to mask insecurity;
• portray self as wonderful, kind, caring, and compassionate,
but actual behaviors
contradict this self-crafted persona;
• cannot distinguish between leadership and bullying behaviors;
• counter attack and deny everything when asked to clarify;
• manipulate others through guilt;
• are obsessed with controlling others;
• use charm and behave in an appropriate manner when
superiors or others are
present;
• are convincing and compulsive liars in order to account for
matters at hand; and
• excel at deception, lack a conscience, and are dysfunctional
(Bully Online, para. 3).
At times every employee may demonstrate one or more of these
behaviors. The key,
however, is to monitor whether or not the behaviors are
recurring and predictable with an
intended outcome to cause harm. The target must document and
record accurately when
suspected bullying occurs should a need arise to stop bullying
behaviors.
Stopping Bullying
To stop bullying in the workplace requires time, input, policy
changes, and a company
culture that does not tolerate bullies. To help managers and
supervisors maintain a civilized
workforce and handle bullying, Alsever (2008) outlined and
recommended the following

five-step process: (a) understand what constitutes bullying and
recognize it in action, (b)
act fast to show that the company will not tolerate bad behavior,
(c) enforce a clear action
plan, (d) devise a policy for a civilized workplace, and (e)
screen for bullies in the recruiting
process.
Serial violators need to be identified and stopped in their tracks.
Policies, rules, and
practices must be in place to make workplaces safe and
conducive to workers producing
at peak levels. Bullying hurts the bottom line through lost
productivity, low morale, the
departure of experienced workers, and higher health care costs
for stressed-out victims
(Ceridian Services, 2008, para. 12).
Chief executive officers, including school superintendents, can
ill afford to mislead
their supervisors, managers, and human resource personnel
about the level of bullying in
their workplaces. Efforts to cover up bullying may include no
reporting, under-reporting,
leveling no punishment, dismissal of the bullied, and promotion
of the bully (WBI, How
Bullying Happens). Left unaddressed, bullying can rapidly
evolve into a serious workplace
health issue.
Steps to Take
To reduce workplace bullying effectively, employees need to
know that they are supported.
The bottom line is that the employer's return on investment is
dependent on the work

produced in the workplace. If work is not completed
successfully in a business, finances will
suffer and the losses will inspire management to make
adjustments. If workers in schools
and school systems cannot be productive because of workplace
bullying, the bottom line of
student achievement is impacted. Thus, employers and school
leaders need to take positive
steps to address bullying with commitment and intensity.
First, put a policy in place. Second, address directly any
reported or suspected
bullying—regardless of who is reported. Third, identify
resources and solutions and
make them available to remedy a suspected problem. Those who
manage and supervise
employees ultimately represent and enforce workplace policies.
They need to be competent
and proactive in employee rights, as well as engage in
leadership behaviors that create and
enforce bully-free environments.
Put a policy in place. Workplace policies and procedures for
addressing bullying
may include disciplinary and legal consequences, additional
supervision and oversight,
training or counseling, and relationship-building
activities. An extremely important aspect of
policy and procedure is to have clear, detailed, and T^n<itiiJP
ílYíA
accurate documentation. Once reported, bullying

incidents should be monitored and tracked over relationships
time to chronicle the incident reportage, steps i i i i i
taken, outcomes realized, and effectiveness of and tlOe
ftnOWleClge
strategies employed. By tracking instances of -Ji Í / 7
^ , i' y y I . a concern will be taken
transgression, employers can use the information
gained to formulate preventative measures, SeriOUsly are
Critical
identify alternative interventions, and guide
professional development for all employees. COmpOnentS tO
preventing
Employees and supervisors need to be aware i j .
of the most up-to-date policies and practices to ^ ^ ^ remedying
ensure report assessment and implementation
of appropriate actions. Timely implementation
of policies is critical to initiate intervention, alert
the parties involved, bring attention to the matter, monitor the
situation, and address
underlying, contributing problems. In extreme cases, it may be
necessary to involve law
enforcement officials. •
As part of policy, employers should incorporate regular and
ongoing climate
assessments for all employees in order to record their
perceptions of workplace bullying,
and the results of these assessments should be made public.
Recognizing their responsibility
to stop and prevent bullying, employers must ensure that
policies are clearly outlined
to mandate that managers and supervisors not only report
bullying acts but also work
quickly to protect bullied employee(s) from retaliation and

further harm while resolving
the situation.
Address reported or suspected bullying directly. A tremendous
disconnect often
occurs between what employees and employers believe to be the
existence and degree of
workplace bullying. To resolve this discrepancy, or at least
narrow the divide, employers
must encourage and enable all members of the workforce to
report possible bullying
incidents in a timely manner and, even more importantly, ensure
an expeditious, fair, and
ethical review and evaluation of suspected bullying incidences.
They cannot allow a code
of silence—often prevalent in bullying cases—to exist. Positive
and trusting relationships
among adults and the knowledge that a concern will be taken
seriously are critical
components to preventing and remedying bullying.
Employees must be able to go to a person(s) who can be trusted
and who will respond
to the matter in a concerned, proactive, and supportive way.
Having such a trusted individual
is key, because all too often the bully is the supervisor. In the
case of schools, employee
options may include going to a department chairperson,
principal, human resource officer,
or the superintendent. Multiple avenues are necessary if the
bullying is endemic, or it will

be nearly impossible to achieve recourse and resolution. Friends
and coworkers of bullied
individuals need to feel free and safe to speak up when they
witness bullying behaviors,
and employers have a responsibility to support employees in
identifying and resolving
troublesome behaviors without violence. Workplace cultural
norms can either foster or
eliminate bullying, depending on how superiors react to
supported or suspected incidents.
In short, unless actions are taken to address the underlying work
culture and climate
conditions that precipitated or allowed for bullying, such
behaviors will continue.
Even more importantly, employers must carefully guard
workplace climate by
recognizing that bullying seldom occurs in isolation. Aggressive
or bullying individuals
typically seek out and befriend like individuals. When managers
and supervisors model
bullying behavior in the workplace, they unfortunately serve to
normalize workplace-
bullying behaviors. In such settings, when the managers or
supervisors are the perpetrators
and when they ignore or minimize the situation, employees
report a diminished allegiance
to and effort expended in their workplaces. Similarly, managers
and supervisors are
often less proactive and persistent in addressing and resolving
bullying behavior among
employees when human resource managers and chief executive
officers are less focused on
enforcing policies.
Identify resources and solutions. Employee training and

awareness of anti-buUying
policies and procedures that comprehensively address the issue
of workplace bullying
are key. The message must be clear wherever bullying behavior
may occur—the office,
lunchroom, parking lot, classroom, assembly line, cell phone, or
the Internet—it will not
be tolerated. Employers must establish and publicize systems to
support employees and to
address bullying behaviors and interpersonal conflicts. For
example, rather than fighting,
shutting down, or giving in to a bully, targets need to stay
engaged and do their work. They
need to maintain a calm and professional demeanor, remain
engaged and focused, and
plan ahead to deescalate a situation before it occurs (Ross,
2007-2009). The success of the
school or business depends on all employees knowing where
they can go for assistance and
on their learning and practicing necessary skills to address
workplace bullying.
A Respectful Workplace
Cade (2010), a workplace-bullying expert, identified three
things leaders can do to create
iL respectful workplace where bullying is not allowed to exist:
(a) show appreciation, (b)
treat employees like insiders, and (c) demonstrate empathy for
problems. She further
suggested that bullying rarely exists when all workers honor
each other as valuable; treat
one another with dignity; communicate to include, not exclude
or control; are heard by
another and respond with courtesy and curiosity; acknowledge
thoughts and feelings;
ask—do not order or yell or swear; provide clear and

informative answers to questions
that are legitimately their business; know the right to receive
encouragement and support;
speak of others positively; and seek to connect and build
communication for all parties as
opposed to positioning for control (Cade, 2010, para. 2).
Everyone's Responsibility
Elimination of workplace bullying is the responsibility of all
employees; however, senior
management and executives are ultimately responsible for
creating and sustaining bully-
free workplaces. In school settings, key leaders such as
superintendents, human resource
officers, principals, supervisors, and department heads must
guide the educational
workforce to recognize and report bullying within their ranks.
By launching united efforts,
defining and implementing clear policies, putting model
practices in place, and having the
courage to stand up against bullies, individuals in all lines of
work can stop workplace
bullying. The simple formula of combining leadership with an
environment of respect will
contribute to the well-being of all employees and make an
improved and healthy work
climate and culture a reality.
References
Alsever, J. (2008, October 20). How to handle a workplace
bully. Retrieved from http://www.bnet.com/article/how-to-

