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1. SOCIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORK
UNIT – Introduction to Psychology: Definition and branches of Psychology – Psychology for
Social Work practice - Sensory Process and Perception: Process of Perception - Learning:
Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning - Memory: Sensory memory, Short-term
memory, long term memory, forgetting, improving memory
Definition: In 1892 William James defined psychology as the ‘science of mental processes’.
• In his view, psychology may be defined in terms of conscious states.
In 1884 James Sully defined psychology as the science of the ‘inner world’ as distinguished
from physical science which study the physical phenomena. • In 1892 Wilhelm Wundt
defined psychology as the science which studies the ‘internal experiences’.
Branches of Psychology: https://www.slideshare.net/SureshbabuG11/branches-of-
psychology-241779279
Psychology for Social Work practice:
Psychology deals with human behaviour, emotions and projections. It also deals with some of
the factors responsible in the formation of behaviour patterns. We know about the
individual's development through psychology. Cognition, learning and memory are core
subject matters for psychology. Knowledge of socialization process is dependent upon
psychology. We get to know about social process from psychology. The individual's
reactions and behaviour, to a great extent, are based upon projections, which is a
psychological phenomenon. Psychology studies the interaction pattern between heredity and
environment and explain to us the reasons for aware of individual differences in physical and
mental traits and abilities. During social work practice we seek the help of psychology to
understand and analyse human behaviour. When a social worker makes an effort to bring
about a change in personality through functioning or behaviour modification he has to look
for help from psychology. In resolving problems related to adjustment, psychology helps
social work. The method of social case work of social work profession is dependent on
psychology. Group work derives many social, psychological elements to be lack in pracilcz
1;)s group strengthening Relevance of Psychology in and betterment, from psychology.
Social psychology studies group morale, Social Work Practice leadership qualities and traits,
behaviours of crowds and audiences which are useful in group work and to some extent, in
community organisation. Psychology provides considerable help in the field of social work
practice, like individual and family case work (for example, modification in individual's
personality); diagnosing and treatment planning for problem of children related to schooling;
individual's adjustment with primary and secondary groups, physical and ~mental patients'
accommodation with medical requirements and adjustment with others; understanding,
diagnosing and modifying group behaviour and developing leadership qualities; ego analysis
and strengthening and understanding defensive reactions (mechanisms) of individuals and
counselling and guidance for enhancement in positive adjustment and fulfilment of needs of
individual and society.
Sensory Process and Perception: Process of Perception:

2. Definition: According to Eshetu (2015),“…perception is our sensory experience of the world
around us and involves both the recognition of environmental stimuli, through which we gain
information about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our
survival”
Meaning: Perception can be defined as our recognition and interpretation of sensory
information. Perception also includes how we respond to the information. We can think of
perception as a process where we take in sensory information from our environment and use
that information in order to interact with our environment.
Process of perception; the model of process of perception describes four stages. The model
has been shown depicting the four stages. The model can be understood through input-
throughput-output approach.
Stage 1: It describes perceptual inputs. Perceptual inputs encompass all stimuli that exist in
our environment including information, objects, events, people etc. The perceiver receives
these inputs.
Stage 2: It describes perceptual mechanisms or throughputs. This is the transformation of
perceptual inputs to outputs. It involves the three processes of selecting, organising, and
interpreting the stimuli that are in the environment. Though all individuals go through the
same three steps, while transforming the perceptual inputs to outputs, they differ in how do
they select, organise and interpret stimuli based on their own personality predispositions and
biases.
A Model of Process of Perception
Stage 1: Perceptual Inputs of Stimuli Information, Objects, Events, People etc.
Stage 2: Perceptual Mechanisms Selection, Organisation, Interpretation
stage3: Perceptual outputs Attitudes, Opinions, Feelings, Values
Stage 4: Pattern of Behaviour
Stage 3: Perceptual outputs are derived through the processing of perceptual throughputs.
These include one’s attitudes, opinions, feelings, values, and actions. Perceptual errors may
adversely affect the outputs. Hence, managers should enhance their perceptual skills.
Stage 4: Behaviour is a resultant factor. The perceiver’s behaviour, in turn, generates
responses and these reactions give rise to a new set of inputs. Out of four stages of process of
perception, stage 1 and stage 4 are simpler to comprehend which describe inputs and final
outcomes respectively. You need to gain more insight with respect to stage 2, and stage 3 of
the process.

