1. See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336860269
Dielectric Logging: Principles, Applications, and Examples from the Brazilian
Oilfields
Conference Paper · October 2019
DOI: 10.4043/29882-MS
CITATIONS
0
READS
651
1 author:
Ronaldo Herlinger
Petróleo Brasileiro S.A.
6 PUBLICATIONS 89 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
All content following this page was uploaded by Ronaldo Herlinger on 07 October 2020.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.
2. OTC-29882-MS
Dielectric Logging: Principles, Applications, and Examples from the
Brazilian Oilfields
Ronaldo Herlinger, Jr, Petrobras S.A.
Copyright 2019, Offshore Technology Conference
This paper was prepared for presentation at the Offshore Technology Conference Brasil held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 29–31 October 2019.
This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of
the paper have not been reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any
position of the Offshore Technology Conference, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written
consent of the Offshore Technology Conference is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may
not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of OTC copyright.
Abstract
This work aims to present a review of dielectric logging, including physical principles, petrophysical
evaluation, and applications. In addition, we will present a history of its use in Petrobras oilfields. The
dielectric properties are generated by the charge alignment created by an excitation provided by an electric
field. In this sense, polar characteristics of water molecules allow quantification of volume of water present
in the reservoir, independently of salinity. Owing to the shallow depths of investigation, dielectric tools are
useful in evaluating residual oil in high uncertainty salinity conditions, especially in mature fields, where
uncertainties occur due to injection of water and/or steam.
Although this logging tool has a long history of use in the petroleum industry, it was rarely used in
Petrobras oilfields due to the high specificity, limitations of the technique, and/or high cost. Considering
high frequencies used and proximity between electrodes, the tool provides very shallow measurements,
which makes it impossible to evaluate the virgin zone in most reservoirs. Due to these characteristics, the
tool was widely employed in low mobility hydrocarbon formations, where mud filtrate invasion tends to be
smaller. The dielectric tool was used in Petrobras to evaluate reservoirs with very high viscosity and fresh
water, in which it showed good results in the quantification of water saturation and hydrocarbon mobility.
Additionally, the tool was used in Pre-salt in order to evaluate residual oil saturation to diminish the uncertain
of microresistivity logs.
Besides evaluating water saturation, many works have shown other applications for dielectric logging,
such as to determine conductivity, salinity, wettability, Archie's "m" and "n" electric parameters, CEC, and
evaluation of laminated reservoirs.
Introduction
Dielectric tools were introduced in the 1970s as an alternative for measurement of water saturation in fresh/
brackish water reservoirs, where the contrast between salinity of water and hydrocarbon is low, providing
the volume of water independent of the salinity. The dielectric properties are related to the charge alignment
generated by the excitation provided by an electric field. In this way, the polar nature of water molecules
allows the quantification of the volume of water present in the reservoir.
3. 2 OTC-29882-MS
Dielectric tools provide measurements at relatively low depths of investigation, up to 10 cm, depending
on the frequency used. This feature makes the tool useful in evaluation of residual oil in conditions where
microresistivity does not work properly, or there is great uncertainty in water salinity (Schmitt et al., 2011;
del Ángel Morales et al., 2013), especially in mature fields, where uncertainties arise due to the injection
of water and/or steam (Al-Qarshubi et al., 2011; Suarez et al., 2012).
Due to the low accuracy of the old tools, the technique gradually fell into disuse. Recently, new tools
have been introduced and many laboratory studies have shown advances in the understanding to improve
water saturation estimates (Chen & Heidari, 2014; Garcia & Heidari, 2018). Due to the characteristics of the
tool, the technique has been successfully used in the evaluation of reservoirs with fresh water and heavy oils
(Mosse et al., 2009; Little et al., 2010). Finally, due to the high vertical resolution, the dielectric tools have
also been used as an option for evaluation of laminated reservoirs (Hizem et al., 2008; Pirrone et al., 2011).
