1. The Peripheral Nervous System and
Reflex Activity
Objectives
1. Define peripheral nervous system and identify its components.
PART 1: SENSORY RECEPTORS AND SENSATION
Sensory Receptors
2. Classify general sensory receptors by structure, stimulus detected, and body location.
Overview: From Sensation to Perception
3. Outline the events that lead to sensation and perception.
4. Explore the levels of neural integration in the somatosensory system.
5. Identify the main aspects of sensory perception.
PART 2: TRANSMISSION LINES: NERVES AND THEIR STRUCTURE AND REPAIR
Nerves and Associated Ganglia
6. Define nerve and ganglion and indicate the general body location of ganglia.
7. Describe the general structure of a nerve and follow the process of nerve regeneration.
Cranial Nerves
8. Name the 12 pairs of cranial nerves; indicate the body regions and structures innervated by each.
Spinal Nerves
9. Describe the general features of spinal nerves and the distribution of their rami.
10. Define plexus. Name the major plexuses and describe the distribution and function of the peripheral
nerves arising from each plexus.
PART 3: MOTOR ENDINGS AND MOTOR ACTIVITY
Peripheral Motor Endings
11. Compare and contrast the motor endings of somatic and autonomic nerve fibers.
Overview of Motor Integration: From Intention to Effect
12. Outline the three levels of the hierarchy of motor control.
13. Compare the roles of the cerebellum and basal nuclei in controlling motor activity.
PART 4: REFLEX ACTIVITY
The Reflex Arc
14. Name the components of a reflex arc and distinguish between autonomic and somatic reflexes.
Spinal Reflexes

2. 15. Compare and contrast stretch, flexor, crossed extensor, and superficial reflexes.
Developmental Aspects of the Peripheral Nervous System
16. List changes that occur in the sensory system with aging.
17. Describe the developmental relationship between the segmented arrangement of the peripheral nerves,
skeletal muscles, and skin dermatomes.
Suggested Lecture Outline
PART 1: SENSORY RECEPTORS AND SENSATION
I. Sensory Receptors (pp. 491–494; Fig. 13.1; Table 13.1)
A. Sensory receptors are specialized to respond to changes in their environment called stimuli (pp.
491–494).
1. Receptors may be classified according to the activating stimulus.
2. Receptors may be classified based on their location or the location of the activating stimulus.
3. Receptors may be classified based on their overall structural complexity.
B. Free, or naked, nerve endings are present everywhere in the body and respond primarily to pain
and temperature. (p. 492)
C. Encapsulated Dendritic Endings (pp. 492–494; Table 13.1)
1. Meissner’s corpuscles are receptors for discriminatory and light touch in hairless areas of the
body.
2. Pacinian, or lamellated, corpuscles, are stimulated when deep pressure is first applied.
3. Ruffini endings respond to deep and continuous pressure.
4. Muscle spindles detect when a muscle is being stretched and initiate a reflex that resists the
stretch.
5. Golgi tendon organs are stimulated when the associated muscle stretches the tendon.
6. Joint kinesthetic receptors monitor the stretch in the articular capsules of synovial joints.
II. Overview: From Sensation to Perception (pp. 494–498; Fig. 13.2)
A. The somatosensory system, the part of the sensory s ystem serving the body wall and limbs,
involves the receptor level, the circuit level, and the perceptual level.
1. Processing at the receptor level involves a stimulus that must excite a receptor in order for
sensation to occur.
2. Processing at the circuit level is involved with delivery of impulses to the appropriate region of
the cerebral cortex for stimulus localization and perception.
3. Processing at the perceptual level involves interpretation of sensory input in the cerebral
cortex.
PART 2: TRANSMISSION LINES: NERVES AND THEIR STRUCTURE AND REPAIR
I. Nerves and Associated Ganglia (pp. 498–500; Figs. 13.3–13.4)
A. A nerve is a cordlike organ consisting of parallel bundles of peripheral axons enclosed by
connective tissue wrappings.
B. Ganglia are collections of neuron cell bodies associated with nerves in the PNS.

3. C. If damage to a neuron occurs to the axon and the cell body remains intact, cut or compressed axons
can regenerate.