3. Learning: Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning:
https://www.slideshare.net/HunsahQaiser1/classical-and-operant-conditioning-
122707421
Memory: Sensory memory: Sensory memory in psychology refers to the short-term retention
of sensory information, like sights, sounds, and smells, immediately following stimuli input.
It’s a crucial stage in memory processing that briefly stores vast amounts of sensory data
before it’s selectively filtered into conscious awareness as working memory.
Short-term memory:
Long term memory:
Forgetting: https://haleysintrotopsychology.weebly.com/37-describe-the-characteristics-of-short-
and-long-term-memory-and-the-theories-of-forgetting.html

4. Refer diagram
Improving memory: https://www.verywellmind.com/great-ways-to-improve-your-memory-
2795356
UNIT – II Human Development: Developmental Psychology - Meaning and principles of growth and
development, heredity, environment and ecological influences – family and community - Brief
outline of Human Development: Characteristics, developmental tasks, personal and social
adjustments, vocational, family / marital adjustments and hazards in each stages such as: Prenatal
period, infancy and babyhood - Childhood, Puberty & Adolescence - Adulthood – Middle Age and Old
Age
Developmental Psychology – Meaning:

5. Principles of growth and development: are inseparable but they differ from each other. The
growth represents the physical changes of an individual and development represents the
overall changes, structure and shape of an individual.
Knowledge of the growth and development at various stage is very essential for the teacher.
The teacher has to stimulate the growth and development of a child. He can do it only if he has
proper knowledge of the growth and development at various stage.
Meaning of Growth and Development
Growth terms represent a purely physical sense of a person, i.e height, weight, size and length
etc. Growth is quantitive in nature. It starts with conception but ends at some particular age.
Development implies the overall change in shape, form or structure, along with the function of
the organ. Development is both quantitative and qualitative in nature. It is a continuous
process starting from the Womb and end with the tomb.
Principles of Growth and development
1. Principle of Continuity: Development follows the principle of continuity which means
that development is a continuous process. It starts with pre-natal and ends with death.
2. Principle of Integration: Development thus involves a movement from the whole to parts
and from parts to the whole and this way it is the integration of the whole and its parts as well
as the specific and general responses. It enables a child to develop satisfactorily in relation to
various aspects or dimension of his personality.
Example: Child first starts to learn hand movement then finger movement and then learn the
movement of both hand and finger together this is called integration

6. 3. Principle of lack of uniformity in the developmental rate: Development though the
continuous process, but does not exhibit steadiness and uniformity in terms of the rate of
development in various development of personality or in the developmental periods and stage
of life.
Example: A person may have a high rate of growth and development in term of height and
weight but may not have the same pace of mental and social development.
4. Principle of individual difference: Every organism is a distinct creation in itself. One of
the most important principles of development is that involves individual differences. There is
no fixed rate of development. That all children will learn to walk is universal, but the time at
which each child takes his her first step may vary.
5. Principle of uniformity pattern: Although develop does not proceed at a uniform rate and
shows marked individual differences with regard to the process and outcome of various stages
of development, yet it follows a definite pattern in one or the other dimension which is
uniform and universal with respect to the individual of a species.
6. Principe of proceeding from general to specific: While developing in relation to any
aspect of personality. The child first pickup or exhibit general response and learn how to
show specific and goal-directed responses afterwards.
7. Principle of interaction between Heredity and Environment: Development of a child is
a process that cannot be defined wholly based on either on heredity or environment. Both
have to play an important role in development. There are arguments in favour of both.
However, most of the psychologist agree that an interplay o these two factors leads to
development.