handle-a
-workplace-buUy/242687
Bully Online. United Kin^dotn National Workplace Bullying
Advice Line. Retrieved from
http://www.bullyonUnc.org/workbuny
/amibeing.htm
Cade, V. (2010,July 7). 10-point assessment: What is respect?
Remeved from http://www.bullyfreeatwork.com/blog/ipsl289
Ceridian Services. (2008, August). The workplace bully and the
bottom line. Ceridian Connection. Retrieved from http://www
.ceridian.com/eap_article/l,6266,15757-69778,00.html
Mattice, C. (n.d.) What is workplace bullying? No Workplace
Bullies. Retrieved from http://noworkplacebullies.com/
Matrice, C. (2009). Successful learning organizations
understand the power of positive workplaces. Retrieved from
http://noworkplacebullies.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Ki
rkpatrick_Article.36120227.pdf
Namie, G. (2007, September). Workplace Bullying Institute &
Zogby International. U.S. Workplace Bullying Survey
[Electronic
Version]. Retrieved from
http://www.workpIacebullying.org/docs/WBIsurvey2007.pdf
Ross, M. (2007-2009). Workplace bullies: How to best the
business bullies. Retrieved from
http://www.Kamaron.org/Dealing-With
-The-Business-Customer-Bullies
VanDusen, A. (2008, March). Ten signs you're being bullied at

work. Retrieved from http://forbes.com/2008/03/22/health-
bullying
-ofBce-fbrbeslife-cx_avd_0324health.html
Workplace Bullying Institute. Definition of Workplace
Bullying. Retrieved from
http://www.workplacebullying.org/targets/problem
/definition.html
Workplace Bullying Institute. How bullying happens. Retrieved
from http://www.workplacebullying.org/targets/problem/why
-bullies-bully.html
Workplace Bullying Institute. Who gets targeted. Retrieved
from http://www.workplacebullying.org/targets/problem/who-
gets
-targeted.html
Workplace Bullying Institute. (2007). Results of the WBI U.S.
Workplace Survey. Retrieved from
http://www.workplacebullying.org
/docs/WBIsurvey2007.paf
Workplace Bullying Institute. (2010). Frequently asked
questions. Retrieved from
http://www.workplacebullying.org/faq.html
Copyright of Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin is the property of
Delta Kappa Gamma Society International and its
content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted
to a listserv without the copyright holder's
express written permission. However, users may print,

download, or email articles for individual use.
Fehr, E., Kirchsteiger, G., & Riedl, A. (1993). Does fairness
prevent market clearing? An experimental investigation. The
quarterly journal of economics, 108(2), 437-459.
Experimental Design
Actually this research project was supported financially by
the Austrian Science Foundation. It is given to make the
analysis of the decisional behavior in market level. The aim of
this experiment is to let the researchers designed to give a two
staged game to examine the availability of the hypothesis of the
relationship between wage and effort from laborers. At the end
of the experiment, earnings of the participators would be
stacked up and given to the participants by cash. The 1st stage
of the experiment is an auction but orally and has only one side.
They let employers, also the buyers acted as bidders which six
people in total and nine of the participants acted as workers,
also the sellers. Additionally, this 1st stage experiment took
approximately three minutes. For the 2nd stage, the price of the
traded goods would be decided by the sellers. In the trade, the
price of the goods were the same. The sellers could choose their
customers as who they want and buyers could select any sellers
as they like. However, when the buyers asked price of the
goods, they need to negotiate the information (including prices,
the willingness to buy the products and etc.) by the phone
instead of meeting each other directly. Researchers denoted p as
price in the paper. Furthermore, all the employers and
employees were located into two different rooms. In each room,
there were two supervisors who exchanged the messages for
sellers and buyers by telephone. The participants did not know
the identifications of each other. The information about price
and choice made by participants were written down in public.
In the 1st stage, workers could receive the wage which
researchers denoted as p in this paper. If workers could not
admit the previous offer, it means the offer that they wanted to

accept should be higher than the one that they rejected it. For
the seller and buyers who traded unsuccessfully in the 1st stage
would earn no profit. For the 2nd stage, sellers could pick up
their working contracts in a nameless way. The combination of
the 1st stage and the 2nd stage called one period and there were
12 periods in summary. The effort level that participants made
in this experiment denoted as e in this research.
In the hypothesis part, researchers set up three
hypothesizes. The 1st hypothesis is in terms of the wage, the
level of the effort is rising. In addition, the content of the
hypothesis two is average wages in the experiment are
considerably greater than the market-clearing wage which is
c+tau (Fehr, E., Kirchsteiger, G., & Riedl, A.,1993). Tau here
was marked as the the attempt of effective involvement of
participation. One step further, when researchers combine the
1st and the 2nd hypothesis together, it came out the 3rd
hypothesis which stated that if the game was played, in each
period, the mean effectiveness level does not converge to e
minimum and this is different from it did beyond e minimum.
To test these three hypothesizes, researchers had three
regression models which are 1) e= alpha + beta* p + mu (mu is
the white noise). 2) 3)
Experimental Results
Firstly, the relationship between the wage and the effort is
positively related. Here is a table shows the result (insert table
2 and figure1) in figure 1, the line is upward sloping and so as
the plots. Also, they are positive related with each other.
Secondly, now more information about the 1st regression
model, hypothesis 1 could not be rejected when beta is
obviously larger than zero. In the table that can get the beta-
coefficient is positively and highly significant in all regressions
models.

Thirdly, move to the 2nd regression model, In Table IV, the
adjusted R^2S are about two times of the R^2S of Table III
showed above. Moreover, another result that researchers found
that intercept of the effort-wage relation differed across
workers. Authors inserted a dummy variable in the regression
which is d for workers.
Fourthly, pay attention on the 3rd regression model, the
coefficient of beta is significantly positive, but the R^2s are
lower than 3rd regression. The hypothesized that all thetas are
equal to alpha cannot be rejected. This shows that workers do
not perform significantly different in diverse periods. (i.e.
Theta equals to alpha)
In summary, tables III-V show the effort decision of the
workers depends positively on the wage, and on their fairness
but not on the time.
Eventually, r also gave some information of this
experiments. r is the evolution of the average relative
overpayment per period over time (Fehr, E., Kirchsteiger, G., &
Riedl, A.,1993). From Figure II, r is greater than zero in all
periods in whole sessions of experiments. r was decreasing in
the eleventh and twelfth periods so as in the periods of number
4 and 6. In session 2, r was almost the same in the last periods.
In session 3, there is a sharp decline in the ninth and tenth
periods. Then, except for session 1, r in the last period is
greater its value in the 1st five periods.
Blinder, Alan S., and Don H. Choi, "A Shred of Evidence on
Theories of Wage Stickiness," Quarterly journal of economics,
CV (1990), 1003-16.
Experimental Design(please summarize “ Findings on economic
Theories of Sticky Wages” part.page 1005-p1008. There are
three questions, please summarize questions one by one and
follow the structures that I show you below)
Question #1: One theory on why wages do not fall states that

workers do not like unpredictable changes in income. Therefore,
workers and employers negotiate a stable wage that does not
tend to fall during recessions or rise during booms. This steady
wage acts as a type of wage insurance for the worker. How
plausible or relevant does this seem as one reason why wages do
not fall?
(summarize the two paragraphs below this question in the paper
please)
Question #2: One theory on why wages do not fall states that
workers are concerned with how their wages compare to those
of other types of workers. Workers want to maintain a hierarchy
of wages for different types of workers, and resist wage
reductions because, unless they are across the board, they will
destroy traditional wage differentials. How plausible or relevant
does this seem as a reason why wages do not fall?
(summarize the three paragraphs below this question in the
paper please)
Question #3: There are two workers who are being considered
for the same job. As far as you can tell, based on interviews,
experience, education, and so forth, both workers are equally
well qualified. One of the workers agrees to work for the wage
you offer him. The other one says he needs more money to work
for you. Based on this difference, do you think one of these
workers is likely to be an inherently more productive workers?
(summarize the four paragraphs below this question in the
paper please)
Experimental Results
(Please summarize next part called “fairness and wage
stickiness” page 1008-p1010)
Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004). Are Emily and Greg
more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A field experiment
on labor market discrimination. American economic review,
94(4), 991-1013.
Experimental Design (please summarize part called