Theory
Permittivity
Materials can be classified into three categories according to their ability to allow the transmission of
charges: conductors, semiconductors and insulators. The ability of a material to become conductive is
related to the dielectric strength, whose value represents the boundary of the applied electric field that
makes the medium ionized and stops acting as an insulator (Shrivastava, 2018). In the presence of an
electric field, positive charges are forced to align in the direction of the field, and consequently the negative
charges are aligned in the opposite direction. Dielectric materials are classified into two types: the polar
materials exhibit permanent electric dipole, such as water; a second type is nonpolar materials, which
have symmetric molecules and do not exhibit permanent electric dipole, such as CH4. Atoms, due to their
spherical symmetry, do not have permanent electric dipole. However, when excited by an electric field, they
will acquire an induced dipole moment in the direction of the field (Psarras, 2018).
Permittivity (ε), also referred as dielectric constant, is a macroscopic property of a medium, related to
electric flux density caused by induced electric field (IEEE, 1997). In this way, the permittivity is directly
related to the sensitivity of a medium to the excitation of an electric field (Hayt & Buck, 2012):
(1)
where represents electric flux density, or electric displacement, electric field, and permittivity, which is
a tensor whose intensity depends on many factors, such as frequency, temperature, and pressure. Considering
an isotropic environment, the tensor is reduced to a complex scalar number (ε(*)), and can be represented
as follows (Mosse et al., 2009):
(2)
where εr is the real part of the permittivity, also known as dielectric constant or relative permittivity, σ the
imaginary conductivity of the formation, ω the angular frequency (rad/s), and ε0 the vacuum permittivity
(8.85 × 10-12 F/m). The imaginary part is attributed to the loss of energy related to the movement of charges
and consequent loss of energy by thermal relaxation, being related to the conductivity of the medium.
Polarization Mechanisms
Several mechanisms influence dielectric properties of matter, including electron cloud polarization, atomic
polar orientation, and interfacial polarization. These processes are strongly dependent on the frequency of
the applied electromagnetic field (Seleznev et al., 2006; Hizem et al., 2008). At low frequencies (<1 kHz),
the permittivity depends mainly on the amount of water, conductivity and geometry of the porous medium.
As frequency increases, different types of polarization will be dominant (Garcia & Heidari, 2018), as shown
in Figure 1.
4. OTC-29882-MS 3
Figure 1—Illustration showing the predominance of each mechanism of polarization
(electronic, molecular, and interfacial), according to the applied field frequency.
Interfacial Polarization
Interfacial polarization, or Maxwell-Wagner effect, occurs between 1 Hz and 1 GHz due to the accumulation
of charges at interfaces, which is generated by the presence of conductive regions in contact with
insulating regions, common in environments where electrical characteristics vary significantly between
phases (Psarras, 2018), including water/rock and water/oil interfaces. It is strongly related to the geometric
framework of the conductive and insulating regions. For this reason, it is correlated to textural effect in
carbonate rocks (Seleznev et al., 2011). At low frequencies, the presence of ions has great impact on
permittivity, increasing the intensity of interfacial polarization (Figure 2). At frequencies lower than 1GHz,
it is the predominant mechanism, masking the water polarization.
Figure 2—Relation between resistivity, permittivity, and frequency, considering samples saturated
with aqueous solutions with different salinities, and a dried sample (modified from Hizem et al., 2008).
Molecular Polarization
Molecular polarization acts on molecules with a permanent dipole moment, such as water. The dipoles
are initially randomly located, which results on null polarization in the absence of a magnetic field. In the
presence of an external field, they become aligned (Seleznev et al., 2006). Due to molecular interactions and
inertial momentum, the orientation of the molecules takes a time before field alignment, which is controlled
5. 4 OTC-29882-MS
by the temperature of the medium: the increase of the agitation due to the increase of kinetic energy caused by
the temperature reduces the permittivity (Akerlof & Oshry, 1950). On the other hand, pressure increases the
concentration of molecules per unit volume, increasing the permittivity (Hizem et al., 2008). In the presence
of salts, the ions are hydrated by water molecules (Figure 3). In other words, they are completely surrounded
by water molecules, a phenomenon known as solvation. This phenomenon induces the neutralization of
charges, which hinders the orientation of water molecules, reducing permittivity of the medium (Lane et
al., 1952), as shown in Figure 4. Thus, increased salinity reduces permittivity in frequencies above 1 GHz;
in contrast, at lower frequencies, salinity increases interfacial polarization, resulting in higher polarization.
