Paper written about learning theorists and their collective influences.

1. 1
Learning Theorist Family Tree:
A Look Into the Early Stages and Growth of Modern Learning Theory
Terry Gagich
Learning Design and Technology, Purdue University
EDCI 531: Learning Theories and Instruction
Dr. Christopher Mong
February 25, 2022

2. 2
Abstract
Over the years learning theories and psychology has undergone dramatic changes. While these theories
continue to grow, the paper written here attempts to bring about an understanding of how
behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism developed and evolved while showing the direct
connections from one theorist to another.
Keywords: beahviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, learning theories

3. 3
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Image courtesy of wikipedia.com.
Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher and is widely considered to be the forerunner for
modern western philosophy. Born in Königsberg, Prussia in 1724 Kant’s life was one of modesty. While
his mother was more educated than most other women of the time, his parents lived humble lives as
harness makers. They frequented the Lutheran church and were devout followers of Pietism. It was
thanks to their dedication to the church that Kant received his initial education by attending the
Collegium Fridericianum (Duignan et. al., 2022). Paradoxically, this turned Kant away from the study of
emotion and forced soul searching and he sought refuge in the Latin classics also taught by the school.
Despite his distaste for the ways of the church, he adored his parents, especially his mother, and grew up
with strong beliefs of hard work, independence, and discipline of which they modeled (Rohlf, 2020).
Kant later attended, and taught after a brief stint of non enrollment due to his father’s death, at
the University of Königsberg. He spent 40 years of his life teaching philosophy until his retirement at the
age of 72 as a result of deteriorating mental and physical health (Duignan et. al., 2022). Eight years later,
Kant passed quietly but painfully in his home on February 12, 1804 with his last words being
remembered as, “It is good,” (Kuehn, 2009).

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Connections
During his life, Kant published multiple writings. The three major works that would later shape
the modern world of philosophy: The Critique of Pure Reason, The Critique of Practical Reason, and The
Critique of Judgement; publications that are commonly known as The Three Great Critiques and helped
shape the modern world of philosophy (Rohlf, 2020). These critiques are massive in their scope and are
said to confuse anyone who opens them for the first time (Duignan et. al., 2022). Though Kant’s works
aren’t directly aimed at the world of learning theories, the fact that his influence can be traced to nearly
all prominent theorists of modern education needs crediting.
Hermann Ebbinhaus (1850 - 1909) Image courtesy of wikipedia.com.
Born in Barmen, Prussia on January 24, 1850, Herman Ebbinhaus was a German experimental
psychologist who pioneered the studying of rote learning and memory (Britannica, 2022). Ebbinhaus is a
Ph. D. graduate from the University of Bonn who quickly thereafter began teaching as an assistant
professor at the Friedrich-Wilhelm University in Berlin and later as professor at the University of Breslau
(Britannica, 2022). He is well known for his forgetting curve experiments; an experiment of memory and
cognition he performed on himself and published in Über das Gedächtnis which was later translated into
English as Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology (Ebbinhaus, 1913). He died on February

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26, 1909 having shown that, contrary to prevailing beliefs, scientific methods could be applied to the
study of the higher thought processes (Britannica, 2022)
Ebbinhaus’ Forgetting Curve (shown in the figure, Image courtesy of IntelaLearning) describes
that within 20 minutes of learning
something, we have already forgotten half of
what we had learned. And as time goes on,
without proper retention, knowledge
succumbs to atrophy. Many have criticized
Ebbinhaus’ results because his experiment
was done independently (Just, 2018).
Ebbinhaus performed his theories on himself
and drew his conclusions based upon his findings. That being said, in 2015, his experiments were
repeated by a team from the University of Amsterdam and their conclusions were extremely similar to
Ebbinhaus’ (Murre et. al.,, 2015).
Connections
Little is known as to what exactly influenced Hermann Ebbinhaus. The only person thought to
have influenced him directly was psychophysicist and experimental psychologist Gustav Fechner, to
whom he dedicated his work Principles of Psychology even going as far as to sign it with “I owe you
everything,” (Henley et al., 2019, P.265). This connection seems inconsequential, but with a more
indepth review of Fechner, it can be found that Gustav Fechner’s primary influence was none other than
Immanuel Kant. Though many modern terms had yet to be coined, it was Ebbinhaus’ work that spurred
the future of cognitivism and short-term memory. Years later, Lev Vygotsky would build on these ideas of
which we will discuss momentarily.