“experimental design” page 994-p997 )
A. Creating a bank of resumes (please summarize the
paragraphs belongs to this part)
B. Identities of Fictitious Applicants (please summarize the
C. Responding to ads (please summarize the paragraphs belongs
to this part)
D. Measuring Responses (please summarize the paragraphs
belongs to this part)
E. Weaknesses of the experiment (please summarize the
Experimental Results (please summarize a part called “Results”
in this article page 997-p1006)
(follow the A, B, C and D questions to summarize)
A. Is There a Racial Gap in Callback
B. Do African-AmericansReceive Different Returnsto Resume
Quality?
C. Applicants'Address
D. Job and EmployerCharacteristic
12/3/2018 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS600.12.2?sections=ch0
8,sec8.1,sec8.2,sec8.3,sec8.4,sec8.5,sec8.6&content=all&client
Token=ce0c6ae1-8dbf-20b2-12… 1/22
8
Ethical Management Communication
Design Pics/Thinkstock

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter and studying the
materials, you should be able to:
1. Describe what constitutes ethical management
communication.
2. Identify the major ethical dilemmas in
management communication.
3. Communicate clear, transparent, accurate
messages and respond effectively to unethical
tactics.
4. Improve your ethical reasoning processes when
communicating.
12/3/2018 Print
8.1 Understanding Ethics
Learning Objective # 1: What constitutes ethical
management communication?
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a
branch of thought that addresses questions about
morality and dealswith concepts such as right and
wrong,
virtue and vice, and justice and crime (Rae,
2009, p. 15). Ethical challenges have been
part of the world of business for as long as
therehas been a

business world.
Recent dramatic stories involving Enron, BP, Arthur
Andersen, and other corporate giants, as well as
several banking chains involved in the 2008
mortgage crisis, have reignited interest in building a
more ethical business climate. Enron engaged in
manipulation of energy prices and illegal
accounting
practices. Arthur Andersen was complicit by failing to
identify the illegal accounting practices as
part of audits of company books. BP failed
to follow
safety protocols and record keeping, which led to
the 2010 Gulf oil spill disaster.
Communication systems inevitably play into a fraud
or unethical action taken by a corporation,
manager, or employee.Ethical decisions are made
not only
by corporate leaders, but also by every member of
an organization. As recent headlines have been
packed with ethical issues, colleges and
universities
teaching the business leaders of tomorrow have
enhanced training and awareness of ethical
decision-making. One perspective, ethical
management, favors
training for individuals preparing to enter the
world of business (Waite, 2011). We will
focus on this approach in this chapter by
examining the nature of
ethical and unethical communication and by offering
analytical models and reasoning processes associated
with moral dilemmas and ethical choices.

Values form the building blocks of an ethical
system (Rae, 2009). Individualand collective
values vary,of course, because they are
in�luenced by
numerous forces, including religion, national origin,
upbringing, and social associations. This means
that the distinction between right and wrong
can be
debatable or controversial. For example, charging interest
is considered wrong in somecultures, while
most of you reading this have come to expect
to
pay interest on certain purchases, such as your
tuition or the purchase of a house.
An ethical system that determines what is good or
bad, right or wrong, and appropriate or
inappropriate leadsto a code of behavior based
on those
principles. The belief that stealing, theft, or
obtaining money through a less-than-transparent
business practice is wrong leadsto a code of
behavior in
which it would be objectionable to take money
from innocent people through "legal," if not
ethical, business practices. Such a choice might
cause a person
not to conduct business with a company dealing in
payday or car-title loans, or with similar
lending institutions. Business ethics are
standards and
guidelinesregarding the conduct of commerce and the
development of relationships in business
(Ferrell, Fraedrich,& Ferrell, 2011).
Ethical communication consists of passing

information along in a manner that is
truthful, does not violate the rights of others,
and does not aim to
deceive (Kolin, 2001). This chapter explores the
value of ethical communication in the context
of business management. Unethical communication,
on the
other hand, violates the principles of truthful
communication and can hurt others. Examples of
unethical communication appear in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Selected examples of unethical
communication
Theft of intellectual property, including patents,
copyrights, tradesecrets, Internet domain names
Misleading by omitting essential information
Selective misquotation
Distorting statistics and facts
Violating privacy of others
Sources: Cheeseman, H. R. (2003). Contemporary
business and e-commerce (4th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kolin, P.
C. (2001). Successful writing at work (6th
ed.).
Boston, MA: Houghton Mif�lin.
For Review
De�ine ethics, business ethics, and ethical
communication.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sectio
ns/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.
2/sections/fm#)
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a
branch of thought that addresses questions about
morality and dealswith concepts such as right
and wrong, virtue and vice, and justice and crime.
Business ethics are standards and guidelines
regarding the conduct of commerce and the
development of relationships in business. Ethical
communication con sists of passing information
along in a manner that is truthful, does
not
violate the rights of others, and does not aim to
deceive.
The 2008 Mortgage Crisis and the Failure of
Management Communication
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/
books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sect
ions/fm#
12/3/2018 Print
Ingram Publishing/Thinkstock
Many �inancial lending institutions contributed
signi�icantly to the 2008 economic crisis in the
United States.

In early2012, Bankof America, Wells Fargo, JP
Morgan Chase, Citigroup,and Ally Financial paid a
$25 billion settlementfor foreclosure
abuses. The payments were designed to assist those
consumers who had been injured by unethical
practices in the banking and mortgage
industries (Associated Press, 2012).
Three entities contributed to the �inancial disaster
that resulted from the 2008 mortgage
crisis—consumers, �inancial institutions, and
governmental agencies. Many consumers
applied for and received mortgagesthat they simply
could not afford. Enticed by 100
percent �inancing offers and other high-risk
instruments (sub-prime mortgages), many
consumers purchased homes at prices that were
far beyond their means. In addition,
governmental of�icials failed to recognize a trendin
which far too many of thesehigh-risk
mortgageswere being granted (includingthose made
by quasi-governmental lenders Fannie
Mae and Freddie Mac)and that those instruments
were being packaged and bundled to sell
in the securities markets, where they eventually
failed. Many �inancial lending institutions
contributed mightily to what took place.
These lenders oftenfailed to adequately explain
the terms of mortgagesto customers,
whether by deliberate deception or mere exuberance. A
greatdeal of paperwork was either
never �illed out, was partially completed, or
was simply ignored, regarding a consumer's
ability to make payments on homes with

potentially arti�icially high prices.
Consequently, a
largenumber of high-risk loans were written
(Wilson, 2010).
Internal management communication failed to notify
those creating mortgagesthat a
problem existed. It may have been top �inancial
of�icers who knew of the problem and
failed to report it internally, or that internal
communications were intentionally deceptive.In
either case, the loans placed many of these
institutions at risk, and eventually government
bailouts of thesebanks became the only remedy
that would forestall a worseningrecession
in the U.S. economy.
When the housing market began to collapse,
many mortgage-holders were "under water,"
meaning that the amount remaining on the mortgage
was higher (in many instances, much higher)
than the value of the house, should it
need to be sold. Individuals who lost jobs or faced
other �inancial dif�iculties soon faced
foreclosure. Oftentimes, however, the original
loan
had been sold to another institutionand bundled into a
�inancial package, and the actual paperwork
for a foreclosure was either lost or
never created in the �irstplace.
Still, numerous homeowners were told that foreclosure
proceedings had begun, even when legal
paperwork was not available. This form
of deception caused many homeowners to lose
their residences without fair legal