Figure 3—Sketch representing solvation (Wikipedia, 2019).
Figure 4—Relation between the salinity and the permittivity considering
solutions with different temperatures (Modified from Lane et al., 1952).
Deformational Polarization (Electronic and Atomic)
Deformational polarization includes atomic and electronic cloud polarization. It is characterized by relative
displacements of charges between the orbital electrons and the nucleus, or between the ions as a result of the
application of an electric field (Psarras, 2018). Electron polarization occurs when the medium is subjected to
a field, causing a small displacement of the distribution center of negative charges of the electrons relative to
the center of positive charges of the nucleus, generating a dipole moment and contributing to the polarization
of the medium (Hizem et al., 2008). The atomic polarization is also generated by the imposition of an applied
electric field, generating displacement of its original position. However, due to the greater mass in relation
to the electrons, the atomic polarization results in an incipient polarization, although it occurs quickly and
has low relaxation time. Both electron and ionic cloud polarization are not affected by temperature and do
6. OTC-29882-MS 5
not exhibit loss of energy (Psarras, 2018) and affect all media materials. The polarization of the electronic
cloud, although active throughout the frequency range, is predominant at frequencies above those operated
by the logging tools. This mechanism will be predominant in materials that do not have permanent dipole,
such as minerals and oil.
Measurement
Dielectric tools operate similarly to the electromagnetic propagation tools used to measure resistivity in
LWD tools. The difference of phase and amplitude considering the emitted and received electromagnetic
waves allows the calculation of the permittivity and the conductivity of the medium (Calvert et al., 1977;
Rau et al., 1991). The difference is caused by a combination of the effect of the permittivity and conductivity
and the arrangement of the receivers of tools. Thus, for a given permittivity and conductivity, a specific
propagation loss will exist (Berry II et al., 1979). The angle of the phase shift can related to the real and
imaginary components as represented geometrically in Figure 5. In this way, the loss tangent is defined by
Equation 3.
Figure 5—Relationship between real (εr) and imaginiary (εr) parts of permittivity (Pérez & Hadfield, 2015).
(3)
where ε' is the real and ε" is the imaginary part. As described in Equation 2, the complex permittivity can be
decomposed into real and imaginary terms. The imaginary one is related to energy losses, which is related
to the conductivity. According to Psarras et al. (2006), the conductivity can be calculated from the dielectric
losses with the following complex relation:
(4)
The real part of σ*(ω) is given by Equation 5, where it is related to the imaginary permittivity component:
(5)
Petrophysical Interpretation
Water Saturation
The main use of dielectric tools lies in the calculation of water saturation regardless of salinity. In
other words, saturation can be determined even in freshwater environments. The polarization of water is
dependent on several factors, such as temperature, pressure, and salinity of water. Conductive materials are
susceptible to the frequency of applied electromagnetic field, while semi-conductive or insulating materials
are little affected, such as rock matrix and oil. The fact that the permittivity of the water is much higher than
the other components present in the reservoir makes the technique useful for saturation determination. Dry
minerals are called non-dispersive; in other words, they are not affected by frequency. However, polarization
7. 6 OTC-29882-MS
of water-saturated rocks is controlled by frequency, and for this reason are classified as dispersive media
(Baker et al., 1985) as shown in Figure 6. This phenomenon is explained by the presence of two phases,
which generate interfaces that are influenced by the surface polarization mechanism. Table 1 shows the
dielectric permittivity for various materials.
Tabel 1—Relative permittivity of different materials. Water permitivitty is
dependent on temperature, pressure, frequency, and salinity (Schmitt et al., 2011).