7. Where heredity decides or set some limits on development ( mostly physical), environmental
influences complete the developmental process ( qualitative). Environmental influences
provide space for multidimensional development through interaction with family, peers,
society and so on. Growth and development is a joint product of heredity and
environment.
8. Principle of interrelation: The Various aspects or dimension of one’s growth and
development are interrelated. What is achieved or not achieved in on or other dimensions in
the course of the gradual and continuous process of the development surely affects the
development of other dimensions.
A healthy body tends to develop a healthy mind and an emotionally stable, physically strong
and socially conscious personality. Inadequate physical or mental development may, on the
other hand, result in a socially or emotionally maladjusted personality.
9. Principle of Cephalocaudal: Development proceeds in the direction of the longitudinal
axis. Development from head to foot or toe. That is why, before it becomes able to stand, the
child first gains control over his head and arms and then on his legs.
10. Principle of Proximodistal: Development of motor skills to start at central body parts to
outwards. That is why, in the beginning, the child is seen to exercise control over the large
fundamental muscles of the arm and then hand and only afterwards over the smaller muscles
of the fingers.
11. Principle of predictability: Development is predictable, which means that with the help
of the uniformity of pattern and sequence of development. We can go to a great extent,
forecast the general nature and behaviour of a child in one or more aspects or dimension at any

8. particular stage of its growth and development. We can know the particular age at which
children will learn to walk, speak and so on.
12. Principle of Spiral versus Linear advancement: The child doesn’t proceed straight or
linear on the path of development at any stage never takes place with a constant or steady
pace. After the child had developed to a certain level, there is likely to be a period of rest for
consolidation of the developmental progress achieved till then. In advancing further, therefore,
the development turn back and then moves forward again in a spiral pattern

9. 13. Principle of Association of Maturation and Learning: Biological growth and
development are known as maturation. Biological changes involve changes in the brain and
the nervous system, which provide new abilities to a child. Development proceeds from
simple to complex. In the beginning, a child learns through concrete objects and gradually
moves to abstract thinking. This transition happens because of maturation
Heredity: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heredity
Environment and ecological influences – family and community:
https://helpfulprofessor.com/environmental-factors-examples/
Brief outline of Human Development:
Characteristics:
Developmental tasks: https://psychologyfanatic.com/developmental-tasks/#
Personal and social adjustments: https://www.studocu.com/en-us/document/riverside-city-
college/personal-and-social-adjustment/personal-and-social-adjustment/36203249
Vocational: Although vocational choice is considered to be the result of decision-making
processes, it is important to emphasize that discerning one’s vocation is not a cold
calculation, in which people rationally weigh their skills, interest, and values against multiple
job options to come up with the “logical choice.” Instead vocational development is a process
that is deeply entwined with identity development, and so includes dimensions focused on
meaning, value, motivation, emotion, and social relationships. It is a task that is actively
negotiated and can be fraught with confusion, anxiety, and frustration. The extent to which
this task will progress in a positive direction depends on a wide variety of individual, social,
and societal factors.

10. Family / marital adjustments and hazards in each stages such as: Prenatal period, infancy
and babyhood - Childhood, Puberty & Adolescence - Adulthood – Middle Age and Old Age:
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/17134/1/Unit-3.pdf
UNIT – III Introduction to Society: Society: Definition - meaning and characteristics -
Culture: Definition, characteristics, structure, functions, reasons for cultural - development
and cultural change, subculture, contra-culture. - Status & Role: Types and Characteristics -
Social Stratification: Definition, Characteristics, Caste, Class & Race. Social Change:
Meaning, Characteristics, Change
Society: Definition - meaning and characteristics:
https://www.slideshare.net/MeghattaySaha/concept-and-definition-of-society
Culture: Definition, characteristics, structure, functions
https://www.slideserve.com/benjamin/characteristics-of-culture
, subculture, contra-culture: https://www.slideshare.net/tiinuraini/subcultures-2-33443036
Status & Role:
Status: Characteristic:
Statuses in society are accompanied by a number of norms that define how an individual
occupying a particular position is expected to act. This group of norms is known as role.
 It is determined by the cultural situation of the particular society.
 One individual may have several statuses such as father, husband, teacher, etc.
 It is determined only in relevance to other members of society.
 It carries with it some prestige or leaves an impression on the career of individuals.
 Statuses differ with their degree of importance, e.g. the importance of occupational
statuses in industrial countries differs as in the case of a professor and a peon. Another
e.g. is the importance of caste-based occupational status in Nepal such as the
blacksmith and priest.
 Statuses of people may be divided into various categories. These categories or
statuses are not imposed from above. Some of these statuses are achieved while others
are ascribed.
 Social status has a hierarchical form where some persons occupy the highest position
while others occupy the ordinary statuses in society.
Types of statuses
There are two ways in which an individual can get his status in society. Some statuses are
acquired by birth whereas others are achieved later in one’s life. Ralph Linton distinguished
it as:
Ascribed Status
These are the statuses in which the individual has no choice as they get it through birth or by
placement in a social group. E.g. a person may enjoy ascribed status because of sex or age or