representation (Adelman, 2012).
As a result, the government began investigating
such abuses. The initial $25 billion payment
was made to assist those who were under
water but still in their homes and to help
others who had fallen behind on payments.
Governmental of�icials retained the right to pursue
any further legal action, if actual fraud were to
be identi�ied.
Questions for Students
1. Which group do you thinkholds the greatest
responsibility for the �inancial crisis, consumers,
�inancial institutions, or the government?
2. Was the failure by thesebanks to inform
customers of the potential for default an ethics
violation or an illegal act?
3. How could a management communication system
be improved to make certain such an event
does not occur in the future?
Ethical Approaches to Management Communication
Individuals, cities, and countries develop laws and
regulations designed to protect citizens and
businesses. The same holds true for companies
and
collectives of businesses. In each instance, ethical
frameworks, to whatever degree they are present,
are founded on the basicphilosophical principles of
morality. While the study of ethics can be
broad and complex, we will focus on four
approaches that particularly relate to
decision-making in business

and in management communication: utilitarianism,
individualism, the rights approach, and the justice
approach.
Utilitarianism
When decisions are made based on what is
the greatest good for the greatest number of
people, a utilitarian principle may be the
guiding force.
Utilitarianism has been termed the "calculus of pain,"
because it tries to minimize pain and maximize
pleasure for the greatest number of people,
based in
part on the concept of hedonism.Many economic
models that rely on utilitarian principles explain
how consumers and producers seek to maximize
personal utility or organizational pro�its.
The utilitarianism perspective, however, oftenoverlooks
the rights or needs of the minority. As an
example, paying subsistence wages to
workers in
unsafe conditions in one country may create
lower-priced goods for the majority of
consumers in other countries, but the system
creates greatharmto
12/3/2018 Print

Comstock/Thinkstock
Decision-making based on treating all people
fairly
and consistently demonstrates the justice approach to
ethical reasoning.
those in the factory. A company that hides
the fact that it engages in such business
practices may be viewed as unethical in terms
of the practice itself, as
well as in terms of the communication system
that hides the activity.
Ethicists might conclude that utilitarianism involves a
judgment call as to what constitutes "good," as
well as considering that "good" in light of its
effects
on both the majority and the minority. Care should be
given in deciding how much "pain" to
others is acceptable (Velasquez, Andre,
Shanks, & Meyer,
2011).
Individualism
The degree to which society values personal
goals, personal autonomy, and privacy over
group loyalty constitutes the level of
individualism present. In
an individualist society, ethical decisions are based
on personal self-interests, as long as one'sactions
do not harmothers (Sexton, 2008).
Use of the individualist approach may cause the
weakest members of society or of a

business to suffer the most. In a
business setting, the individualist
perspective would suggest that an employee should
be able to writepersonal messages using the
company's email system, so long as those
messages do
not harmthe company. In pointof fact, the law dictates
that organizations own all email information
and can inspect it at any time,which violates
the
individualistic pointof view. Managers have to deal
with balancing theseperspectives on a dailybasisin
many organizations.
Rights Approach
A social system that makes decisions based on
the belief that each person has fundamental
rights that should be respected and protected
re�lects the
rights approach. Such rights include freedom of
speech, privacy, and access to due process,
plus the right to a safe and healthy environment
at work and
at home (Ferrell & Gresham, 1985).
The dif�iculty with the rights approach is that, in
many instances, the rights of one group, or
a certain type of right, may infringe on
others. For example,
an ongoing con�lict exists between a client's
right to privacy or con�identiality and the
obligation of a corporate of�icer to protect
the public's interests
when a questionable or unethical business
practice exists. Instances of insider trading of

common stock serve as an example; Martha
Stewart faced such a
charge in 2002–2004. When an investor takes
advantage of privileged information that is being
kept from the public, in deciding to buy or
sell stock, and
that investor makes a pro�it, a corporate of�icer
facesthe dilemma of exposing the inside trader
but also divulging potentially damaging corporate
secrets.
Trying to ascertain whose rights supersede the
others (the public's interest versus a
company's interest) can create an ethical
dilemma that is dif�icult to
resolve.
Justice Approach
Decision-making based on treating all people
fairly and consistently demonstrates the justice
approach. Distributive justice concentrates on the
fairness of rewards, punishments, and outcomes,
such as promotiondecisions, equitable pay in the
workplace, termination decisions, and decisions
regarding who will be laid off during downsizing.
Procedural justice focuses on fair, consistent
application of rules and protocols, including grievance
procedures when unions represent employees,
as well as the use of the discipline system in a
manner that does not discriminate against
individual
employees for any reason.
The justice approach suggests that when someone is
hurt by your actions, as an individual or in
a

collective, consequences should result. These
consequences are supposed to punish you for
the
misdeeds and serve as a deterrent to others.
Also, when your actions help others or
lead to a greater
good, the consequences should return in the
form of a reward. In both circumstances (harm
or good),
the methods by which rewards are granted or
negative sanctions are imposed should be based
on an
impartial, reasonable, and constant program of justice.
One problem with the justice approach is that what
one person considers a proper reward or
punishment may not seemfair to another. Many
people believe capital punishment represents a
just
outcome. Others believe it is never justi�ied.
The same holds true regarding those who make
the
judgments. What may seemlike a fair procedure to
one person or group when making a
termination,
promotion, or hiring decision, including
communicating how the process will take place to
individual
employees and employee groups, could appear to
be completely biased to another.
For Review
12/3/2018 Print

Jupiterimages/Thinkstock
Shareholder activism involves largeinvestors,
particularly institutional
investors, becoming more directly involved in
decisions made by
corporate executives.
Figure 8.1: Decision-making frameworks
What are the four primary approaches to ethical
thought described in this chapter?
2/sections/fm#)
Four approaches that particularly relate to
decision-making in business and in manage
ment communication are utilitarianism,
individualism,
the rights approach, and the justice approach.
In�luences on Business Ethics
A complex interaction of components in�luences
the study of business ethics. Different levels
of ethics combine to create an entire
ethical climate in
businesses. Moral responsibilities and ethical
decisions are in�luenced by and re�lect the
activities of individuals, organizations, and entire

governmental
systems.
Individuals
Every day employees routinely make ethical
choices. Many of the issues raised in
this chapter involve the decision by a
speci�ic person to engage in
communications that deceive or injure others.
Further, ethical dilemmas exist in a variety of
actions beyond communication. As part of
your career, from
entrylevel to top management, moral complications
will emerge as part of workplacelife.
Organizations
Business ethics concern the conscience that every
company possesses,even when moral codes
are not spelled out in management
communications.
Groups of leaders in organizations make moral
and ethical choices. For example, "greenwashing"
is the practice of making an organization
appear to be
concerned with the environment and the preservation of
natural resources when, in fact, the company
pollutes or conducts other environmentally
damaging activities. Greenwashing cannot be
accomplished by a single individual, but
rather by groups of leaders in the
company. Decisions and actions
can be shaped by the ethical climate present in
an organization, even when an individual carries
out the speci�ic act.

Governmental Systems
National governments engage in moral choices. A
country that fails to enact or enforce
intellectual property or patent protections
has made a moral
decision. Any government that allows imports from
nations where forced labor is used to
produce goods has made a moral choice.
Any government that
censors all messages except those approved by
of�icials has made a moral choice.
Interaction Among Levels
Individuals, organizations, and governmental systems all
interact to create a business
climate in which companies and their
employees operate. At the system level,
some
stockholders have become involved in what has been
termed shareholder activism.
Large investors, particularly institutional investors,
are becoming more directly
involved in decisions made by corporate executives.
Such activism may add one more
layer of protection to the general public's
interests, as well as to the well-being of
shareholders (Schulte, Roth, & Zabel, 2011).
At the same time,a case can be made that
managers make as many ethical mistakes
or misjudgments as governments or the marketplace.
The sources of theseactions
can be lack of information (not knowing an activity

will have a negative effect on
society) or a deliberate violation of ethical and
moral principles by a manager. Thus,
although somemanagers may not have been aware of
the effects that certain
materials (such as asbestos) would have on
workers, the net result was the same.
Conversely, when the top management team at
Peanut Corporation of America chose
to sell salmonella-contaminated products to the public
in 2009, the managers
apparently placed pro�its ahead of public
safety (Hartman, 2009).
Frameworks for Decision-Making
Management communication oftenserves as an
instrument when ethical and unethical
activities transpire. Managers seeking to act in
the most ethically
sensible manner should examine the moral,
economic,and legal implications of the choices
they make. These can then be communicated to
others in the
organization and in larger society, through public
statements, memos, letters, comments in
corporate documents such as shareholder
statements, and
company policy decisions, and by the examples set by
leaders, even in one-on-one conversations.
Three frameworks form the basisof an ethical
decision-making approach. The threepoints of
view, when combined and balanced, can help to
guide
decision-making processes as various ethical

