This study examined the effects of operant conditioning type (positive reinforcement vs positive punishment) and perceived task difficulty (difficult vs easy vs control) on participant competence in a treasure hunting game. A main effect was found for conditioning type, with positive reinforcement resulting in higher competence ratings than positive punishment. However, no main effect was found for perceived difficulty. Contrary to predictions, there was also no significant interaction between conditioning type and perceived difficulty. The competency questionnaire demonstrated good reliability. In summary, how participants were taught affected competence more than perceived difficulty level.

1. Running Head: TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 1
The Contributions of Teaching Type and Perceived Task Difficulty on Competency
Sasha C. Albrecht
University of Wisconsin – Madison

2. TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 2
Operant conditioning has a constant presence in everyday life. It is innate
human behavior to repeat behaviors that elicit a positive response and ignore or
quell behaviors that elicit a negative consequence. This process is known as operant
conditioning. Naturally occurring behavior is strengthened through the method of
reinforcement. Reinforcement can either be positive, the addition of a pleasant
stimulus (such as a hug) or negative, the removal of an unpleasant stimulus (such as
the decrease/absence of pain after taking medication). Conversely, behavior is
weakened through punishment. Punishment can also be positive, the addition of a
negative stimulus (such as physical abuse) or negative, the removal of a pleasant
stimulus (such as taking away a child’s allowance). One application of operant
conditioning is shaping. Shaping describes the process of rewarding successive
approximations of a desired behavior until the entire behavior can be produced. For
example, when teaching a dog to shake, at first just lifting the paw off the ground
would be reinforced. When this behavior can be performed on command, the
instructor may only reward the dog after it bends its leg as well. This process
continues until the dog performs a successful shake.
Marschark and Baenninger (2002) applied the technique of operant
conditioning to teach dogs a more complicated behavior, sheep herding. The
researchers observed shepherds and their herding dogs over several months to
determine the most effective methods of operant conditioning for sheep herding.
When the dogs performed the correct behaviors they were negatively reinforced
with access to the sheep. Access to the sheep is negative reinforcement because the
trainer would get out of the way of the dog, removing their body from between the

3. TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 3
dog and the sheep. On the other hand, when the dogs performed incorrect
behaviors, they were negatively punished with blocked access to the sheep. By
observing the effects of each method of training, Marschark and Baenninger
concluded that punishment can be equally as useful as reinforcement, if not more so.
Moreover, the researchers challenged the belief that positive reinforcement was the
key to behavior training and that negative reinforcement and punishment can be
effective alternatives.
Operant conditioning can also be used to study human behavior. Vallerand
(1983) studied the relationship between the amounts of positive reinforcement, in
this case verbal praise, with intrinsic motivation of hockey players. The athletes
completed a decision-making task concerning hockey scenarios and received no
feedback or one of four amounts of feedback ranging from occasional praise to
praise on every trial. After the task, the players completed an intrinsic motivation
questionnaire and a competency self-report. Vallerand found significant differences
between the control and every reinforcement condition. No significant difference
was found between the reinforcement groups. The results from Vallerand’s study
suggest that it is not the amount of positive feedback that affects intrinsic
motivation and competence; it is just the presence of reinforcement that increases
the two.
Another variable that can influence motivation and competence is perceived
difficulty of a task. Hong (1999) studied the perception of test difficulty in relation
to text anxiety. In Hong’s experiment, participants in the study completed
questionnaires measuring anxiety levels at different stages of the exam. A student’s

4. TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 4
perception of the test’s difficulty was shown to have a direct effect on his/her
resulting worry and emotionality. These two factors were then shown to have a
direct effect on test performance. Those who perceived the test to be challenging
expressed more worry and emotionality than those who perceived the test to be less
challenging. Hong also found that the perceptions of difficulty during and after the
exam had a stronger effect on the arousal of worry and emotionality than the
perceptions before the exam.
Feather (1963) also studied the perception of task difficulty on competence,
except Feather manipulated these perceptions. Instead of relying on the individual’s
perception of difficulty, Feather told participants that an anagram task was
relatively difficult or that it was rather easy to complete, when in fact the task was
incredibly challenging. Participants in the difficult condition reported less
confidence in their ability before beginning the task. Conversely, participants in the
easy condition reported more confidence in their perceived ability to complete the
task. According to Feather’s measures, the confidence of the individuals in the easy
condition decreased rapidly throughout the task as the participants realized they
were not readily succeeding. At the conclusion of the task, participants in the easy
condition reported more disappointment in their performance and anxiety than
individuals in the difficult condition. Individuals whose initial expectations of
difficulty were met, the difficult condition, experienced greater competency in the
task than individuals whose initial expectations were not met, the easy condition.
The present experiment analyzes both the effects of operant
conditioning and perceived task difficulty on participant competence in a game with

5. TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 5
a goal of finding a treasure chest and avoiding a bomb. This study incorporates both
positive reinforcement and positive punishment on competence level, unlike the
Marschark and Baenninger (2002) study, which focused on negative reinforcement
and punishment, and the Vallerand (1983), which solely examined positive
reinforcement. Moreover, the experiment expands on the ideas of Hong (1999) and
Feather (1963) by looking at the relationship between perceived difficulty level and
task competence. Both conditioning and perceived task difficulty were studied to
determine whether conditioning type: positive reinforcement or positive
punishment and perceived difficulty level: difficult, easy, or control had main effects
and interactions. Individuals in the positive reinforcement condition were told
“yes” when they made a correct move, i.e. toward the treasure chest. Participants in
the positive punishment condition heard “no” when they made an incorrect move,
i.e. toward the bomb. Before the game began, participants were read one of three
instructions, which informed them that the game was rather difficult, rather easy, or
did not refer to the difficulty level of the game, the control condition.
Based on the previous studies, the type of operant conditioning used in the
game is predicted to cause a main effect. It is expected that positive reinforcement
elicits higher competency ratings compared to positive punishment because
previous studies with human participants have shown that positive reinforcements
boosts intrinsic motivation and feelings of competence. A main effect is also
expected based on perceived difficulty level, such that individuals in the easy
condition will rate their competence as lower than those in the control and in the
difficult condition. The control and the difficult conditions may have no significant

6. TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 6
differences. Unlike Hong’s (1999) experiment, the participants were told what to
perceive. Thus, the results should more closely correspond with Feather’s (1963)
study, where participants in the easy condition experience more anxiety than
individuals in the difficult condition. An interaction between the conditioning of the
teaching method and the perceived task difficulty is expected. Individuals in the
positive reinforcement condition will have similar competency levels in the control
and the easy condition, but higher levels in the difficult condition. Participants in
the positive punishment condition will have similar levels of competency in the
control and difficult conditions, but lower levels in the easy condition.
Method
Participants
Experimenters were undergraduate students at the University of Wisconsin,
who conducted the experiment as a course requirement. Each experimenter
selected two participants for the study for a total of 92 participants. Ages varied
between 18 and 58 years old (M=22.57, SD=8.15) and consisted of 33 males and 59
females. Experimenters treated the students in compliance with the APA’s “Ethical
Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct,” (American Psychological
Association, 2002).
Design
The experiment utilized a 2x3 mixed factorial design. The first independent
variable, teaching type, had two levels: positive reinforcement and positive
punishment. The second independent variable, perceived task difficulty had three

7. TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 7
levels. These levels were: difficult, easy, and control. The dependent variable was
competency rating, based on a questionnaire with four questions ranging on a scale
from 1-7.
Materials
The experimenters read aloud from an instructor’s script. Each participant
sat at an individual station and received four 8x8 grid game boards. After playing
the first two rounds of the game, each participant completed a questionnaire
measuring his/her competency. This questionnaire was also filled out after the final
two rounds of the game. The questionnaire contained four questions on a Likert
scale from 1 (not at all) to 7 (very much). The questions were based on the
participants feelings of frustration, competency, progress made in the game, and
irritation. The questions regarding frustration and irritation were reverse scored.
The mean score from all four questions was recorded as the individual’s
competency rating.
Procedure
Experimenters were split into pairs and assigned a perceived task difficulty
condition to manipulate. Experimenters alternated which teaching method was
used in which rounds. For example, one experimenter began with two rounds of
positive reinforcement and the other began with positive punishment. Four
treasure chest and bomb locations were given to the experimenters, who alternated
the locations of the chest and the bomb with their teaching condition. For example,
one used two locations for positive reinforcement and the other used the same two
locations for positive punishment. One experimenter conducted the study one-on-

8. TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 8
one with a subject. The goal of the game was to locate the treasure chest in as few
moves as possible while attempting to avoid the bomb. Before beginning the game,
experimenters read a set of instructions that contained information about the
difficulty level of the task. Those assigned to the difficulty condition were informed
that the task was incredibly challenging. Those in the easy condition heard the task
was relatively simple. The individuals in the control did not receive any information
regarding the difficulty level of the game.
Participants began the task in the center of the board on a circle. Their first
move could be one of the four squares bordering the circle. From then on,
participants had to choose a square adjacent to their current square. This means
any square that was vertically, horizontally, or diagonally bordering their former
square. When a participant selected a square to move to, he/she placed an “x” on
that square. Once a square was marked with an “x,” the participant could not move
there again. If, however, that square blocked another square they desired to move
to, the participant could “jump” the square and skip over it. In the positive
reinforcement condition, the experimenter said, “Yes” if the participant moved
closer to the treasure chest, while giving no information regarding the location of
the bomb. If the participant did not move closer toward the treasure chest, the
experimenter said nothing. In the positive punishment condition, the experimenter
said “No” if the participant moved closer to the bomb, while giving no information
regarding the location of the treasure chest. Once again, if the participant did not
move closer to the bomb, the experimenter said nothing. When the participant
landed on the treasure chest square, the experimenter said “Correct!” and the game

9. TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 9
concluded. After each round of the game, participants completed a questionnaire
measuring their competency. To conclude the experiment, participants were
debriefed.
Results
A main effect for teaching method was predicted such that individuals in the
positive reinforcement condition would have higher competency ratings than
individuals in the positive punishment condition. A 2x3 mixed ANOVA found a
significant difference in competency ratings between the two instruction conditions,
F (1, 89) = 68.1, p < .001. Individuals in the positive reinforcement condition (M =
5.86, SD = 1.01) scored significantly higher than individuals in the positive
punishment condition (M = 4.49, SD = 1.46).
Another main effect was expected for the perceived difficulty condition.
Participants in the easy condition were expected to have lower competency ratings
than participants in the other two conditions (control and difficult), who were not
expected to significantly differ. No significant difference was found between the
conditions, F (2, 89) = 2.01, p = .14. Individuals in the easy condition (M = 4.95, SD =
1.3) did not significantly differ in competency ratings from the control condition (M
= 5.13, SD = 1.2). Participants in the easy condition did not significantly differ from
the difficult condition (M = 5.44, SD = 1.01) in competency ratings either. Moreover,
there was no significant difference between the ratings of the control and the
difficult conditions, which was expected.
An interaction was expected to occur such that individuals in the positive
reinforcement condition will have similar competency levels in the control and the

10. TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 10
easy condition, but higher levels in the difficult condition. Moreover, participants in
the positive punishment condition will have similar levels of competency in the
control and difficult conditions, but lower levels in the easy condition. The ANOVA
found no significant interaction, F (2, 89) = 1.3, p = .28. The error bars on Figure 1
show significant overlap between the teaching methods for each difficulty condition.
This overlap supports the claim that no interaction was found. A LSD post-hoc with
a critical value of 0.57 at the .05 level was used. The LSD compared teaching method
levels across the perceived difficulty levels (i.e. the mean difference between
positive reinforcement and positive punishment was calculated in the control, easy,
and difficult conditions). All three groups met the criterion, therefore significant
differences in the means existed for each perceived difficulty condition. Individuals
in the control condition had higher competency ratings in the positive
reinforcement level (M = 6.01, SD = 0.87) than in the positive punishment level (M =
4.25, SD = 1.59). Moreover, participants in the easy condition had higher
competency ratings in the positive reinforcement condition (M = 5.56, SD = 1.17)
than in the positive punishment condition (M = 4.34, SD = 1.43). Similar results
were found in the difficult condition. Individuals in the positive reinforcement
condition (M = 6, SD = 1.06) had greater competency rankings than in the positive
punishment condition (M = 4.87, SD = 1.36).
An inter-item reliability analysis was run to determine the quality of the
competency questionnaire. The analysis found a Cronbach’s alpha value of .828.
The Cronbach’s alpha if the frustration question was deleted was .763. The value for

11. TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 11
the competency question was .802. Cronbach’s alpha for the progress question was
.79. Lastly, the value for the irritation question was .776.
Discussion
A significant main effect for teaching method was found as individuals in the
positive reinforcement condition had significantly higher competency ratings than
when in the positive punishment condition. This result supports Vallerand’s (1983)
study of hockey players. Vallerand found that any amount of positive reinforcement
increased the players’ intrinsic motivation and feelings of competency. This effect
also confirms the hypothesis that positive reinforcement would lead to higher
competency than positive punishment as a teaching method. These results suggest
that positive reinforcement may be a more effective teaching method for human
participants. Marschark and Baenninger (2002) found positive punishment was
possibly more effective for herding dogs. However, since the two studies focusing
on humans (Vallerand’s and the present study) both found positive reinforcement to
be a more effective teaching method, these are probably the most applicable to
human learning.
A main effect for perceived task difficulty was not found. No significant
differences in competency ratings existed based on whether the participants were
told the task was easy, difficult, or were not provided with information on difficulty
(control). These results are inconsistent with previous studies on perceived task
difficulty and the hypothesis, which expected participants in the easy condition to
have significantly lower competency levels than individuals in the other two
conditions. One possible explanation for the conflicting results is that the perceived

12. TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 12
difficulty level was given to the participants before the participated in the task.
Hong (1999) found that the participants’ perceptions during the exam significantly
influenced their feelings of competency.
No significant interaction between teaching method and perceived task
difficulty was found. This differed from the original hypothesis, which expected an
interaction to produce significant differences in the easy condition and the difficult
condition based on reinforcement type.
The inter-item reliability analysis found a Cronbach’s alpha value of .828.
This is a relatively strong value, which means that the individual questionnaire
items correlated with the other items rather well to assess task competency. No real
outliers existed in the Cronbach’s alpha if item deleted analysis, meaning all of the
questions assessed competency similarly.
One of the blaring limitations of the experiment is that it was conducted by a
high number of experimenters. Each individual experimenter could contribute a
significant amount of confounds. These confounds could include how quickly the
experimenter reinforced or punished the participant, the vocal tone of the
experimenter, and the relationship of the experimenter to the participant. This
method of experimenting was selected to allow students a chance to be in the
experimenter role and was thus necessary for the experiment. However, in the
future, if the experiment were repeated, it would make sense to attempt to limit the
number of experimenters. Another possible problem of the experiment also related
to the experimenters. The experimenters were undergraduate students with
relatively no appearance of authority or mastery of the subject. Participants may

13. TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 13
have taken the self-report less seriously since the task was administered by a peer
(or conversely someone younger). Results may be different if a professor or other
individual with authority administered the task, as he/she would appear to be a
legitimate authority figure and experimenter.
Research concerning teaching method and perceived task difficulty could be
expanded to physical tasks. The task studied in this experiment was mostly
cognitive and may have different results than a task concerned with physical
activity, such as learning a basketball play. Marschark and Baenninger (2002)
studied a physical task, sheep herding, with an animal species. A comparable task
for human participants could be used to examine if positive punishment was also an
effective training method for the task. An interaction between teaching method and
reinforcement type could also be explored.
This study concluded that positive reinforcement leads to higher competency
in a task than positive punishment. The perceived difficulty of the task before it
begins is insignificant. Moreover, the two factors do not lead to an interaction.
These results could potentially be generalized to other types of learning. Teachers
may be encouraged to solely use positive reinforcement with students in order to
help them feel competent in their studies. This method could also be used for
individuals who feel insecure or inept at performing a particular task. If the
individuals are re-taught the task with positive reinforcement, they may feel more
capable in their abilities. Positive reinforcement seems to be an effective method of
eliciting competence in individuals being taught how to perform a specific task.

14. TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 14
References
Feather, N. (1965). Performance at a difficult task in relation to initial expectation of
success, test anxiety, and need achievement. Journal of Personality, 33(2),
200-217.
Hong, E. (1999). Test anxiety, perceived test difficulty, and test performance:
Temporal patterns of their effects. Learning and Individual Differences,
11(4), 431-447.
Marschark, E. D. & Baenninger, R. (2002). Modification of instinctive herding dog
behavior using reinforcement and punishment. Anthrozoos, 15, 51-68.
Vallerand, R. J. (1983). The effect of differential amounts of positive verbal feedback
on the intrinsic motivation of male hockey players. Journal of Sport
Psychology, 5, 100-107.

15. TEACHING, DIFFICULTY, AND COMPETENCY 15
Figure 1. The interaction of teaching method and perception of difficulty on
competency.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Control Easy Difficult
CompetencyRating
Perceived Difficulty
Positive Reinforcement
Positive Punishment