11. due to birth in a rich family. An infant gets a family status which includes family name and
prestige, and right of heritage.
Basis: The ascribed status is based on age, sex, kinship race, family, etc. In almost every
society, particularly in a patriarchal society, it is the elder men who are respected but in the
matriarchal system of society, elder women are respected.
Since it is determined by birth, Brahmin are given higher status as compared to Sudras and
people said to be belonging to an honorable class are given a better form of it than the people
of the ordinary class.
Achieved Status
These are the statuses on which the individual has choices, as a person has earned out of his
own personal efforts, ability, and capacity. For E.g. a son of a farmer when completes a
degree in engineering has acquired the achieved status.
Basis: It is based on personal ability, education, earned wealth, etc. A person who can display
his ability in the field of social service, sports, education, etc. is given a higher and better
status.
Mixed-Status
These are the statuses that can be considered a mixture of achievement (achieved) and
ascription (ascribed). In society, some people achieve certain statuses because of an ascribed
status. E.g. Anmol K.C. is probably the most famous movie celebrity in Nepal. Many people
might argue that he would never have achieved that status if he had not come from a family
of the movie star, which is his ascribed status.
Role:
Characteristics of the Role:
1. Action Aspect of Status:
The role is in fact the action aspect of status. In involves various types of actions that a
person has to perform in accordance with the expectations of the society. These actions are
dependent not on the individual’s will but on the social sanction. That is why it is said that
every social role has a cultural basis.
2. Changing Concept of Role:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

12. Social roles as already stated, are in accordance with the social values, ideals, patterns etc.
These ideals, values and objects change and so the concept of the role also changes. The role
which is justified at a particular time may not be justified at some other time.
3. Limited Field of Operation:
Every role has a limited area of operation and the role has to be confined within that. For
example an officer has a role to play in the office but when he reaches his family, that role
ceases.
4. Roles are not Performed 100% for the Fulfillment of the Expectations:
It is not possible for anyone to perform his role fully in accordance with the expectations of
the society. There is bound to be some distinctions. For example one may not be able to
perform his role to the full satisfaction of the children.
5. Difference in the Importance of Role:
From the socio-cultural point of view all the roles are not equally important. Some of the
roles are more important while the others are less. The, roles that are most important are
called key roles while the roles that are of general importance, are called general roles.
Types:
 Cultural Roles – Culture is one of the major attributes of society. People often
engage with different aspects of culture. A person who is into the domain of culture
has to fulfil the expectations on him/her. For example, a priest has to fulfil duties like
performing rites and ceremonies.
 Social Differentiation – This refers to the changes in social roles with profession and
relations. Individuals practising different professions, such as teaching, nursing and
plumbing have different roles to fulfil.
 Situation – specific roles – People take up different roles, according to the situation.
Sometimes, a person turns out to be a victim of an accident, or an eye witness due to
unpredictable situations.
 Bio-sociological roles – Human beings in the environment have multiple
responsibilities towards the conservation and preservation of nature and its members.
 Gender roles – We are expected to play roles according to the gender we belong to,
like the roles of father, mother, woman etc.