Material Relative Permitivitty (F/m)
Quartz 4.4
Sandstones 4.65
Carbonates 7.5 – 9.2
Dolomite 6.8
Clays 5 – 5.8
Anhydrate 6.4
Halite 5.9
Gypsite 4.16
Oil 2.2
Air, Gas 1
Water 50-78
Figure 6—Relationship between dielectric frequency and permittivity considering water, dry
dolomite, saturated sandstone and saturated dolomite (Modified from Baker et al., 1985).
Complex Refractive Index Model (CRIM). The most widely petrophysical interpretation model used
is known as Complex Refractive Index Model (CRIM) (Birchak et al., 1974) and has been used for the
determination of water filled porosity (Meador & Cox, 1975; Penney et al., 1996; Pirrone et al., 2011). The
CRIM model was proposed for the determination of soil moisture in water/air system and was later adapted
for the volumetric calculation of water in hydrocarbon reservoirs in a water/oil system. This model was
based on the Lichtenecker equations (Goncharenko et al., 2000), which considers that in a medium with two
phases, the permittivity corresponds to the weighted geometric mean of the permittivity of each medium.
Thus, the CRIM equation was described as follows:
(6)
8. OTC-29882-MS 7
where Sw is water saturation, Ø porosity, and εcrim, εHC, εm, and εw are the permittivities of the medium,
hydrocarbon, matrix, and water. Thus, the saturation of water can be obtained by:
(7)
The CRIM model can be used to determine the water filled porosity or, in the presence of another
porosity log, the equation can be used for the direct determination of water saturation. The permittivity of
the hydrocarbon can be obtained by direct laboratory measurement, by analogous values, or estimated from
the density (ρ) by an empirical equation suggested by (Panuganti et al., 2013):
(8)
Each mineral has a permittivity generated by the electron cloud deformational polarization mechanism.
Unlike the permittivity of the hydrocarbon, which has low weight in the equation and small variation
around 2F/m, the permittivity of the matrix has a higher weight in the equation. Thus, uncertainties in
mineralogy may cause error in the calculation of water filled porosity and, consequently, in the water
saturation. Mineralogy must be known for an adequate estimate of water saturation. Finally, knowing the
salinity and the water temperature, the permittivity of the water can be estimated through empirical equations
(Malmberg & Maryott, 1956; Stogrin, 1971):
(9)
where T is the temperature in °C and sal the salinity in normality. Most published papers and patents claim
that salinity data is obtained from conductivity and permittivity by inversion (Seleznev et al., 2005; Little
et al., 2010), but they do not give details of the procedure.
Subsequently, Seleznev et al. (2004) have created what they called a textural model, where the pore
geometry is used as input. These authors show that for frequencies lower than 1 GHz, the texture begins
to have a high impact on the permittivity, given by interfacial polarization mechanism. Thus, the CRIM
model cannot be fitted to the experimental data. To circumvent the model deficiency, the authors suggest a
modification in it, including the information of the pore morphology. The model shows better adjustment
to the results obtained at low frequencies. At high frequencies, the CRIM model presents the best results
among several other techniques tested by the authors.
The textural model considers the CRIM model added to the textural effect in order to minimize the
non-accounting of the incremental polarization generated by interfacial mechanism in the CRIM equation.
The model counts the permittivity of ellipsoidal grains and pores dispersed in a medium with CRIM as
background, as well as illustrated by Figure 7. Hence, it is considered a factor called depolarization, which
varies from 1 to 3 and can be used to adjust numerical data. This model is useful for the determination of
water saturation at lower frequencies as discussed previously. The model is described mathematically as
follows:
(10)
where εeff is the effective permittivity comprised by the model εcrim, εj the complex permittivity of the j-
th spheroidal inclusion of each phase (oil, water and matrix), the depolarization factor that is given by the
pore geometry or inclusion considering spheroid proportions (eg. sphere – 1/3, 1/3, 1/3), and volumetric
fractions: fmatrix = (1-Ø), fwater = (ØSw), and foil = Ø (1-Sw). For comparison purposes, Seleznev et al. (2006)
9. 8 OTC-29882-MS
considered pores and grains as oblate spherical inclusions with 1:10 ratio, whereas the oil inclusions are
assumed to be spherical. Permittivity of oil and water are estimated, porosity can be obtained by density,
neutron or magnetic resonance logging. Finally, the water saturation and its permittivity can be obtained
by mathematical inversion.