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Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936) Image courtesy of wikipedia.com.
Ivan Pavlov was born in Ryazan, Russia on September 26, 1849 to an Orthodox priest (Britannica,
2022). He was a bright and energetic child but due to a childhood accident, was unable to attend formal
school until he was 11 years old. Enrolled in church school for most of his early years, he did not
graduate from his seminary and instead attended the university in St. Petersburg where he studied
physiology (Gannt, 2022). It wasn’t until much later that he became known in the field of psychology due
to his famous ringing bell tests that lead to classical conditioning.
Although native to Russia and lauded by the Russian government, Pavlov spent his entire life
making his negative opinions of the communist party known (Nobelprize.org, 2022). He would hold
weekly seminars where he would “speak freely” about various issues, until his death. He was cognizant
even in his final moments and asked a student to monitor and take record of his passing for scientific
study. He passed away on February 27th 1936 in Leningrad, Russia at the age of 86 (Britannica, 2022).
Connections
Pavlov’s influence insofar as learning theory is concerned was grand but accidental. While using
his knowledge of physiology to research digestion in dogs, Pavlov came to realize that the dogs would

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initially salivate when presented with food but their behaviour slightly changed over time. He noticed
the dogs began salivating simply by hearing the approaching food cart. He began more observations
which eventually led to the concept of classical conditioning. While Pavlov denied that he was a
psychologist, and in fact is thought to have little faith in the then emerging field, he would go down in
history as the father of behaviourism and one of the most prolific names in learning theory(Rehman,
2021). He would go on to inspire other behaviorists such as B.F. Skinner and John B. Watson, among
others.
One of Pavlov’s influences was Carl Vogt who was influenced by Louis Agazssiz whose academic
advisor was Alexander von Humboldt who was guided by F. W. J. Schelling who cites one of his major
influences as, none other than, Immanuel Kant.
Edward Thorndike (1874- 1949) Image courtesy of wikipedia.com.
A contemporary of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Lee Thorndike was born to Abbie and Edward R.
Thorndike, a Methodist minister, in a Williamsburg hospital in Massachusetts on August 31, 1874
(Britannica, 2022). Thorndike received his general education from Roxbury Latin School, a private boys’
school in West Roxbury Massachusetts. He then went on to get his B. S. from Wesleyan University in
1895 and his M. S. from Harvard just two years later (Britannica, 2022). It was here that he developed his

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interest in ethology where he worked closely with William James, the first educator in America to offer a
psychology class. After graduation, Thorndike began focusing on humans and went on to earn his Ph. D.
from Columbia University guided along by one of the forerunners of psychometrics, James McKeen
Cattell. (Woodworth, 1952 P. 210). It was here that he wrote his famous dissertation, The Law of Effect
which states that a pleasing effect will increase the likelihood that that action be reproduced; an
important aspect of operant conditioning (Catania, 2013). He died on August 9, 1949 in Montrose New
York, having gained multiple accomplishments in the field of psychology (Britannica, 2022).
Connections
Two of the names mentioned above that had a profound effect on Thorndike (William James and
James McKeen Cattell) can be linked back to a Kant influence; both through a connection with Hermann
von Helmholtz who accredits Kant as one who helped shape his research. That being said, Thorndike also
influences his fair share of psychologists and theorists. In fact, his puzzle box experiments, in which a cat
would be placed inside a box with a lever or button that would open said box and then be mapped to
see a learning curve, would directly influence B.F. Skinner and his “Skinner box”. Thorndike’s Law of
Effect only showed conclusive evidence that positive reinforcement (called a satisfying situation at the
time) would increase a specific behaviour, in this case, a cat escaping a box (Chance, 1999 P. 434). It
wouldn’t be until later that B.F. Skinner would expand upon this idea directly influenced by Edward
Thorndike’s research in behaviourism.