13. Social Stratification
Introduction: Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of
social standing. Social stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into
rankings based on factors like wealth, income, education, family background, and power.
Typically, society’s layers, made of people, represent the uneven distribution of society’s
resources. Society views the people with more resources as the top layer of the social
structure of stratification. Other groups of people, with fewer and fewer resources, represent
the lower layers. An individual’s place within this stratification is called socioeconomic
status (SES). However, sociologists recognize social stratification as a society-wide system
that makes inequalities apparent. While inequalities exist between individuals, sociologists
are interested in larger social patterns. Sociologists look to see if individuals with similar
backgrounds, group memberships, identities, and location in the country share the same
social stratification. No individual, rich or poor, can be blamed for social inequalities, but
instead all participate in a system where some rise and others fall. Most Americans believe
the rising and falling is based on individual choices. But sociologists see how the structure of
society affects a person's social standing and therefore is created and supported by society.
Definition: Stratification is defined as the act of sorting data, people, and objects into
distinct groups or layers. It is a technique used in combination with other data analysis tools.
Characteristic:
 Social: Stratification represents social inequality. It is true that factors such as physique,
intelligence, age, and sex often define status. Such differences, however, cannot
account for why some statuses enjoy a greater degree of power, property and prestige.
 Ancient: Stratification is an ancient system. It was present even when people wandered
in small bands. There were main determinants of stratification based on age and gender.
Nearly all ancient civilizations had differences between the rich and poor, the powerful
and the humble, the free and the slave. Throughout history, social philosophers have
been deeply concerned about economic, social, and political inequalities.
 Universal: The concept of social stratification is universal. Everywhere there is a gap
between the rich and the poor, the 'haves' and the 'have nots'. Stratification is rampant
even in no literate societies.
 Consequential: There are consequences to the stratification system. Because of
stratification in human life, the most desirable and rarest things are distributed
unequally. Two kinds of consequences result from the system:
(i) Life chances: Life chances include factors such as infant mortality, life expectancy,
disease, separation, and divorce.

14. (ii) Lifestyle: The term 'lifestyle' includes a variety of factors, such as housing,
residential area, education, recreation, parent-child relations, modes of transport, etc.
Caste: Caste systems are closed stratification systems in which people can do little or
nothing to change their social standing. A caste system is one in which people are born into
their social standing category, or “caste,” and will remain in it their whole lives. Caste, any of
the ranked, hereditary, endogamous social groups, often linked with occupation, that
together constitute traditional societies in South Asia, particularly among Hindus in India.
Although sometimes used to designate similar groups in other societies, the “caste system” is
uniquely developed in Hindu societies.
Class: A class system is based on both social factors and individual achievement. A class
consists of a set of people who share similar status based on factors like wealth, income,
education, family background, and occupation. Unlike caste systems, class systems are open.
A person's economic position in a society, based on birth and individual achievement. Weber
differs from Marx in that he does not see this as the supreme factor in stratification. Weber
notes how corporate executives control firms they typically do not own; Marx would have
placed these people in the proletariat despite their high incomes by virtue of the fact they sell
their labour instead of owning capital.
Race: Racial stratification is the term used to describe societal inequalities or hierarchy
based on race. Black people and Hispanic people have less accumulated wealth than White
people, who are also more likely to earn a bachelor's or advanced degree. Race is one of the
social constructs that forms the basis for social stratification. Racial stratification is the term
used to describe societal inequalities or hierarchies based on race. The level of education,
wealth, income, and power are all influenced by race in certain societies.
Social Change: Meaning, Characteristics, Change:
Meaning of Social Change:
When change in social structure, social order, social values, certain customs and traditions,
socio- cultural norms, code of conduct, way of conducting oneself in the society, standards,
attitudes, customs and traditions of the society and related factors take place, it is said that
there is social change.
When there is social change, the process of socialization also changes accordingly. The
individual who is an active member of the society becomes an agent and target of social
change. He brings social changes and also is influenced by such changes.

15. In a particular period or after a gap of several years each and every member of the universe is
subjected to face social change. A particular social order does not continue for several
decades, say hundred years or more. There is bound to be some change.
In a particular period people of the society are guided by certain rules and regulations,
customs, traditions values and beliefs, the way every one has to manage and guide himself,
people have to manage their style of living, their work, business, profession and conduct.
Individuals of the society, young and old are guided by these rules and belief.
Socialization of children is also influenced by these frame of reference. The DOS and Donts
of the society, as we know influence the process of socialization. But after a certain period,
due to evolution or revolution we find slight or remarkable change in the above aspects of
social life.
In some cases, these changes may be slow or fast, may be a matter of degree or kind. In some
cases it may be substantial and drastic while in other cases it may gradual and of low order.
Characteristics of Social Change:
When either evolutionary or revolutionary changes take place in the social system one lives,,
observable changes take place in the social values, customs, traditions, cultural heritage, age
old beliefs, style of living, dress, attitude, superstitions stereotype, way of conducting oneself
in the society, process of socialization and overall behaviour of its members.
Thus the chief characteristics of social change is the change in various areas of the social
system where man is born, grown and dies. Such changes influence his attitude towards
various stimuli, values, faiths and beliefs, his emotions and sentiments, his moral and
religious standard, his conscience and super ago.
The characteristics and nature of social change influence a mans Id, ego and super ego, his
entire psycho physical system, his mental and physical characteristics, and his overall nature,
conduct, response and behaviour in the environment in which he moves, such as his family,
neighbourghood, his response to social members, and how he reacts to them.
When remarkable difference is observed in ones attitude towards widow marriage, towards
dishonesty, towards various cultural conditions, towards unwed motherhood, single
parenting, divorce, infanticitis, family planning, girl child, legalized abortion and population
control, we say that social change has occurred.
Further such changes in the attitude and values of a person should be more or less durable,
relatively permanent and whole heartedy acceptable and practised by a majority of the