Figure 7—Graphical representation of textural model that considers grains, pores and hydrocarbons as randomly
distributed inclusions in a background described by the CRIM model (modified from Seleznev et al., 2006).
Other Applications
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC). In rocks with high surface area, such as clayey sandstones and shales,
significant interfacial polarization is observed even at higher frequencies (up to 100 MHz), which can mask
the effect of molecular polarization. In this way, the dielectric response is strongly related to the mobile
ions present in clay minerals, a phenomenon described as cation exchange capacity (CEC) (Josh, 2014).
The cation exchange capacity is useful for the determination of water saturation; for example, in the method
proposed by Waxman & Smits (1968) for the evaluation of clayey reservoirs. In addition, high CEC values
can be correlated to the presence of smectite, expandable clay minerals that can be hydrated during drilling
and/or injection of water or steam, causing damage to the reservoirs. Through direct correlation between
measured CEC and measured permittivity, it is possible to obtain linear correlations that satisfactorily predict
CEC (Josh, 2014).
Archie's Electrical Parameters. Aside from CEC, the dispersive properties of the permittivity at low
frequencies can be used to obtain electrical parameters. In siliciclastic rocks, the dispersion is better related
to CEC. On the other hand, in carbonate rocks, in the absence of clay minerals, the permittivity is controlled
by the texture of the rock. From this assumption, we obtain the electrical Archie parameters (Mosse et al.,
2009; Zhang et al., 2010). Hence, tools operating at multiple frequencies are able to provide data used to
estimates "m" and "n". Considering that dielectric tool is able to obtain water saturation and resistivity at
different depths of investigation, the electrical parameters can be obtained in the invaded zone from Archie's
equation (Seleznev et al., 2005).
Laminated Reservoirs. Due to the tool's characteristics and physical limitations, dielectric tools
provide shallow measurements. On the other hand, these limiting characteristics generate high resolution
measurements, which can be useful in the evaluation of laminated reservoirs (Allen, 1984; Penney et al.,
1996; Pirrone et al., 2011). In addition to the delimitation of net pay in laminated reservoirs, dielectric tools
can provide the hydrocarbon-filled porosity, according to the saturation models presented previously. Hence,
the dielectric logging can identify more accurately the presence of hydrocarbons, aiding interpretation in
the absence or together with imaging tools.
Brazilian Case Studies
Potiguar Basin
During the 1980s, two campaigns were carried out with the EPT™ tool, from 1982 to 1983 and 1985 to
1988 respectively (D'Abbadia & Carrascoza, 1988). Fresh water reservoirs bearing with light and heavy
10. OTC-29882-MS 9
oils (500 to 15,000Cp) were evaluated. Reservoirs with low mobility hydrocarbons presented satisfactory
results (Figure 8), with Sxo similar to those obtained in the microresistivity calculations. However, no
microresistivity was used in those wells. Thus, the comparison was made with analogous wells. Still,
with respect to the reservoirs bearing hydrocarbons with high mobility, the results were not satisfactory.
According to the authors, the presence of clay minerals impaired the identification of hydrocarbons with
the EPT™ tool.
Figure 8—Plot showing GR, porosity (PHID), water filled porosity (PHIEPT) and Sxo of a Potiguar Basin onshore well.
Espirito Santo Basin
The Dielectric Scanner™ tool was used to evaluate ultra-heavy oil reservoirs (up to 18,000Cp) with low
resistivity waters in an onshore field in order to evaluate the saturation of hydrocarbons. The results
presented excellent correspondence with microresistivity Sxo (Figure 9). Even in these low mobility
reservoirs, saturation differences were observed in different investigation depths, indicating mobility of
these hydrocarbons. Also, the salinity provided by the tool occurred according to the expected, considering
the formation water and the salinity of the filtrate. Finally, the tool indicated the presence of oil in carbonates
previously considered non-reservoir.