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John B. Watson (1878 - 1958) Image courtesy of wikipedia.com.
Born in Travelers Rest, South Carolina on January 9, 1978, John Watson grew up in less than
favorable conditions (Britannica, 2022).His alcoholic father left Watson at the age of 13 to be raised by
his deeply religious mother who pressed her religious beliefs on her son. Even going so far as to name
him the biblical John in hopes he would be called to gospel, her strict rules and incessant religious
practice eventually led Watson to renouncne his faith as an atheist (Cherry, 2020). His early education
was a struggle and he often did not perform well but despite the difficulties, Watson earned his Master’s
degree from Furman University and then a Ph. D. in psychology from the University of Chicago
(Britannica, 2022). He later became interested in the experiments of Ivan Pavlov. He wanted to prove
that classical conditioning applied to humans, as Pavlov’s findings were on animals. Watson believed that
these rules could explain all aspects of a human’s behaviour and psychology. It was John Watson who
coined the term behaviourism as we know it today (Gerwitz, 2021).
Connections
Though he had multiple influences, Pavlov is considered Watson’s greatest in terms of
educational theories and behaviourism. He had openly rejected Thorndike’s experiments as being
intrinsic and non observable and placed a much higher value on the visual aspect of observation and

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rejected the concept of “instincts” (Gerwitz, 2021). This led him to the infamous “Little Albert”
experiment. Despite the tests on Albert being what some would consider inhumane, it did present
observable results. It only took seven trials of making the noise to condition Albert to fear the rat with
the results clearly displaying that humans could be conditioned to behave a certain way (Harris, 1979).
Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett (1886 - 1969) Image courtesy of
wikipedia.com.
Born before the turn of the 19th century in Gloucestershire, England, Frederic Bartlett was home
schooled for most of his general education as a result of childhood pleurisy. Despite the hardships, he
enjoyed being physically active when possible and showed an aptitude for anthropology. He received a
B.A. in philosophy from The University Correspondence College, his masters in ethics and sociology from
London University, and finally landed at Cambridge for the remainder of his career where he became the
first professor of experimental psychology. He was knighted in 1948 for his work and would retire just
four years later. He died in Cambridge, England on September 30, 1969 at the age of 82. (Britannica,
2022)
Connections

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Bartlett is included on this list not so much for his specific connections but for his development
of schema theory. This shows one of the first paradigm shifts toward cognitivism. And while B.F. Skinner
would do more work in behaviourism during this time, and Piaget would introduce the concept of
schéma, it was Bartlett’s work that helped spread awareness of such theories in education and
psychology (Brewer, 2022). Piaget and Bartlett’s work would later become known as Schema Theory by
educational psychologist Richard Anderson.
Jean William Fritz Piaget (1896 - 1980) Image courtesy of
wikipedia.com.
Jean Piaget was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland on August 9, 1896 of relatively high society;
father being a professor and mother being a prominent figure of French steel owners (Britannica, 2022).
He showed advanced skills early in life focusing on Zoology. By the age of 15, he had published many
articles on mollusks and earned a reputation among the community. He studied zoology and philosophy
at the University of Neuchâtel eventually earning his Ph. D. in Zoology (Britannica, 2022). He developed
an interest in epistemology during this time and had a brief stint at the University of Zürich where he
studied under Carl Jung. While working in Paris his interest in early childhood development grew and he