II. Cranial Nerves (pp. 500–508; Fig. 13.5; Table 13.2)
A. Olfactory nerves are responsible for smell.
B. Optic nerves are responsible for vision.
C. Oculomotor nerves play a role in eye movement.
D. Trochlear nerves play a role in eye movement.
E. Trigeminal nerves are general sensory nerves of the face.
F. Abducens nerves play a role in eye movement.
G. Facial nerves function as the chief motor nerves of the face.
H. Vestibulocochlear nerves are responsible for hearing and equilibrium.
I. Glossopharyngeal nerves innervate part of the tongue and pharynx.
J. Vagus nerves innervate the heart, lungs, and the abdominal organs.
K. Accessory nerves move structures associated with the head and neck.
L. Hypoglossal nerves are mixed nerves that arise from the medulla and serve the tongue.
III.Spinal Nerves (pp. 508–518; Figs. 13.6–13.12; Tables 13.3–13.6)
A. Thirty-one pairs of mixed spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord and serve the entire body except
the head and neck.
B. Innervation of Specific Body Regions
1. Each spinal nerve connects to the spinal cord by a dorsal root and a ventral root.
2. Rami lie distal to and are lateral branches of the spinal nerves that carry both motor and
sensory fibers.
3. The back is innervated by the dorsal rami with each rami innervating the muscle in line with the
point of origin from the spinal column.
4. Only in the thorax are the ventral rami arranged in a simple segmental pattern corresponding to
that of the dorsal rami.
5. The cervical plexus is formed by the ventral rami of the first four cervical nerves.
6. The brachial plexus is situated partly in the neck and partly in the axilla and gives rise to
virtually all the nerves that innervate the upper limb.
7. The sacral and lumbar plexuses overlap and because many fibers of the lumber plexus
contribute to the sacral plexus via the lumbos acral trunk, the two plexuses are often referred to
as the lumbosacral plexus.
8. The area of skin innervated by the cutaneous branches of a single spinal nerve is called a
dermatome.
9. Hinton’s law states that any nerve serving a muscle that produces movement at a joint also
innervates the joint and the skin over the joint.
PART 3: MOTOR ENDINGS AND MOTOR ACTIVITY
I. Peripheral Motor Endings (p. 519)
A. Peripheral motor endings are the PNS element that activates effectors by releasing
neurotransmitters.

4. B. The terminals of the somatic motor fibers that innervate voluntary muscles form elaborate
neuromuscular junctions with their effector cells and they release the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine.
C. The junctions between autonomic motor endings and the visceral effectors involve varicosities and
release either acetylcholine or epinephrine as their neurotransmitter.
II. Overview of Motor Integration: From Intention to Effect (pp. 519–521; Fig.
13.13)
A. Levels of Motor Control
1. The segmental level is the lowest level on the motor control hierarchy and consists of the
spinal cord circuits.
2. The projection level has direct control of the spinal cord.
3. The precommand level is made up of the cerebellum and the basal nuclei and is the highest
level of the motor system hierarchy.
PART 4: REFLEX ACTIVITY
I. The Reflex Arc (pp. 521–522; Fig. 13.14)
A. Reflexes are unlearned, rapid, predictable motor responses to a stimulus, and occur over highly
specific neural pathways called reflex arcs (pp. 521–522; Fig. 13.14).
II. Spinal Reflexes (pp. 522–527; Figs. 13.15–13.19)
A. Spinal reflexes are somatic reflexes mediated by the spinal cord (pp. 522–527; Figs. 13.15–13.19).
1. In the stretch reflex the muscle spindle is stretched and excited by either an external stretch or
an internal stretch.
2. The Golgi tendon reflex produces muscle relaxation and lengthening in response to
contraction.
3. The flexor, or withdrawal, reflex is initiated by a painful stimulus and causes automatic
withdrawal of the threatened body part from the stimulus.
4. The crossed extensor reflex is a complex spinal reflex consisting of an ipsilateral withdrawal
reflex and a contralateral extensor reflex.
5. Superficial reflexes are elicited by gentle cutaneous stimulation.
III. Developmental Aspects of the Peripheral Nervous System (p. 527)
A. The spinal nerves branch from the developing spinal cord and
adjacent neural crest and exit between the forming vertebrae. Each
nerve becomes associated with the adjacent muscle mass.
B. Cranial nerves innervate muscles of the head in a similar way.
C. Sensory receptors atrophy to some degree with age, and there is a
decrease in muscle tone in the face and neck; reflexes occur a bit
more slowly.
Cross References
Additional information on topics covered in Chapter 13 can be found in the chapters
listed below.