16. society. A social change must continue for a considerable period. When certain social orders
are “out” and in their place new or alternative social orders arc “in”, when such changes are
perceivable we say that there has been social change.
However such acceptances of the change by a few members would not be called social
change. If a few accept the changes and majority oppose it, it gradually disappears and people
will again go for the old values and customs. Sometimes it is found than when majority
people experience that the changed social system does more harm than good, they again go
back to the old social order.
Ayurveda medicine and yoga which were used and practiced by most people during the
ancient time and were given up in between have now again become very popular and people
are again taking their help to get cured and keep oneself sound and fit.
Man being the prime motivator of social change, social change cannot be given shape without
the human being. Majority of the people ultimately have to conform the social change for its
continuity and durability.
UNIT – IV ) Introduction to Groups :Groups - Definition, Characteristics and Classification
of Groups - – Primary groups and Secondary Groups - Social Interaction & Social Process:
Competition, Co-operation, Conflict, Accommodation & Assimilation. - Socialization:
Definition, Characteristics, Types and Agencies of Socializations -Theories of Socialization
Groups – Definition: Sherif and Sherif (1969) define a group as follows “A group is a social
unit which consists of a number of individuals who stand in role and status relationship to one
another stabilized in some degree at the time and who possess a set of value or norms of their
own regulating their behaviour at least in matter of consequence to the group.” The terms like
social unit, role, status relationship, values, or norms used in the above definition need
explanation.
Characteristics: Size: To form a group, it must be having at least two members. Usually, the
number of group members ranges from 15 to 20. The more the members in the group, the
more complex it is to manage.
 Goals: Every group has certain goals and aims, that are the reasons for its existence.
Norms: A group has certain rules and regulations, for interacting with the group members
Structure: It has a structure which helps group to function effectively. Based on the roles and
positions held by the members.

17. Roles: Every member of a group has certain roles and responsibilities, which are assigned, by
the group leader. Interaction: There can be various interaction patterns within the group
members , i.e. face to face, telephonic, in writing etc
.  Collective Identity: A group is an aggregation of individuals, which are separately called
as members, and collectively called as a group. Furthermore, a group climate is an emotional
setting of the group, that relies on participative spirit, coordination, trust and bonding among
the members, open communication and other similar factors.
Classification of Groups - – Primary groups and Secondary Groups:
https://www.slideshare.net/clarence1723/primary-and-secondary-groups
Social Interaction and social process:
Introduction: Social processes are characterized by social interactions, which are social
exchanges that occur between individuals and groups in society. There are three main types
of social processes, such as cooperation, competition, and conflict. These social processes can
be classified as either associative or dissociative. The American Psychological Association
Dictionary of Psychology is, “any process that involves reciprocal stimulation or response
between two or more individuals.” This could be through family relationships such as
between parent and child; personal relationships.
Meaning of Social Interaction: Social interactions are reciprocal relationships which
not only influence the interacting individuals but also the quality of relationships
Meaning of Social Process: Social processes refer to forms of social interaction that
occur repeatedly. By social processes we mean those ways in which individuals and groups
interact and establish social relationships.
Definition of social interactions: According to Gillin and Gillin, “By social interaction
we refer to social relations of all sorts in functions – dynamic social relations of all kinds –
whether such relations exist between individual and individual, between group and group and
group and individual, as the case may be”.
Definition of social process: According to Horton and Hunt, “The term social process
refers to the repetitive form of behaviour which are commonly found in social life”.