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began questioning what led these learners to make the choices they made. It was from this concept that
he developed his theory of cognitive development; an important step towards the yet-to-be-named
learning theory, modernly called ‘constructivism,’ (Britannica, 2022). Piaget wanted to know, with
scientific data as proof, why the mind developed, not simply how. He published numerous works and
ideas that are still in use today. The amount of information Piaget collected can, as they say, “fill a book”,
and has; many, in fact. However, this paper is not meant to dive too deeply into one certain theorist but
instead to find links among the growth of theories. Piaget passed away at the age of 84 in Geneva
Switzerland (Britannica, 2022)
Connections
Piaget cites Immanuel Kant directly as one of his influences; as the two shared various interests
in philosophy. Piaget would go on to inspire many people of his own just as Kant had done. Piaget’s work
gets classified as both cognitivism and constructivism frequently which is understandable. He studied
metacognition, the word cognition itself is even in his Theory of Cognitive Development, (Bringuier et. al.,
1989) but in the 1960s as the idea of constructivism came onto the scene, many have thought that
Piaget was a constructivist. His influence on Lev Vygotsky and his work on the Zone of Proximal
Development would help label Piaget as a constructionist as well.

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B.F. Skinner (1904 - 1990) Image courtesy of wikipedia.com.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner, often referred to as B.F. Skinner, was an American behaviourist and
psychologist. Born on March 20, 1904 in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, Skinner’s parents were
old-fashioned and he was brought up a hard worker. His boyhood was one of adventure and discovery
(Britannica, 2022). He attended college in Hamilton, New York where he received his undergraduate in
English. After graduation, Skinner tried to become a writer but to no avail. It wasn’t until he learned
about John Watson and his behaviourist theories that he began education again (Boeree, 1998). He went
on to obtain a Ph. D. from Harvard. He labeled himself as a “radical” behaviourist meaning that a
person’s response to stimuli is internally controlled. He frequently cited the use of operant conditioning
in his work. Despite the similarities to Thorndike, B.F. Skinner is often referred to as the father of operant
conditioning (Baum, 2011). He died of leukemia on August, 18 1990 (Britannica, 2022).
Connections
B.F. Skinner was heavily influenced by Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson, both of whom were
discussed earlier. So much so that he built his own version of the box Watson used, known as the
Skinner Box. Where he differed was the belief that behaviour came solely from within and can often be
genetic. Some maintain the idea that Watson was also a radical behaviourist but by others is considered
methodological (Boeree, 1998). This could be an entire paper on its own and doesn’t need to be

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discussed much further at current. The fact remains that, though now considered outdated, B.F. Skinner
is one of the most widely known behavioural psychologists who built upon ideas that had influenced
him.
Lev Vygotsky (1896 - 1934) Image courtesy of wikipedia.com.
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who specialized in how children think and
learn. Born in Orsha, Russia to a well-to-do family, Vygotsky was homeschooled during his primary years
and did not attend public school until his secondary education where he graduated at 17. Before gaining
an interest in psychology, he studied linguistics and philosophy at Moscow University. He was one of the
first people in Russia to advocate for disabled learners. (New World Encyclopedia, 2022). Vygotsky is
most widely known for his work on the Zone of Proximal Development which Vygotsky described as “the
distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and
the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers,” (Vasileva et. al., 2019). Guiding a learner through the levels of
the zone of proximal development is what is known as “scaffolding” a term that is widely used today.
Vygotsky met an unfortunate early end by contracting tuberculosis from his brother. He died on June 11
at the age of 37 (Britannica, 2022).

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Connections
Vygotsky was a contemporary of Piaget and the two could be said to have inspired each other.
They agreed on many concepts of constructionism (Huang, 2021). While Piaget believed in psychological
constructivism which states that learning is done by the individual, Vygotsky’s methods were of social
constructivism which states that learning is done in a group, receiving aid from others.