1. Chapter 3: Membrane functions
2. Chapter 4: Nervous tissue

5. 3. Chapter 5: Cutaneous sensation and sensory receptors
4. Chapter 9: Neuromuscular junction
5. Chapter 11: Membrane potentials; neural integration; serial and parallel processing; synapses;
neurotransmitters
6. Chapter 12: Ascending and descending tracts of the spinal cord; spinal roots; gray and white matter of
the spinal cord
7. Chapter 15: Sensory receptors for the special sens es and generator potentials; cranial nerves associated
with their special senses; reflex activity of the special senses
8. Chapter 23: Reflex activity and control of digestive secretions; nerve plexuses involved in digestion;
function of the vagus nerve in parasympathetic control
9. Chapter 25: Spinal reflex control of micturition
10. Chapter 27: Spinal reflexes and the physiology of the sexual response
Laboratory Correlations
1. Marieb, E. N. Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual: Cat and Fetal Pig Versions. Eighth
Edition Updates. Benjamin Cummings, 2006.
Exercise 22: Human Reflex Physiology
2. Marieb, E. N. Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual: Main Version. Seventh Edition
Update. Benjamin Cummings, 2006.
Exercise 22: Human Reflex Physiology
Histology Slides for the Life Sciences
Available through Benjamin Cummings, an imprint of Pearson Education, Inc. To order,
contact your local Benjamin Cummings sales representative.
Slide 73 Myelinated Nerve Cross Section—Myelin Sheaths.
Slide 74 Myelinated Nerve Longitudinal Section—Nodes of Ranvier.
Slide 75 Efferent (Motor) Neuron.
Slide 76 Spinal Cord Bottom, Stained for Axons.
Lecture Hints
1. Emphasize the distinction between the central and peripheral nervous system, but stress that the
nervous system functions as a continuous unit, even though we like to study its anatomy in bits and
pieces. Students often treat each section as if it operates autonomously, without regard to what may be
happening in other parts of the nervous system.
2. Many students will have difficulty with the difference between receptor potentials, generator potentials,
and action potentials. It is worth taking time to be sure the distinction is clear.
3. As the anatomy of the nerve is discussed, point out the similarity between the basic structure of muscle
tissue and nervous tissue. Also bring to the students’ attention the similarity in nomenclature. Point
out that by knowing the structure of muscle, they already know nerve anatomy (with slight changes in
names).
4. Students often have problems with neuron regeneration and myelination (i.e., understanding why, since
CNS and PNS neurons are both myelinated, a regeneration occurs in the PNS and not in the CNS).
Spend time explaining the difference or refer the class to Chapter 11 to review myelination, the sheath of
Schwann, and oligodendrocytes.

6. 5. Draw a diagram (cross section) of the spinal cord indicating the dorsal and ventral roots and an
extension into a short section of the spinal nerve. Draw arrows in these pathways indicating the
direction of information flow. Remind the class that the brain must always receive information from an
area in order to effect a change (the reason for two-way traffic in each level of the cord). Students are
more likely to remember the anatomical relationship between these structures since they can logically
relate material from a previous chapter to the material presented in this chapter.
6. Try asking specific questions of the class in order to promote student involvement. This technique
holds their attention and, more importantly, enforces the logical thought processes necessary in order
to thoroughly comprehend physiological concepts. The reflex arc is an excellent tool to employ this
strategy, since by this time the class has a general knowledge of all the components necessary to
construct a generalized arc. After a brief introduction to the reflex arc and what its general function is,
ask questions such as: “If we wanted to construct a reflex arc, what could we use to convert a stimulus
to a nervous impulse?” Lead the class by a series of questions to the complete construction of the
basic reflex arc, then go into the modifications of the basic blueprint to describe specific arc types and
their functions. Students will not forget the reflex arc since they have constructed it themselves.
Activities/Demonstrations
1. Audio-visual materials listed under Multimedia in the Classroom and Lab.
2. Select a student to help in the illustration of reflexes such as patellar, plantar, and abdominal.
3. Obtain a skull to illustrate the locations, exits, and entrances of several cranial nerves, such as the
olfactory, optic, and trigeminal.
4. Obtain a sheep brain with the cranial nerves intact to illustrate their locations.
5. Use a 3-D model of the peripheral nervous system to illustrate the distribution of the spinal nerves.
6. Obtain a 3-D model of a spinal cord cross section to illustrate the five components of a reflex arc and to
illustrate terms such as ipsilateral, contralateral, and monosynaptic.