dilemmas arise. The perspectives or elements
consist of the ethical, economic,and legal
components of the
matter at hand (see Figure 8.1).
Ethical Components
ions/fm#
12/3/2018 Print
Ethical, economic, and legal components are all
part of a person's
decision-making framework when moral
dilemmas arise.
The �irstkey element present in a decision is
the individual's or group's desire to act
in an ethical fashion. This ethical component
re�lects the extent to which the
individual or group is willing to seek out and
act on justi�iable reasons, and to
remain impartial when making ethical choices.
The decision-maker would compare
personal gain or loss resulting from an action or
activity with the needs and interests
of the larger organization (Boatright, 2006,

pp. 7–9).
Whistle-blowing provides an example of a choice
with an ethical component. An
employee who exposes improper company activities often
risks retribution from
others in the organization, and the disclosure may
damage the economic well-being
of the company. In the United States, the
employee might rely on the legal component
of the decision-making process discussed later—
protection for whistle-blowers, to
care for his or her own interests.
Economic Components
Economic theories vary in terms of how business
systems should operate. Adam Smith and
Milton Friedman (1962) argued that the
invisible hand of the
marketplace guides the conduct of business.
According to proponents of the "invisible
hand" perspective, companies that ignore
the rights and well-being
of the largepublic will eventually fail. This means
governmental intervention should be limited—
companies should not be encumbered by too
many laws
and regulations. In such a system, companies
should be left free to maximize pro�its for
shareholders.
In contrast, the governmental duty perspective
suggests companies that only pursue pro�its
may not hold the larger interests of society as
important.

Therefore, government plays the role of
protecting citizens from business practices in the
economy that create harm, such as polluting
the environment
or exploiting workers. More recently, the
governmental duty perspective has expanded to
include protecting employees from losing jobs
that are being
outsourced to countries in which pay is
insuf�icient and deplorable working conditions
prevail (Watson, 1991).
Legal Components
The third element, legal issues, cannot and should
not be confused with ethical arguments. Many
times, a practice in business has been
considered legal,
but could be considered unethical. The 2008
�inancial crisis in the United States
resulted from legal �inancial maneuvers that placed
individuals and the
entire economy at risk. If more �inancial managers
had examined legal loans to individuals at
high risk of default, and more �inancial of�icers
had not
bundled the same loans into legal, high-risk
instruments that eventually failed, the nation
would have avoided unnecessary risk, debt, and
economic
instability(C-Span.org, 2011).
In summary, ethics apply at many levels,
from what individuals do, to what groups do, to
what companies do, to the actions of entire
nations. The ethical

frameworks described in the last section can be
applied to each level. Utilitarianism and
individualism pointout the con�lict of personal
interest and well-
being with the consideration of the good of the
larger group. The utilitarian position favors
the group; individualism favors the individual.
For Review
What threeelements are present in an ethical
decision-making framework?
2/sections/fm#)
Three perspectives or elements include the ethical,
economic,and legal components of the matter at
hand.
Concept Check
ions/fm#
12/3/2018 Print

Stockbyte/Thinkstock
The tobacco industry has been accused of suppressing
information about
the health hazards associatedwith smoking and using
tobacco in other
forms.
8.2 Ethical Dilemmas in Management Communication
Learning Objective # 2: What are the major
ethical dilemmas in management communication?
Management communication may be viewed as
essentially a "blank slate." It is neither
ethical nor unethical in its inherent state.
Managers can use the
system to inform, persuade, and call to action in
a highly transparent and ethical manner.
Others can use the very same system to hide
the truth and to
cover the presence of unethical activities. Others
still may pervert the actual communication system.
This section examines communication as a medium
for unethical and ethical actions.
Communication As a Medium for Unethical Actions
Over the years, organizations have engaged in
the socially irresponsible behaviors listed next. In
those instances, communications serve the
purposes of
covering up the act or distracting others from
noticing what has transpired. Unethical
communications in thesecircumstances are:
deliberate mistruths

half-truths
withholding information
silence/stonewalling
misdirection
obfuscation
Deliberate mistruths occur when an individual or
corporation seeks to deceive the
public or another person through the use of
false information. When a company
assures consumers that a product is completely
safe, knowing otherwise, a mistruth
has been communicated. Half-truths involve offering
only elements that can be
veri�ied, while attempting to hide more damaging or
con�idential information. As
noted, many instances of greenwashing result
from a company claiming that its
actions are environmentally friendly, when, in
fact, the company's actions have no
impact, or a negative impact, on the ecosystem
(Spaulding, 2009).
Withholding information includes concealing what
could be damaging facts about a
company's misdeeds. The tobacco industry has been
accused of suppressing
information about the health hazards associated
with smoking and using tobacco in
other forms. Silence and stonewalling go beyond
withholding information,
constituting a complete refusal to comment on or
discuss an action. In more than one
instance, owners of coal mines have been accused of
withholding, from both
employees and the public, safety and inspection

information that may have been
connected to mining accidents (United States Mine
Rescue Association, 2012; Rostum,
2002).
Misdirection occurs when company spokespeople
seek to distract the audience by
pointing attention to someother event or cause,
rather than its own misdeeds. In the
case of the Ford Explorer vehicles that experienced
blowouts and rollovers, Ford
implied that Firestone tires were the cause of the
problem; Firestone suggested that
people were overin�lating the tires and even provided
pressure gauges to dissuade
the public from thinking the company's products
were at fault (Reaves & Greenwald,
2001).
Obfuscation means deliberately making something
more dif�icult to understand in order to
confuse the audience. The �inancial crisis of
2008 also included
elements of obfuscation by spokespersons defending
various companies that took unnecessary risks
and that even counted on instruments failing in
order to make pro�its, through processes such as
shortselling (Bajaj & Bowley, 2008).
For Review
What are the methods used to make
communication a medium for unethical actions?
ns/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Unethical communications include deliberate mistruths,
half-truths, withholding infor mation, silence
and stonewalling, misdirection, and
obfuscation.
books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#
12/3/2018 Print
Hemera/Thinkstock
Exclusive language uses terminology or a frame of
reference to include
people in or exclude them from social interaction.
Unethical Communication
Words matter. In fact, many times words
hurt. Unethical messages seeking to injure or
damage another in someway are common. Some
of the more
notable forms of unethical messages include
(Redding, 2011):
coercive
intimidating
destructive
intrusive
secretive
exclusive language

hegemonic language
manipulative
exploitative
Coercive messages seek to forceanother to do
somethingagainst his or her will. Coercive
messages can be constructed to cause
someone to perform an
unethical act because the individual believes the
consequences of not following an order or
directive will be dire. For example, when a
clerical employee
worries that she will be �ired if she does not
falsify a record, a coercive message has
been used.
Intimidation creates power for the sender.
Someone who fears a supervisor may not point
out mistakes or problems, or stand up for
personal rights.
Intimidation can be used to create silence in
others as a form of workplacebullying (Long,
2011).
Destructive messages take many forms, including
those used to harass others. Sexual-
harassment comments, racial remarks, and
statements about another person's
intellectual level or body type hurt co-workers.
Destructive messages belittle the
other person.
Intrusive messages pry into another person's affairs.
Asking about family matters,
�inancial dealings, and other relationships can be
designed to discover private

information to be used later or to make
the person feel uncomfortable. Implying that
you know somethingabout a person that could
harmhim or her, such as that the
person has previously been in prison, suggests
the use of intrusive information and
is a form of blackmail.
Secretive statements intentionally withhold information
from co-workers. In a manner
similar to withholding information, only a select
few have access to a message.
Exclusive language uses terminology or a frame of
reference to include people in or
exclude them from a social interaction. As Chapter
2 notes, exclusive language
accentuates the differences between employees
and creates an eventual barrier,
based largely on excluded employees feeling as
if they are not part of the "in-crowd" on
the job.
Hegemonic processes limit the choices of others by
perpetuating the in�luenceof a dominant culture
and are closely related to exclusive language. In
certain male-dominated industries such as engineering,
for example, the speci�ic use of exclusive
language can be used to deter women from
even
considering applying for certain positions (Connell,
2005).
Manipulative messages seek to in�luencebehavior through
the use of emotion, context, or someother