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References
"Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett ." Encyclopedia of World Biography. . Retrieved January 24, 2022 from
Encyclopedia.com:
https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/sir-freder
ic-charles-bartlett
B. F. Skinner. (2022). Retrieved February 25, 2022, from
https://psychology.fas.harvard.edu/people/b-f-skinner
Baum, W. M. (2011, January). What is radical behaviorism? A review of Jay Moore's conceptual
foundations of radical behaviorism. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. Retrieved
February 25, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3014776/
Boeree, C. G. (1998). B.F. Skinner. B. F. Skinner. Retrieved February 25, 2022, from
https://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/skinner.html
Bringuier, J.-C., Piaget, J., Gulati, B., & Voyat, G. (1989). Conversations with Jean Piaget. University of
Chicago Press.
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2021, August 14). B.F. Skinner. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/B-F-Skinner
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2021, October 16). Frederic Bartlett. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederic-Bartlett-psychologist
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2021, September 12). Jean Piaget. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Piaget
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2021, September 19). Edward L. Thorndike. Encyclopedia
Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edward-L-Thorndike
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2022, February 22). Hermann Ebbinghaus. Encyclopedia
Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hermann-Ebbinghaus

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Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2022, January 5). John B. Watson. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-B-Watson
Catania, A. C. (1999). Thorndike's legacy: Learning, selection, and the law of effect. Journal of the
Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 72(3), 425–428. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1999.72-425
Cherry, K. (2020, April 1). Pioneering psychologist John B. Watson and behavorism. Verywell Mind.
Retrieved February 25, 2022, from
https://www.verywellmind.com/john-b-watson-biography-1878-1958-2795550
Duignan, B. and Bird, . Otto Allen (2022, February 8). Immanuel Kant. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Immanuel-Kant
Ebbinghaus H. (2013). Memory: a contribution to experimental psychology. Annals of neurosciences,
20(4), 155–156. https://doi.org/10.5214/ans.0972.7531.200408
Ebbinghaus, Hermann (1913). Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology. Translated by Ruger,
Henry; Bussenius, Clara. New York city, Teachers college, Columbia university.
Fuchs, A. H. (1997). Ebbinghaus's contributions to psychology after 1885. The American Journal of
Psychology, 110(4), 621. https://doi.org/10.2307/1423413
Galef, B. G., Jr. (1998). Edward Thorndike: Revolutionary psychologist, ambiguous biologist. American
Psychologist, 53(10), 1128–1134. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.53.10.1128
Gantt, W. Horsley (2022, February 23). Ivan Pavlov. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ivan-Pavlov
Gerwitz, J. L. (2001). Apa PsycNet. American Psychological Association. Retrieved February 25, 2022,
from https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2014-55587-005.html
Harris, B. (1979). Whatever happened to little Albert? American Psychologist, 34(2), 151–160.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.34.2.151

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Home. B. F. Skinner Foundation. (2020, September 2). Retrieved February 25, 2022, from
https://www.bfskinner.org/
Huang, Y. (2021). Comparison and Contrast of Piaget and Vygotsky's Theories
Just, S. B. (2018, July 19). Learning "myth" #1: Ebbinghaus forgetting curve. Intela. Retrieved February 25,
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https://intelalearning.wordpress.com/2018/07/19/learning-myth-1-ebbinghaus-forgetting-curve
Kuehn, M. (2009). Kant: A biography. Cambridge University Press.
Lev Vygotsky. Lev Vygotsky - New World Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Retrieved February 25, 2022, from
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Lev_Vygotsky#Credits
Murre, J. M., & Dros, J. (2015). Replication and analysis of ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve. PLOS ONE, 10(7).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120644
Pluch, S. (2013). Einfach Erklärt: Brave new world: Classical conditioning and Hypnopaedia (Solidarity
Services) in Englisch. Knowunity. Retrieved February 25, 2022, from
https://knowunity.de/knows/englisch-brave-new-world-classical-conditioning-and-hypnopaedia-
solidarity-services-c0ef4b91-29b7-4688-bc8b-38e1f61da679
Rohlf, Michael, "Immanuel Kant", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2020 Edition), Edward N.
Zalta (ed.), <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/kant/
Sjøberg S. (2007). Constructivism and learning. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu
The nobel prize in physiology or medicine 1904. NobelPrize.org. (n.d.). Retrieved February 25, 2022, from
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1904/pavlov/biographical/
THORNDIKE, E. D. W. A. R. D. (2015). Educational psychology: The psychology of learning. ANDESITE
Press.