Critical Thinking/Discussion Topics
1. How can the injection of novocaine into one area of the lower jaw anesthetize one entire side of the jaw
and tongue?
2. How can seat belts for both the front and back seat passengers of a car prevent serious neurological
damage? How can using only lap belts cause severe damage?
3. Some overly eager parents swing their newborn infants around by the hands. What damage could this
cause?
4. Pregnant women often experience numbness in their fingers and toes. Why?
5. Animals have considerably more reflexive actions than humans. Why?
Library Research Topics
1. How does acupuncture relate to the distribution of spinal nerves?
2. Will all victims of polio be rendered paralyzed? What different forms are there?
3. How has microsurgery been used to reconnect severed peripheral nerves?
4. What techniques can be employed to increase our reflexive actions?
Multimedia in the Classroom and Lab
Online Resources for Students

7. www.anatomyandphysiology.com www.myaandp.com
The following shows the organization of the Chapter Guide page in both the Anatomy &
Physiology Place and MyA&P™. The Chapter Guide organizes all the chapter-specific
online media resources for Chapter 13 in one convenient location, with e-book links to
each section of the textbook. Please note that both sites also give you access to other
®
general A&P resources, like InterActive Physiology
, PhysioEx 6.0™, Anatomy 360°,
Flashcards, a Glossary, a Histology Tutorial, and much more.
Objectives
PART ONE: SENSORY RECEPTORS AND SENSATION
Section 13.1 Sensory Receptors (pp. 491–494)
Section 13.1 Overview: From Sensation to Perception (pp. 494–498)
PART TWO: TRANSMISSION LINES: NERVES AND THEIR STRUCTURE AND REPAIR
Section 13.2 Nerves and Associated Ganglia (pp. 498–500)
Section 13.3 Cranial Nerves (pp. 500–508)
Section 13.4 Spinal Nerves (pp. 508–518)
Memory: Nerves and Related Structures of the CNS
PART THREE: MOTOR ENDINGS AND MOTOR ACTIVITY
Section 13.5 Peripheral Motor Endings (p. 519)
Case Study: Neuromuscular Dysfunction
Section 13.6 Overview of Motor Integration: From Intention to Effect (pp. 519–521)
PART FOUR: REFLEX ACTIVITY
Section 13.7 The Reflex Arc (pp. 521–522)
Memory: Reflex and Response Tracts
Section 13.8 Spinal Reflexes (pp. 522–527)
Case Study: Nervous System
Section 13.9 Developmental Aspects of the Peripheral Nervous System (p. 527)
Chapter Summary
Self-Study Quizzes
Art Labeling Quiz
Matching Quiz
Multiple-Choice Quiz (Level I)
Multiple-Choice Quiz (Level II)
True-False Quiz
Crossword Puzzles
Crossword Puzzle 13.1
Crossword Puzzle 13.2
Media
See Guide to Audio-Visual Resources in Appendix A for key to AV distributors.
Video

8. 1. The Peripheral Nervous System (UL; 29 min., 1997). This video illustrates how the human body senses
and responds to its internal and external environments. Describes the structures and functions of the
peripheral nervous system, examines current research on nerve regeneration.
2. Reflexes and Synaptic Transmission (UL; 29 min, 1997). This video investigates the physiology of the
reflex arc through experiments on the papillary and patellar reflexes. Examines the transmission of an
impulse across the synapse and at the neurotransmitters and chemicals that affect impulse
transmission.
3. Spinal Impact (FHS; 51 min., 1999). This program explores the most promising scientific breakthroughs
in the treatment of spinal cord injuries, including nerve regeneration and electrical stimulation devices.
4. Spinal Injuries: Recovery of Function (FHS; 18 min., 1994). Shows the most up-to-date advances in
rehabilitation. Gives an overview from diagnosis of spinal injury to the different levels of treatment.
Excellent for class discussion and presentation.
Software
®
InterActive Anatomy
1. A.D.A.M.
®
4.0 (see p. 9 of this guide for full listing).
®
MediaPro (see p. 9 of this guide for full listing).
2. A.D.A.M.
®
Anatomy Practice (see p. 86 of this guide for full listing).