closely related method of interpersonal
in�luence. If
you can make someone afraid of an imagined
threat, fear serves to manipulate that person.
The same holds true for causing someone to
believe that
actions are "patriotic" or to follow religious
dictates (Papa, 2011).
Exploitative messages take advantage of another
person's weaknesses. A typical form of
exploitation involves one person exaggerating
his or her own
needs and preferences, while minimizing the
needs and preferences of the message target
(Mills & Clark, 1986). When one
employee says, "I need this
client more than she does; I have to feed my
family," to a supervisor, in order to
take the client awayfrom another employee,the
�irstemployee has
engaged in the use of an exploitative message.
For Review
What are the forms of unethical messages used to
hurt otherpeople?
ns/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)
Some of the more notable forms of unethical
messages include those that are coercive,
intimidating, destructive, intrusive or secretive,
that use
exclusive or hegemonic lan guage, and those
that are manipulative or exploitative.

books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#
12/3/2018 Print
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
Social media make it possible to send
unethical messages with nearly
complete anonymity.
Informal Communication and Social Media
Many times, informal communication channels are
used as part of the process of
supporting unethical actions, as well as to create
unethical communication. At the
most extreme, the �inancial activity of short-selling
involves essentially betting (by
purchasing stock futures) that a stock price
will go down, in order to make a
pro�it.
Informal communication has been used to transmit
messages that a certain company
was experiencing trouble, such as an expected decline
in sales or a shortage of
investment capital, in order to suppress stock
prices. This,along with other unethical

actions, led to a suspension of shortselling
practices in 2009.
Social media make it possible to send
unethical messages with nearly complete
anonymity. Use of social media pages to
coerce, intimidate, send destructive
messages, reveal secrets, create exclusive language,
and manipulate and exploit
others has become part of the business landscape.
In essence, thesemedia do not
create new forms of unethical communication;
rather they provide a new and
explosive channel through which such messages may be
sent.
In summary, management communication systems and
actual messages both can
carryunethical components and serve unethical intents.
The use of language to
achieve theseends oftenestablishes a climate that
encourages future violations. A cycle of
dishonesty can emerge from the continued use of
media to
obfuscate,confuse, distract, or fool others. A pattern
of unacceptable interpersonal relations results
from using unfair or inaccuratemessages to
gain an
advantage over others inside and outside the
workplace.
Concept Check

12/3/2018 Print
Ryan McVay/Thinkstock
Objectivity requires setting asidepersonal biases
and preferences when
engaged in communication.
8.3 Ethical Responses
Learning Objective # 3: How can individuals and
managers communicate clear, transparent, and
accurate messages and
effectively respond to unethical tactics?
Individuals, groups, organizations, and governments
can make ethical responses to communication
issues. Individuals can aspire to act and
communicate
in a morally responsible fashion. Groups can
work to avoid groupthink or any other
pattern of behavior that would lead to the
development and delivery
of unethical messages or use of communication to
assist in unethical actions. Organizations can
utilize various mechanisms to foster an
ethical
environment through both rewards and punishments.
Governments have responded to unethical actions
with improved laws and enforcement of existing
laws. This section examines the nature of ethical

communication at theselevels.
Promoting Ethical Values
Two activities assist in becoming ethical members of
a company and the larger society. The �irstis
avoiding the unethical use of communication that
was
described in the previous sections, with regard to
both communication messages and the use of
communication to cover unethical acts. Second, an
individual, group, or organization can seek to be
positive and proactive, when creating management
communication, by utilizing the following
principles:
clarity
transparency
honesty
objectivity
credibility
coherence
loyalty
respect for human beings
No matter the format—whether written or verbal,
a shortmessage or a lengthy report—the
principle of clarity offers several bene�its.
First, the reader or
listener will be better able to comprehend the
intent and content of the message. Second,
clarity lessens the possibility of unnecessary
con�lict. And third,
with regard to ethical management communication,
clear messages do not allow for the tactics

noted above, such as half-truths and
obfuscation. In
essence, clarity represents the opposite of ambiguity
and intentional deception.
Transparency refers to an environment of
openness in which all participants in a
conversation or organization activity, such as a
team or group meeting, receive access
to the information needed to process messages,
noting that it is equally important to
treat someinformation delicately and privately in order
to protect individuals and
certain organizational secrets. Individuals' medical
histories and other personal
information should be protected. Organizational secrets
include patents and
managerial plans, such as when a major
product launch will take place, expansion
plans, and other actions that would give a
company a �irst-mover advantage that in
no way unethically or illegally harms others.
Transparency on a larger scalemeans
that outside observers have suf�icient access to
corporate documents and transcripts
of meetings to know that deceptive practices and
other unethical actions do not take
place "behind closed doors" (MoreBusiness.com,
2007).
Honesty accentuates the direct intent to provide
information in the most forthright
manner possible. Beaulieu (2009) presents several
ideasrelated to honest business
communication. They include insisting on candor in
others by including an analysis of

it in employee performance appraisals and pay raise
decisions. Honesty can be
emphasized through role reversal games that
encourage employees to see the other
side of a debate. Involving all levels of the
organization in ethics inspections and
leading by example also foster an environment
less tainted by half-truths and
mistruths.
Objectivity requires setting asidepersonal biases
and preferences when engaged in
communication. Thompson (2005) provides
guidelinesto help maintain objectivity in
business communication. First, carefully distinguish
between facts and opinions in any
message. Also, report all pertinent information,
even the data that do not favor your side or
preference. Use bias-free language in terms of
gender, age,
race, and other diversity and organizational differences.
Finally, remain impersonal in your
communication style, rather than relying on
emotional or
argumentative approaches.
Credibility must be earned. Accuracy in a report
represents one key aspect. When communication is
not accurate, the sender losescredibility. Trust
in a
person's integrity and credibility can easily be
damaged with inaccurateor misleading messages;
this trust can be very hard to restore. As a
result,
vigilance and attention to detail help buildcredibility
over time (Richards, 2011).

12/3/2018 Print
Image Source/Thinkstock
Mentoring processes, whereby senior members of
an
organization tutor and assist newer employees,
provide an additional venue for teaching ethical
behaviors and the use of ethical management
communication messages.
Coherence re�lects the use of logicin business
communications. Well-written, understandable
messages, including those designed to persuade, result
not only from writing, but from rewriting. A
coherent letter, memo, or report removes the
potential for obfuscation, misdirection, and half-
truths,
because an outside reader is able to verify
information contained in the document and study
the
reasoning used to create any argument or message.
Loyalty means treating employees and other
groups with fairness, objectivity, and a sense
of respect
that grows from sharing a common bond (Guffey &
Loewy, 2011). Loyalty in communication results
in

careful consideration of the message, medium, and
audience. Sensitive messages travel through
organizations daily. Notices of layoffs,
terminations, and transfers are unsettling messages.
Others are
performance appraisals with negative information,
announcements of promotions that involved
consideration of internal candidates, and plans
for disciplinary actions. The manner in which
an
employee receives this information re�lects the
presence or absence of loyalty.
Respect for human beings extends far beyond
the world of business. Treating people with
deference
in communications includes the choice of words
and tone. Sarcasm and derision communicate a
lack
of respect. Management experts note that respect
must be earned—you receive respect only by
granting it �irst.
To help achieve theseobjectives, individuals can
seek ethical training through conferences,
seminars
and college courses, and ethics counselors and
hot lines, which are made available to
individuals and
industries. The elements described in this section
can be used to help combat the tendency to
create
unethical messages or to hide the unethical activities of
an individual, group, or organization.
Mentoring processes, whereby senior members of
an organization tutor and assist newer