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Vasileva, O., & Balyasnikova, N. (2019, August 7). (Re)introducing Vygotsky's thought: From historical
overview to contemporary psychology. Frontiers in psychology. Retrieved February 25, 2022,
from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6692430/
Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology,
3(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0069608
Wozniak, R. H. (1999). Classics in the history of psychology. Classics in the History of Psychology --
Introduction to Ebbinghaus (1885/1913) by R. H. Wozniak. Retrieved February 25, 2022, from
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/wozniak.htm

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21. 21
Requireme
nts
Points Explanation Points
Earned/Avail
able
Exceeds Standard Meets
Standard
Needs
Improvement
Unacceptable Points
9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4
Family tree The family tree is
well designed,
and intellectual
relationships are
clearly indicated
The family tree
clearly
indicates
intellectual
relationships
The family tree
is missing 1-2
major
theorists, or
the intellectual
relationships
are not clearly
indicated
The family tree
is missing more
than 2 major
theorists,
intellectual
relationships
are not
indicated, or
there is
incorrect
information
/10
Picture
and
Biography
There is a picture
(where possible)
and a well-written
biography that
highlights
intellectual
development
There is a
picture (where
possible) and a
biography that
highlights
intellectual
development
There is a
picture (where
possible) and a
biography that
covers most of
the important
details,
although there
may be some
missing
information or
unclear ideas
There are
multiple
missing
pictures, the
biography
frequently
misses
important
information, or
the ideas are
consistently
unclear
/10

22. 22
Summary
of
Contributi
on
The summary is
well-written and
highlights
connections
between people
and ideas as they
developed
The summary
highlights
connections
between
people and
ideas as they
developed
The summary
is occasionally
unclear, or
doesn’t fully
develop ideas
and
connections
The summary is
frequently
unclear, ideas
are missing or
not fully
developed,
information is
inaccurate
/10
Connectio
ns
between
people and
ideas
Throughout the
entire project,
connections and
relationships
between people
and ideas are
clearly traced.
The student
thoroughly
understands the
development of
learning theory.
Throughout the
entire project,
connections
and
relationships
between
people and
ideas are
traced. The
student
generally
understands
the
development
of learning
theory,
although there
may be a few
missing details
The project
generally
highlights the
most obvious
connections
and
relationships
between
people and
ideas, but it
doesn’t fully
develop the
ideas, make
the
connections
clear, or
include all
necessary
information.
The student
understands
some
connections,
but they are
not all clear.
The project
does not
highlight all
necessary
connections
and
relationships
between people
and ideas,
information is
inaccurate, or
information is
superficial. The
student
understands
few
connections.
/10

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Research
and
Conventio
ns
Sources are from
reputable places,
are correctly
cited, and the
minimum number
of citations was
included. There
are no spelling or
formatting errors
Sources are
from reputable
places, are
cited with 1-2
minor errors,
and the
minimum
number of
citations was
included. There
are a few minor
spelling or
formatting
errors
Sources may
not be from
reputable
places, there
may be more
than
occasional
errors, or the
student missed
1-2 of the
required
number of
citations. There
are several
spelling or
formatting
errors that are
occasionally
distracting
Sources are not
reputable, there
were consistent
errors in
citation, there
was evidence of
plagiarism, or
the student was
missing more
than 3 of the
required
number of
citations. There
are multiple
distracting
spelling or
formatting
errors
/10
Comments
Total /50