3. A.D.A.M.
4. Bodyworks (see p. 9 of this guide for full listing).
5. InterActive Physiology
®
9-System Suite CD-ROM: Nervous System I and II (see p. 134 of this guide for
full listing).
6. The Ultimate Human Body (see p. 9 of this guide for full listing).
Lecture Enhancement Material
To view thumbnails of all of the illustations for Chapter 13, see Appendix B.
Transparencies Index/Media Manager
Figure 13.1 Place of the PNS in the structural organization of the nervous system.
Figure 13.2 General organization of the somatosensory system.
Figure 13.3 Structure of a nerve.
Figure 13.4 Regeneration of a nerve fiber in a peripheral nerve.
Figure 13.5 Location and function of cranial nerves.
Figure 13.6 Distribution of spinal nerves.
Figure 13.7 Formation of spinal nerves and rami distribution.
Figure 13.8 The cervical plexus.
Figure 13.9 The brachial plexus.
Figure 13.10 The lumbar plexus.
Figure 13.11 The sacral plexus.
Figure 13.12 Dermatomes.
Figure 13.13 Hierarchy of motor control.
Figure 13.14 The basic components of all human reflex arcs.
Figure 13.15 Anatomy of the muscle spindle and Golgi tendon organ.
Figure 13.16 The stretch reflex.
Figure 13.17 Operation of the muscle spindle.
Figure 13.18 The Golgi tendon reflex.

9. Figure 13.19 The crossed extensor reflex.
Table 13.1 General Sensory Receptors Classified by Structure and Function
Table 13.2 Cranial Nerves
Table 13.3 Branches of the Cervical Plexus (See Figure 13.8)
Table 13.4 Branches of the Brachial Plexus (See Figure 13.9)
Table 13.5 Branches of the Lumbar Plexus (See Figure 13.10)
Table 13.6 Branches of the Sacral Plexus (See Figure 13.11)
A Closer Look Pain: Sound the Alarm, But Pain Me Not!*
*Indicates images that are on the Media Manager only.
Answers to End-of-Chapter Questions
Multiple Choice and Matching Question answers appear in Appendix G of the main text.
Short Answer Essay Questions
12. The PNS enables the CNS to receive information and carry out its decisions. (p. 490)
13. The PNS includes all nervous tissue outside the CNS, that is, the sensory receptors, the peripheral
nerves (cranial or spinal), the ganglia, and motor nerve endings. The peripheral nerves transmit sensory
and motor impulses, the ganglia contain cell bodies of sensory or autonomic nerve fibers, the sensory
receptors receive stimuli, and the motor end plates release neurotransmitters that regulate the activity of
the effectors. (p. 490)
14. Sensation is simply the awareness of a stimulus, whereas perception also understands the meaning of
the stimulus. (p. 493)
15. a. Central pattern generators (CPGs) control locomotion and motor activities that are repeated often.
b. The precommand center, the cerebellum and basal nuclei, modify and control the activity of the CPG
circuits. (p. 520)
16. See Figure 13.13.
17. The direct (pyramidal) system control muscles in the distal extremities, regulating fast or fine
movements. The indirect (extrapyramidal) system acts more widely in skeletal muscles. It regulates
muscle tone, supports against gravity, mediates visual head movements, and controls the CPGs of the
spinal cord during locomotion or other rhythmic activities. (p. 520)
18. a. The lateral spinothalamic tract transmits pain, temperature, and course touch impulses, and they are
interpreted eventually in the somatosensory cortex. If cut, our sensory perception of the occurrence
of a stimulus, as well as our ability to detect the magnitude of the stimulus and identify the site or
pattern of the stimulation or its specific texture, shape, or quality, e.g., sweet or sour, would be
impaired. (pp. 474–476)
b. The anterior and posterior spinocerebellar tracts convey information from proprioceptors (muscle or
tendon stretch) to the cerebellum, which uses this information to coordinate skeletal muscle activity.