employees,
provide an additional venue for teaching ethical
behaviors and the use of ethical management
communication messages.
For Review
What concepts can be used to promote ethical
values in organizational communications?
ns/fm#)
An individual, group, or organization can seek to
be positive and proactive when creating
management communication by utilizing the
following principles: clarity, transparency, honesty,
objectivity, credibility, coherence, loyalty,
and respect for human beings.
Codes of Ethics
Many organizations and someprofessions engage in
ethical self-regulation.Organizations such as the
Better Business Bureau help businesspeople and
overall organizations regulate themselves. Ethical
codes, such as those followed by members of
the American Medical Association, the Academy of
Management, and the National Communication
Association, help direct the activities of those
engaged in commerce and in educational systems
that
provide education for those entering the business
world.
Codes of ethics can be applied to all
members of an organization, whether it is a

nonpro�itor for-pro�it, in any given
profession. Table 8.2 presents the
credo and guiding perspectives of the National
Communication Association.
Table 8.2: Credo and guiding principles: The
National Communication Association
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#
12/3/2018 Print
Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people
communicate. Ethical communication is fundamental
to responsible thinking,
decision-making and the development of relationships
and communities within and across contexts,
cultures, channels, and media.
Moreover,ethical communication enhances human worth
and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness,
responsibility, personal
integrity, and respect for self and others. We believe
that unethical communication threatens the quality of
all communication and
consequently the well-being of the society in
which we live. Therefore, we the members of
the National Communication Association,
endorse and are committed to practicing the
following principles of ethical communication.

We advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason
as essential to the integrity of communication.
We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of
perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve
the informed and responsible decision-
making fundamental to a civil society.
We strive to understand and respect other
communicators before evaluating and responding
to their messages.
We promote access to communication resources and
opportunities as necessary to ful�ill human
potential and contribute to the well-
being of families, communities, and society.
We promote communication climates of caring and
mutual understanding that respect the unique
needs and characteristics of individual
communicators.
We condemn communication that degrades individuals
and humanity through distortion, intimidation,
coercion, and violence, and
through the expression of intolerance and hatred.
We are committed to the courageous expression
of personal convictions in pursuit of fairness
and justice.
We advocate sharing information, opinions, and
feelings when facing signi�icant choices
while also respectingprivacy and con�identiality.

We accept responsibility for the short- and long-
term consequences of our own communication and expect
the same of others.
Source: National Communication Association,
Retrieved from:
http://www.natcom.org/uploadedFiles/About_NCA/Leadership_
and_Governance/Public_Policy_Platform/PDF-PolicyPlatform-
NCA_Credo_for_Ethical_Communication.pdf
(http://www.natcom.org/uploadedFiles/About_NCA/Leader
ship_and_Governance/Public_Policy_Platform/PDF-
PolicyPlatform-
NCA_Credo_for_Ethical_Communication.pdf) . Used with
Permission.
In addition to codes of ethics, individual
companies create messages signaling the intent
to conduct business ethically and in a socially
responsible fashion.
Corporate ethics statements posit the company's
values and intentions with regard to its
citizenship in the larger society. Many
company websites
include pages that speci�ically address theseissues.
In summary, responding to ethical dilemmas
involves �irstawareness of and rejection of
unethical activities, and avoiding the use of
management
communication to conduct unethical activities. It also
involves seeking to communicate in positive
ways that re�lect the goals of creating a
higher personal
moral standard and improvingorganizational
communications. Codes of conduct, while
not complete answers to moral questions, can

provide guidance,
especially when accompanied by ethics training,
careful attention to past experiences, and the
willingness to consult with others as issues
arise.
Educational programs, ethics counselors, and
mentors can help individuals deal with moral
and ethical dilemmas.In those settings,
employees are able to
ask questions, discuss both real and hypothetical ethical
challenges, and ask for advice when they
encounter a moral dilemma, through
contacts with
those who are specially trained or have greater
experience to help with such issues.
Concept Check
http://www.natcom.org/uploadedFiles/About_NCA/Leadership_
and_Governance/Public_Policy_Platform/PDF-PolicyPlatform-
NCA_Credo_for_Ethical_Communication.pdf
12/3/2018 Print
Digital Vision/Thinkstock
Employees can to seek to communicate in
positive ways that re�lect the

goals of creating a higher personal moral
standard and improving
organizational communications.
8.4 Ethical Reasoning and Ethical Competence
Learning Objective # 4: What types of ethical
reasoning processes can improve communication skills?
Personal ethical reasoning processes evolve over a
lifetime. As you enter a career,
beliefs about what is right or wrong, appropriate
or inappropriate, and moral or
immoral may be based on one set of premises. As
time passes, experiences, teaching,
and role modeling by others in�luences those
assumptions. Ethical values become the
result. Ethical sensibility, ethical reasoning,
ethical conduct, and ethical leadership
comprise key elements that assist in making ethical
or moral judgmentsin
communications and other settings (Paine, 1991).
Ethical sensibility re�lects a person's capacity to
impose ethical order on an
encounter by identifying the aspects of the
situation that contain ethical elements.
Ethical reasoning consists of the ability to reach
a solution, when an ethical dilemma
arises, by using logic, objectivity, and the
goal of moral correctness. Ethical conduct
results in clearly observable words and deeds
designed to seek the goal of integrity
in everyday business. Ethical leadership provides
examples to those of all ranks
about how to seek the greater good and �ind moral
responses to ethical dilemmas.

These four ingredients lead to increased levels of
ethical competence. Table 8.3 lists
signsthat an employee has achieved a stronger level of
ethical competence.
Table 8.3: Signs of ethical competence
Self-awareness
The individual understands his or her own values
and morals, and knows how to apply them to
ethical
dilemmas
Self-con�idence The person acts with less hesitation
when dealing with ethical situations
Character Others notice and comment on the
person's moral �iber
Moral imagination The ability to consider unusual
or unique ethical challenges
Resistance to outside
pressures
Withstands demands by others to engage in
unethical acts
Follow-through Turns ethical decisions into actions,
behaviors, and communications
Source: Adapted from Johnson, C., & Hackman, M.
Z. (2002, November). Assessing ethical
competence, paper presented to National
Communication Association, and Walker, R.

(2011).
Strategic management communication for leaders (2nd
ed.). Mason, OH: South- Western Cengage
Learning, p. 52.
In achieving ethical competence, threeframeworks
that assist when examining personal moral
growth and the development of ethical
reasoning are the
works of Lawrence Kohlberg, Carol Gilligan, and
William Perry. You can use theseframeworks to
re�lect on how you view and respond to ethical
issues.
For Review
What four ethical elements are associatedwith ethical
values and ethical competence?
2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.
Ethical sensibility re�lects a person's capacity to
impose ethical order on an encounter by
identifying the aspects of the situation that
contain
ethical elements. Ethical reasoning consists of the
ability to reach a solution to an ethical
dilemma by using logic, objectiv ity, and
the goal of
moral correctness. Ethical conduct results in
clearly observable words and deeds,
designed to seek the goal of integrity in
everyday business.
Ethical leadershipprovides examples to those of all
ranks about how to seek the greater good

and �ind moral responses to ethical dilemmas.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg (1966) believed that moral
reasoning results from a process called
internalization. Over time,a person's moral
framework moves
from externally driven behaviors (fear of being
scolded by parents and teachers) to internal
control ("I thinkthis is wrong, so I'm not
going to do it"). As
the shift takesplace, ethical reasoning evolves (see
Table 8.4).
ions/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#
12/3/2018 Print
Table 8.4: Kohlberg's theory of moral
development
Preconventional Reasoning Behavior is controlled by
external rewards and punishments
Stage One: Punishment and
Obedience
Driven by authority �igures

Motivated by fear of punishment
Stage Two:Purposeful
Individualism
Individualfurthers self interests
Reciprocal arrangements ("I'll scratch your back if
you scratch mine")
Insistence on justice and fairness
Conventional Reasoning
Behavioral standards moderately internalized
although the standards are still imposed by others
such as
parents, authority �igures, and laws
Stage Three: Interpersonal
Norms
Desire to be socially accepted drives behaviors
(being a "good boy" or "good girl")
Behaviors judged as much for intentions as for
consequences
Stage Four: Law and Order Behavior driven by
desire to maintain social order, insure
justice, perform duty
Postconventional Reasoning Totally internalized
reasoning, personal moral code
Stage Five:Contractual–
Legal
Rights and standards of society govern behaviors

Unfair limits to personal freedom challenged
and changed
Stage Six: Enlightened
Conscience
Universal human rights are the most profound guides
to behavior and actions
The highest level of moral reasoning
Kohlberg's view is that over time,a person will
move toward the highest stage, an
enlightened conscience. Four qualities of
stagedevelopment complete
his theory:
1. Stage development is �ixed. One cannot
get to a higher stagewithout going through
the preceding stage.
2. Individuals may have dif�iculty seeing the
logicof moral reasoning more than two stages
above their own.
3. People tend to be attracted to the reasoning of
the next highest level.
4. Movement through the stages is affected
when a person's current level of reasoning
proves inadequate to a given moral
dilemma.
Kohlberg's theory may shed somelight on how people
react to the communication issues suggested in
this chapter. Positive and ethical management
communications that result from reasoning processes
move beyond strictly legal responses to
messages designed from an enlightened conscience.

As you
navigate through a career, it will be possible to
consider whether your view of what is right
and wrong is "legalistic" or is technically
unethical to the
higher state Kohlberg suggests. Doing so would
help you avoid using tactics such as
obfuscation or mistruths when designing
management communication
messages. At the least, use of the framework
might assist in helping you understand
how you view ethical issues.
For Review
What levels of ethical reasoning are part of
Kohlberg's theory of moral development?
The threelevels are preconventional, conventional,
and postconventional.
Gilligan's Response
Carol Gilligan (1982) took issuewith someof the
conclusions regarding ethical reasoning that were
reached by Kohlberg. Her primary criticism was
that
Kohlberg based his theory on studies using
only male subjects, and that theremay be differences
in the ways female subjects look at ethical
reasoning.
For example, women may be more likely to view
moral development in terms of connections

with others. In circumstances in which men
may be more
likely to value justice and individual freedom,
women are more likely to believe caring,
interpersonal communication, and developing
and maintaining
12/3/2018 Print
interpersonal relationships are more important ethical
outcomes. A review of Kohlberg's model, as
shown in Table 8.4, con�irms that concepts
about
ethical and social justice appear to be fairly
"legalistic" rather than relationship-based.
As an individual, consider the role that your
gender and that of others plays in how
you view ethical dilemmas.This could lead you to
include such
concepts as treating others fairly and well, when
considering the ethical consequences of actions,
including the use of communications. Such an
approach
applies more than just laws and principles; it moves
into the realm of positive human

relationships, which are a major part of
business activities and
management communications.
For Review
What criticism does Carol Gilligan raise about
Kohlberg's theory?
Her primary criticism was that Kohlberg based his
theory on studies using only male subjects,
and that theremay be differences in the ways
women look at ethical reasoning.
Perry's Theory of Moral Development
William Perry (1968) wrote that moral
development takesplace in nine, rather than
six, stages. The stages can be grouped into
categories called dualism,
relativism, and commitment.
Dualism re�lects the belief that things are
absolutelyright or wrong, good or bad. Such beliefs
oftenrely greatly on guidelinesprovided by experts
or
authorities, and to someseemfairly simplistic.
Relativism expresses the view that many points of
view about right and wrong are potentially
valid. A particular situation oftendetermines
what is
morally acceptable. For instance, in dire

circumstances one may take actions that help others
survive, although those actions would be
unacceptable in
other situations.
According to Perry, commitment is the search
for evidence to support actions and explore
the consequences of various acts. One's own
set of personal
values is integrated with those actions. A person
will utilize his or her own set of beliefs to
make moral judgments, in a manner
similar to Kohlberg's
postconventional stage.
As part of your own ethical reasoning, the
concept of relativism may be particularly
germane when interacting with those from
other cultures. What is
ethical and/or legal varies, dependingon the nation
involved. As an example, nations guided by
Islamic law tend to outlaw or frown upon
charging
interest on loans. Therefore, communication
documents regarding sales offers, prices, and
terms of repayment should be carefully
worded to re�lect this
ethical value.
In other nations, women may be expected to
refrain from speaking or to act in a highly
deferent manner in social settings, which
may offend the ethical
reasoning of a woman from the United States or
other Western culture. The concept of
relativism may help such a person analyze and

respond to such
circumstances.
Commitment involves adding your own personal
values to the manner in which you view
ethical challenges. Doing so might add
elements of your
religious training, as well as personal experiences,
into your views of the world and how to
respond in an ethical manner.
Each of thesethreeframeworks (Kohlberg, Gilligan,
and Perry) suggests at least two sets of
guidelineswhen making personal ethical and
moral decisions.
The �irstinvolves the views and guidance of others;
the second concerns one'sown personal instincts,
values, and reasoning processes.As you consider
the ethical communications issues described in
this chapter, theseframeworks can serve as a
guide regarding beliefs about what is ethical
and what is
not, as well as how you will respond.
For Review
What are the stages of ethical development in
William Perry's theory?
The stages can be grouped into categories called
dualism, relativism, and commitment.
Concept Check

12/3/2018 Print
12/3/2018 Print
8.5 Chapter Review
Ethics are principles about what is good or bad,
right or wrong, and appropriate or
inappropriate that oftenlead to a code of
behavior based on those
principles. Business ethics are standards and
guidelinesregarding the conduct of commerce.
Ethical communication consists of all messages
and relevant

items of information that are passed along in
a manner that is truthful, does not violate
the rights of others, and does not aim to
deceive.
Ethical issues arise for individuals, groups and
organizations, and in governmental systems. Ethical
management communication challenges among
these
are simply part of operating in an active
business world. Shareholder activism involves
shareholders taking a more active role in
in�luencing decisions,
including ethical components, made by corporate
executives.
Four common foundations of ethical thought
guide business and communication decision-making:
utilitarianism, individualism, the rights approach,
and the
justice approach. Also, threeethical components in
any system are the ethical, economic,and legal
elements.
Communication can serve as a medium for
unethical actions through deliberate mistruths, half-
truths, withholding information, silence and
stonewalling,
misdirection, and obfuscation. The goal of each of
theseunethical actions is to deceive or to
communicate information that violates ethical
standards.
Unethical messages designed to harmothers include
coercive, intimidating, destructive, intrusive,
secretive, exclusive, hegemonic, manipulative, and
exploitative messages.

Ethical responses include promotingethical
communication through clarity, transparency,
honesty, objectivity, credibility, coherence,
loyalty, and respect for
human beings. Four elements in ethical
activities are ethical sensibility, ethical
reasoning, ethical conduct, and ethical
leadership. Codes of ethics also assist
in building ethical business environments.
Three frameworks aid in understanding personal
moral development. Kohlberg's theory,
Gilligan's response, and Perry's framework all
portray ethical
reasoning as somethingthat develops and evolves over
time.
Key Terms
business ethics
2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/section
Standards and guidelinesregarding the conduct of
commerce and the development of relationships in
business.
corporate ethics statements
Statements that posit the company's values and
intentions with regard to its citizenship in

the larger society.
ethical communication
All messages and rele vant information that are passed
along in a man ner that is truthful, does
not violate the rights of others, and does
not deceive in
any way.
ethical competence
The combination of ethical sensibility, reasoning,
conduct, and leadership.
ethical conduct
Clearly observable words and deeds designed to
seek the goal of integrity in everyday business.
ethical leadership
Providing examples to those of all ranks about
how to seek the greater good and �indmoral

responses to ethi cal dilemmas.
ethical reasoning
The ability to reach a solution when an
ethical dilemma arises by using logic,
objectivity, and the goal of moral correctness.
ethical sensibility
A person's capacity to impose ethical order on
an encounter by iden tifying the aspects of
the situation that contain ethical elements.
ions/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.
12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AU
BUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/b
ooks/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/secti
ons/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.1
2.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUB
US600.12.2/sections/fm#
ions/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.
12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AU
BUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/b
ooks/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/secti
ons/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.1

Winter 2011 • Morality in Education 35Workplace Bullying .docx

Winter 2011 • Morality in Education 35Workplace Bullying .docx

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Winter 2011 • Morality in Education 35Workplace Bullying .docx

Similar to Winter 2011 • Morality in Education 35Workplace Bullying .docx (20)

More from adolphoyonker

More from adolphoyonker (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Winter 2011 • Morality in Education 35Workplace Bullying .docx