11. 10 OTC-29882-MS
Figure 9—Plot showing dielectric logging results of a Espirito Santo onshore field, including shallow and deep
resistivities (track 4), matrix permittivity (track 7), total porosity, water filled porosity and residual oil (track 8),
water saturation from dielectric tool (black) and microresistivity (red) (track 9), and dielectric salinity (track 10).
Albian Carbonates
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the Dielectric Scanner™ in carbonates, the tool was used in two
wells, both with aqueous drilling fluid. The results were satisfactory, although it did not bring any relevant
additional information. The saturation of water occurs between 10 to 20% above saturation of the uninvaded
zone. However, provided the intermediated viscosity of these reservoirs, around 30Cp, the tool does not
showed residual oil information, considering the high values obtained (Figure 10). On the other hand,
microresistivity logs recorded anomalously high values in some regions, which hinder the comparison
12. OTC-29882-MS 11
between dielectric and resistivity results. Finally, the water measured water salinity by the dielectric is
similar to to one of the drilling fluid, around 40,000ppm.
Figure 10—Plot showing dielectric logging results of an Albian Carbonate: conventional microrresistivity
(pink) and from dielectric tool (black) (track 5), matrix permittivity (track 6), dielectric salinity
(track 7), and total water saturation from resistivity (blue) and from dielectric (black) (track 8).
Pre-Salt
Finally, tests were performed on some pre-salt wells to evaluate the residual oil saturation. Overall, the
results show that dielectric resistivity curve matches with conventional microresistivity curves (Figure 11).
The water saturation obtained by the tool presented values similar to obtained by microresitivy indicanting
that the results can be considered residual oil. The salinity presented values compatible with the expected
ones considering the drilling fluid.
13. 12 OTC-29882-MS
Figure 11—Plot showing dielectric logging results of a Pre-Salt Carbonate: microresistivity
conventional (purple) and from dielectric tool (red) (track 4), matrix permittivity (track
6), and total water saturation from resistivity (blue) and from dielectric (black) (track 8).
Conclusions
Despite its long history of use in the petroleum industry, the dilectric tool was rarely used in Petrobras
due to the high specificity, limitations of the technique, or high cost. The main use of this tool is the
determination of porosity filled by water independently of the salinity. In other words, it can be used for
calculation of water saturation in environments with low salinity formation water or unknown salinity. Due
to limitations of the technique, the high frequencies used and the proximity between electrodes to minimize
noise, the tool provides very shallow measurements, generally smaller than 10 cm, depending on tool and
frequency. Owing to those characteristics, the tool has been used widely to evaluate heavy oils reservoirs,
where the invasion tends to be smaller. Although the company has few reservoirs in development with fresh
groundwater, the tool can be useful in the evaluation of exploratory wells. In light reservoirs, the saturations
obtained by dielectric are similar to microresistivity, and can be an alternative to residual oil evaluation.
14. OTC-29882-MS 13
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Petrobras for permission to publish this article, and Andre Luiz Martins
Compan and Sandra Regina Reveriego Carneiro for valuable suggestions to improve this work.
References
Akerlof, G. C. & Oshry, H. I. (1950) The Dielectric Constant of Water at High Temperatures and in Equilibrium with its
Vapor, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 72(7), pp. 2844–2847.
Al-Qarshubi, I. et al. (2011) Quantification of Remaining Oil Saturation Using a New Wireline Dielectric Dispersion
Measurement - A Case Study from Dukhan Field Arab Reservoirs, in SPE Middle East Oil and Gas Show and
Conference. Manama, Bahrain: Society of Petroleum Engineers, p. 9.
Allen, D. (1984) Laminated sand analysis, in SPWLA 25th Annual Logging Symposium. New Orleans, pp. 1–20.
del Ángel Morales, J. G. et al. (2013) Methodology to Determine the Remaining Oil Saturation (ROS) in the Gas Cap of a
Highly Fractured Carbonate Field in the Gulf of Mexico, in SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium. New Orleans,
Louisiana: Society of Petrophysicists and Well-Log Analysts, p. 16.