Cerebellar damage can cause equilibrium problems and speech difficulties. (p. 476)
c. The tectospinal tract transmits motor impulses from the midbrain, which are important for
coordinated movement of the head and eyes toward visual targets. If cut, problems of locomotion
could occur. (p. 477)
19. The cerebellum and basal nuclei coordinate a response, but the cerebral cortex controls whether or not
the action is performed, so the true command center lies beyond the precommand center. (p. 520)
20. In the PNS, macrophages and Schwann cells aid the regeneration process physically and chemically.
Macrophages fail to aid the process in the CNS. Further, oligodendrocytes die and thus do not aid fiber
regeneration. (p. 499)

10. 21. a. Spinal nerves form from dorsal and ventral roots that unite distal to the dorsal root ganglion. Spinal
nerves are mixed. (See Fig. 13.6.)
b. The ventral rami, with the exception of those in the thorax that form the intercostal nerves, contribute
to large plexi that supply the anterior and posterior body trunk and limbs. The dorsal rami supply the
muscles and skin of the back (posterior trunk). (pp. 508–509)
22. a. A plexus is a branching nerve network formed by roots from several spinal nerves that ensures that
any damage to one nerve root will not result in total loss of innervation to that part of the body. (p.
510)
b. See Figs. 13.8 to 13.11, and Tables 13.3 to 13.6, pp. 511–516, for detailed information about each of
the four plexuses.
23. Ipsilateral reflexes involve a reflex initiated on and affecting the same side of the body (p. 524);
contralateral reflexes involve a reflex that is initiated on one side of the body and affects the other side.
(p. 526)
24. The flexor or withdrawal reflex is a protective mechanism to withdraw from a painful stimulus. (p. 525)
25. Flexor reflexes are protective ipsilateral, polysynaptic, and prepotent reflexes. Crossed extensor reflexes
consist of an ipsilateral withdrawal reflex and a contralateral extensor reflex that usually aids in balance.
(pp. 525–526)
26. The sensory input of a crossed extensor reflex illustrates parallel processing, an ipsolateral response to
a stimulus. The serial processing phase consists of motor activity, the contralateral response that
activates the extensor muscles on the opposite side of the body. (pp. 525–526)
27. Reflex tests assess the condition of the nervous system. Exaggerated, distorted, or absent reflexes
indicate degeneration or pathology of specific regions of the nervous system often before other signs
are apparent. (p. 522)
28. Dermatomes are related to the sensory innervation regions of the spinal nerves. The spinal nerves
correlate with the segmented body plan, as do the muscles (at least embryologically). (p. 518)
Critical Thinking and Clinical Application Questions
1. Precise realignment of cut, regenerated axons with their former effector targets is highly unlikely.
Coordination between nerve and muscle will have to be relearned. Addit ionally, not all damaged fibers
regenerate. (p. 499)
2. He would have problems dorsiflexing his right foot, and his knee joint would be unstable (more rocking
of the femur from side-to-side on the tibia). (p. 516)
3. Damage to the brachial plexus occurred when he suddenly stopped his fall by grabbing the branch. (p.
512)
4. The left trochlear nerve (IV), which innervates the superior oblique muscle responsible for this action.
(p. 503)
5. The region of motor and sensory loss follows the course of the sciatic nerves (and their divisions);
hence they must have been severely damaged by the shooting accident. (p. 516)
6. The specific ascending pathways of the fasciculus cuneatus carry discriminatory touch information
from the upper limbs to the cortex. You must use feature abstraction and possibly pattern recognition to
identify a specific pattern feature such as the teeth of a key or the fur of a rabbit’s foot.
7. The right facial nerve was affected. This condition is called Bell’s Palsy and is commonly caused by a
herpes simplex 1 viral infection. (p. 505)
Suggested Readings

11. Gillespie, P. G. and Walker, R. G. “Molecular Basis of Mechanosensory Transduction.” Nature 413 (6852)
(Sept. 2001): 194–202.
Hunt, Stephen P. and Mantyh, Patrick W. “The Molecular Dy namics of Pain Control.” Nature Reviews:
Neuroscience 2 (2) (Feb. 2001): 83–91.
Julius, D. and Basbaum, A. I. “Molecular Mechanisms of Nociception.” Nature 413 (6852) (Sept. 2001): 203–
210.
Kirkpatrick, Peter. “A Touchy Subject.” Nature Reviews: Neuroscience 2 (4) (April 2001): 227.
Raineteau, Oliver and Schwab, Martin E. “Plasticity of Motor Systems After Incomplete Spinal Cord Injury.”
Nature Reviews: Neuroscience 2 (4) (April 2001): 263–273.
Yang, Jay and Wu, Christopher L. “Gene Therapy for Pain.” American Scientist 89 (2) (March/April 2001):
126–135.
Zuker, Charles S. “A Cool Ion Channel.” Nature 416 (6876) (March 2002): 27–28.