18. Competition:
Competition is one of the other prominent types of social interaction. In this form, one or
more of the parties are attempting to prove to the others, or to bystanders, that they are
superior to other parties in one or more aspects. Resources can have both literal and symbolic
meaning. People can compete over tangible resources like land, food, and mates, but also
over intangible resources, such as social capital.
Cooperation:
Foundation of Human Relations Social Processes-I Prepared by: Dr. Priya, Assistant
Professor, IMS, University of Lucknow 3 Cooperation is one of fundamental processes of
social life. It is a form of social process in which two or more individuals or groups work
together jointly to achieve common goals. Cooperation is the form of social interaction in
which all participants benefit by attaining their goals. Types of Cooperation: Cooperation is
of different types. Maclver and Page have divided cooperation into two main types namely,
(i) Direct Cooperation (ii) Indirect Cooperation.
Accommodation:
Adjustment is the way of life. It can take place in two ways such as adaptation and
accommodation. Adaptation refers to the process of biological adjustment. Accommodation,
on the other hand, implies the process of social adjustment. “Accommodation is the
achievement of adjustment between people that permits harmonious acting together in social
situation. It is Foundation of Human Relations Social Processes-I Prepared by: Dr. Priya,
Assistant Professor, IMS, University of Lucknow 7 achieved by an individual through the
acquisition of behaviour patterns, habits and attitudes which are transmitted to him socially.
Assimilation:
Assimilation is a fundamental social process; it is that process by which individuals
belonging to different cultures are united into one. Successful accommodation sets the stage
for an additional consequences of human interactions, namely assimilation. This implies the
complete merging and fusion of two or more bodies into a single common body, a process
analogous to digestion, in which we say that food is assimilated. For instance, American
Indians adopted cultural elements of whites abandoning their own culture. But assimilation is
not limited to this single field only. For example, husbands and wives with dissimilar
background often develop a surprising unity of interest and purpose. Assimilation is a slow
and gradual process. It takes quite some time before individuals or groups once dissimilar
becomes similar
Socialization: Definition W.F. Ogburn “Socialization is the process by which the individual learns to
conform to the norms of the group.

19. Characteristics:
Types and Agencies of Socializations : https://www.studocu.com/in/document/sikkim-manipal-
university/sociology/types-and-agencies-of-socialization/30852927
Theories of socialization: Some of the most well-known theories in sociology and psychology
agree that the ‘self’ is the primary concept in the development of the child and it is through
the process of socialisation that such a development takes place.
Therefore, let us look at some prominent theories of socialisation in order to understand the
concept well.
Mead and his Theory of the Development of Self:
According to the American sociologist George Herbert Mead (1972), young children begin to
develop as social beings by imitating the actions of those near 148 Basic Concepts them. By
doing so the child is able to develop the ability to understand the action of the person with
whom he is interacting. ‘Play’ is one of the ways by which children often imitate what adults
do. The play stage begins around the third year during which the child begins to adopt
different roles of adults in her/ his life. Mead refers to these others as “significant others”.
Children’s play gradually develops from simple imitation to difficult games where a child of
four or five years old will enact the role of an adult. For example, children are often found
imitating the classroom situation where one becomes the teacher, the others become students
and they enact a classroom teaching session. Most children locally refer to this play as
‘Teacher-Teacher’. Another similar act of play is that of ‘Doctor-Patient’ where children
imitate the role of a doctor, nurse and patient and try to enact a situation where a patient goes
to the doctor for treatment. Mead refers to this act of imitation as “taking the role of the
other”. This stage being a complex one is known as the game stage where children begin to
attain maturity and develop a sense of self and others. Children begin to understand
themselves as “me” by looking at themselves through other people’s views and opinions
about them. The “me” is the social self while the “I” is the response to the “me”. In simple
words, “I” comprises of the response of the child to the action of others while “me” is the
organised set of reactions of others that the child takes on. Another stage of self-development
occurs around the age of eight or nine. At this stage children are able to function as members
of a group and also understand their role as a member of that group. Mead introduces the
concepts of “generalised other” and “significant other”. “Generalised other” can be