Baker, P. L., Kenyon, W. E. & Kester, J. M. (1985) EPT Interpretation Using A Textural Model, in SPWLA 26th Annual
Logging Symposium. Dallas, Texas: Society of Petrophysicists and Well-Log Analysts, p. 19.
Berry II, W. R., Head, M. P. & Mougne, M. L. (1979) Dielectric Constant Logging A Progress Report, in SPWLA 20th
Annual Logging Symposium. Tulsa, Oklahoma: Society of Petrophysicists and Well-Log Analysts, p. 26.
Birchak, J. R. et al. (1974) High dielectric constant microwave probes for sensing soil moisture, Proceedings of the IEEE,
62(1), pp. 93–98.
Calvert, T., Rau, R. & Wells, L. (1977) Electromagnetic Propagation: A New Dimension In Logging, in SPE California
Regional Meeting,. California, pp. 1–15.
Chen, H. & Heidari, Z. (2014) Pore-Scale Evaluation of Dielectric Measurements in Formations With Complex Pore
and Grain Structures, in SPWLA 55th Annual Logging Symposium. Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates: Society of
Petrophysicists and Well-Log Analysts, p. 13.
D'Abbadia, M.R.I e Carrascoza, R.C., 1988, Utilização do Perfil de Propagação Eletromagnética na Bacia Potiguar
(Dados e Análises da Avaliação de Reservatório de Hidrocarbonetos Associados a Água de Baixa Salinidade), II
Seminário Técnico de Operações Geológicas, 259-269.
Garcia, A. P. & Heidari, Z. (2018) Integrated Characterization of Multi-Frequency Dielectric Dispersion Measurements
in Mixed-Wet Rocks, in SPWLA 59th Annual Logging Symposium. London, UK: Society of Petrophysicists and Well-
Log Analysts, p. 17.
Goncharenko, A. V, Lozovski, V. Z. & Venger, E. F. (2000) Lichtenecker's equation: applicability and limitations, Optics
Communications, 174(January), pp. 19–32.
Hayt, W. & Buck, J. (2012) Eletromagnetismo. São Paulo: Editora McGraw-Hill Interamericana.
Hizem, M. et al. (2008) Dielectric Dispersion: A New Wireline Petrophysical Measurement, in SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition. Denver, Colorado, USA: Society of Petroleum Engineers, p. 21.
IEEE (1997) IEEE Standard DeÞnitions of Terms for Radio Wave Propagation, Wave Propagation Standards Committee
of the Antennas Propagation - IEEE Standards Board.
Josh, M. (2014) Dielectric Permittivity: A Petrophysical Parameter for Shales, PETROPHYSICS, 55(4), pp. 319–332.
Lane, J., Saxton, J. & Bullard, C. (1952) Dielectric dispersion in pure polar liquids at very high radio frequencies - III.The
effect of electrolytes in solution, Proceedings of The Royal Society, 219(1119), pp. 531–545.
Little, J. D. et al. (2010) Dielectric Dispersion Measurements In California Heavy Oil Reservoirs, in SPWLA 51st Annual
Logging Symposium. Perth, Australia: Society of Petrophysicists and Well-Log Analysts, p. 11.
Malmberg, C. & Maryott, A. (1956) Dielectric Constant of Water from 0° to 100° C, Journal of Research of the National
Bureau of Standards, 56(1), pp. 1–8.
Meador, R. A. & Cox, P. T. (1975) Dielectric Constant Logging, A Salinity Independent Estimation of Formation Water
Volume, in Fall Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME. Dallas, Texas: Society of Petroleum Engineers,
p. 15.
Mosse, L. et al. (2009) Dielectric Dispersion Logging In Heavy Oil: A Case Study From The Orinoco Belt, in SPWLA
50th Annual Logging Symposium. The Woodlands, Texas: Society of Petrophysicists and Well-Log Analysts, p. 16.
Panuganti, S., Vargas, F. & Chapman, W. (2013) Property Scaling Relations for Nonpolar Hydrocarbons, Industrial &
Engineering Chemistry Research, 52(23), pp. 8009–8020.
Penney, R. K., Calcraft, A. P. & Pietsch, A. P. (1996) Quantitative EPT Interpretation in Australian Reservoirs, in SPE
Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference. Adelaide, Australia: Society of Petroleum Engineers, p. 7.
Pérez, A. T. & Hadfield, M. (2015) Low-Cost Oil Quality Sensor Based on Changes in Complex Permittivity, Sensors,
11, pp. 10675–10690.
15. 14 OTC-29882-MS
Pirrone, M. et al. (2011) A Novel Approach Based on Dielectric Dispersion Measurements to Evaluate the Quality
of Complex Shaly-sand Reservoirs, in SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. Denver, Colorado, USA:
Society of Petroleum Engineers, p. 13.
Psarras, G. C. et al. (2006) Dielectric and Conductivity Processes in Poly (ethylene terephthalate) and Poly (ethylene
naphthalate) Homopolymers and Copolymers, Journal of Polymer Science: Part B: Polymer Physics, 44, pp.
3078–3092.
Psarras, G. C. (2018) Fundamentals of Dielectric Theories, in Dang, Z. (ed.) Dielectric Polymer Materials for High-
Density Energy Storage. Elsevier Inc., pp. 11–58.
Rau, R. et al. (1991) Advances In High Frequency Dielectric Logging, in SPWLA 32nd Annual Logging Symposium.
Midland, Texas: Society of Petrophysicists and Well-Log Analysts, p. 19.
Schmitt, D. P. et al. (2011) Revisiting Dielectric Logging in Saudi Arabia: Recent Experiences and Applications in
Development and Exploration Wells, in SPE/DGS Saudi Arabia Section Technical Symposium and Exhibition. Al-
Khobar, Saudi Arabia: Society of Petroleum Engineers, p. 18.
Seleznev, N. et al. (2004) DIELECTRIC MIXING LAWS FOR FULLY AND PARTIALLY SATURATED CARBONATE
ROCKS, in SPWLA 45th Annual Logging Symposium. Noordwijk, pp. 1–14.
Seleznev, N. et al. (2005) Technique for Determining Properties of Earth Formations Using Dielectric Permttivity
Measurements.
Seleznev, N. V et al. (2006) Formation properties derived from a multi-frequency dielectric measurement, in SPWLA 47th
Annual Logging Symposium. Veracruz, Mexico: Society of Petrophysicists and Well-Log Analysts, p. 12.
Seleznev, N. V et al. (2011) Applications Of Dielectric Dispersion Logging To Oil Shale Reservoirs, in SPWLA 52nd
Annual Logging Symposium. Colorado Springs, Colorado: Society of Petrophysicists and Well-Log Analysts, p. 16.
Shrivastava, A. (2018) Plastic Properties and Testing, Introduction to Plastics Engineering. Edited by E. Scientific.
Amsterdam.
Stogrin, A. (1971) Equations for calculating the dielectric constant of saline water, IEEE Transactions on Microwave
Theory Tech., 19, pp. 733–736.
Suarez, C. A. P. et al. (2012) Dielectric Logging Uncovers New Reserves In A Reactivated Colombian Field, in SPWLA
53rd Annual Logging Symposium. Cartagena, Colombia: Society of Petrophysicists and Well-Log Analysts, p. 11.
Waxman, M. & Smits, L. (1968) Electrical Conductivities in Oil-Bearing Shaly Sands, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Journal, 8(2), pp. 102–122.
Zhang, T. et al. (2010) Dielectric Response of Carbonate Core-Plugs - Influence of Heterogeneous Rock Properties
on Permittivity, in SPE/DGS Saudi Arabia Section Technical Symposium and Exhibition. Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia:
Society of Petroleum Engineers, p. 16.
View publication stats
View publication stats