20. understood as those rules and values of the culture of a particular group in which the child is
engaged. By understanding the “generalised other” the child is able to understand what kind
of manners is expected as well as valued in any social setting. “Significant other” consists of
those persons who are of importance in the child’s life and affect her/his understanding of
self along with the child’s emotions and behaviours. Mead was one of the first thinkers to
understand the role of “significant other” in the development of self. According to him
socialisation depends upon the child’s understanding of others’ views as important in her/his
life.
Cooley and his Concept of the Looking Glass Self
Charles Horton Cooley (1922a) the American sociologist is best known for his concept of the
“looking glass self”. Children develop a concept of their selves with the help of others around
them. She/he forms an idea about oneself based on the opinions of others about her/him. The
kind of social self that develops out of an imagination of how one appears to the other person
and the kind of feeling about one’s self can be referred to as “looking glass self”or “reflected
self”. The knowledge about ourselves develops in us through the opinions and reactions of
others around this. The social “looking glass self” consists of these other people through
whom we build an image of ourselves. This knowledge about one’s self is first obtained from
the parents and later it is reformed by the judgements of others. The way in which the mirror
helps us to form an opinion about ourselves through the clothing we put on, our face and
figure/physique, in a similar manner we try 149 to imagine how in another person’s mind we
might appear through our behaviours, Socialisation manners, and so on. As a result, in our
imagination we form an opinion about ourselves through the other person’s perceptions and
may get positively or negatively affected by it. For example, a child who is in the mood to
create some mischief might want to lie to her/his parents. However, before creating the
mischief the child might reflect over and think that if hislie is caught that will have a bad
impression on her/his parents about her/him. According to Cooley, there are three main
features that make up the idea of the self. The first consists of our imagination of how we
appear to the other person. The second feature consists of our imagination of the judgement
that the other person makes by our appearances. The third feature consists of some feeling of
self-importance, shame or self-doubt based on the imagination of the other person’s
judgements about our appearances.
Freud and his Psychoanalytic Theory
The Austrian neurologist and father of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud (1923a in Strachey,
1961)believes socialisation demands that individuals must do away with their selfish wants
for the benefit of the larger society. According to him socialisation is a process that directs
one’s cravings and instincts in ways that are culturally accepted by the society. He has
explained the process of socialisation through three distinguishable parts of the personality:
“id”, “ego” and “superego”. The “id” consists of all kinds of basic impulses. It is the
unconscious, selfish, impulsive and illogical part of the personality that always tries to
increase the feeling of pleasure by avoiding pain. The “id” tries to make a person work
towards achieving the selfish desires by not paying any heed to other individuals or social
rules and standards.For example, a child craving for a second helping of dessert screamed
constantly until she was given another serving. The “ego” is the referee between the “id” and
the “superego”. It tries to maintain a balance between the “id” (basic impulses) and the

21. “superego” (norms of the society). The “ego” tries to regulate our desires and cravings and
helps us to obey the norms of society. As a referee the “ego” tries to control our impulses
according to the norms of the society. For example, we often get tempted by discount offers
in the shopping malls and feel like purchasing as much as we can. However, we restrict
ourselves to buying just a few products because we realize that buying everything at once
might not be a practical thing to do. This process of adjustment among the “id”, “ego” and
“superego” continues throughout life. This adjustment is the principle means of socialisation.
The “superego” refers to the principles, rules and ethics that one learns through the process of
socialisation. The “superego” comprises of the norms of a society which are internalised
through socialisation. The “superego” is the inner voice (‘conscience’) of the individual and
in that inner voice the hopes, beliefs and guidelines of the society are organised. For example,
Ruchi was eager to steal some grocery from the store without anyone noticing her. But,
because she knew that stealing is not the right thing to do so she did not steal even though she
would have never got caught. The “id” and the “superego” are always opposed to each other
because neither is it always possible to fulfil all our wishes and demands nor is it easy to keep
ourselves completely away from our cravings.
UNIT – V Social Institutions: Types of Social institutions: Marriage, Family ,Kinship,
Religion, Education ,Economic system and Judiciary Structural aspects - Norms, Values,
Folkways & Mores - Family, Marriage, Education, Economy, Polity, Religion, Social
Problems - Major Social Problems in India- Causes and factors responsible for Social
problems, Untouchability, Slavery, Domestic violence ,Dowry, Social Movement
Common content.
comprises larger units. Here we look at entire nation, global forces andTheories
of Socialization: