The scientific heritage No 88 (88) (2022)

No 88 (88) (2022)
The scientific heritage
(Budapest, Hungary)
The journal is registered and published in Hungary.
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• Gridchina Olga - Ph.D., Head of the Department of Industrial Management and Logistics (Moscow, Russian
Federation)
• Singula Aleksandra - Professor, Department of Organization and Management at the University of Zagreb
(Zagreb, Croatia)
• Bogdanov Dmitrij - Ph.D., candidate of pedagogical sciences, managing the laboratory (Kiev, Ukraine)
• Chukurov Valeriy - Doctor of Biological Sciences, Head of the Department of Biochemistry of the Faculty of
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• Torok Dezso - Doctor of Chemistry, professor, Head of the Department of Organic Chemistry (Budapest,
Hungary)
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(Koln, Germany)
• Yakushev Vasiliy - Candidate of engineering sciences, associate professor of department of higher mathe-
matics (Moscow, Russian Federation)
• Bence Orban - Doctor of sociological sciences, professor of department of philosophy of religion and reli-
gious studies (Miskolc, Hungary)
• Feld Ella - Doctor of historical sciences, managing the department of historical informatics, scientific leader
of Center of economic history historical faculty (Dresden, Germany)
• Owczarek Zbigniew - Doctor of philological sciences (Warsaw, Poland)
• Shashkov Oleg - Сandidate of economic sciences, associate professor of department (St. Petersburg, Russian
Federation)
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• Eberhardt Mona - Doctor of Psychology, Professor, Chair of General Psychology and Pedagogy (Munich,
Germany)
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ogy (Vinnytsia, Ukraine)
«The scientific heritage»
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CONTENT
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
Aliyev B., Hajiyev T.
ASSESSMENT OF FACTORS AFFECTING THE
POTENTIAL RISK OF EROSION OF MOUNTAIN-BLACK
AND MOUNTAIN-BROWN SOILS SPREAD IN THE
TERRITORY OF GADABAY DISTRICT .............................4
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Kazhybekova A.,, Mantai M.,, Berdaman A.,,
Ramazan K.,, Sagyndykov U.
MORPHOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL PROPERTIES OF
KOUMISS DRINKS FOR PREPARATION.........................8
CHEMISTRY SCIENCES
Mamedov B., Musayevа A.
COMPOSITIONS BASED ON EPOXY RESINS ARE FILLED
WITH DIFFERENT FILLERS (Overview) .......................13
Frolova S., Shchebetovskaya N.,
Pokyntelytsia O.
DISPUTE ISSUES IN THE THEORY OF NUCLEATION
DURING CRYSTALLIZATION FROM MELTS AND
SOLUTIONS AND WAYS TO OVERCOME THEM .........23
EARTH SCIENCES
Rybalova O., Artemiev S., Bryhada O.,
Ilyinskiy O., Bondarenko A.
ASSESSMENT OF THE ECOLOGICAL STATE OF THE
RIVERS IN THE KIROVOGRAD REGION.......................31
ECONOMIC SCIENCES
Mukhiyayeva D.
FUNCTIONING MECHANISM OF INNOVATION
STRATEGY OF NATIONAL COMPANIES......................36
GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCES
Kozhaniyazova Zh.
WAYS TO IMPROVE THE USE OF THE AUTOMATED
INFORMATION SYSTEM OF LAND MANAGEMENT OF
AKTOBE REGION........................................................39
GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL SCIENCES
Aliyeva S., Sadiqov A.
PROSPECTS OF OIL AND GAS BEARING IN THE
JURASSIC SEDIMENTS OF THE PRISAMUR
PROSPECTIVE OIL AND GAS BEARING AREA .............43
JURIDICAL SCIENCES
Odilov M., Kala N.
LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR FOREIGN INVESTMENT IN
TAJIKISTAN ................................................................48
MEDICAL SCIENCES
Kerimova G., Mehmani I., Mehmani V.,
Ashrafov D.
THE CONDITION OF THE ABUTMENT TEETH OF THE
BRIDGE PROSTHESIS IN PATIENTS OF DIFFERENT AGE
GROUPS.....................................................................50

PEDAGOGICAL SCIENCES
Khitaryan D.
THE PHENOMENON OF SYMMETRY-ASYMMETRY
THROUGH THE PRISM OF HUMAN MOTOR ACTIVITY
..................................................................................54
Phí Thị Hiếu
FOSTERING STEM-ORIENTED TEACHING
COMPETENCY FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS
TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE GENERAL
EDUCATION PROGRAM 2018 IN VIETNAM ...............57
Oleinik T., Umrykhina O.
FORMATION OF EMOTIONAL STABILITY IN THE
MUSICAL AND PERFORMING ACTIVITY OF FUTURE
TEACHERS OF MUSICAL ART......................................60
Ergasheva G., Saidova K.
PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS OF CREATING A FUND OF
ASSESSMENT TOOLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL
COMPETENCE OF STUDENTS IN A DIGITAL
EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT .................................62
PHILOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Sultanbekova R., Asankulova B.
THE STRUCTURAL-WORD-FORMATION PARADIGM OF
PSEUDONYMS ...........................................................65
Ussenova Sh.
ASSOCIATIVE FIELD "PANDEMIC": LINGUISTIC
EXPERIMENT..............................................................67
PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS
Mamatov E., Ibraimov T., Tashpolotov Y.
DETERMINATION OF THE DISPERSION COMPOSITION
OF BASALT POWDERS AND INDUSTRY SOLID WASTE
..................................................................................71
TECHNICAL SCIENCES
Ulikyan A., Mkhitaryan A., Khanamiryan Z.
DESIGN OF NONLINEAR EXOSKELETON CONTROL
SYSTEM BY GAIN SCHEDULING METHOD..................74
Salmanova F., Mustafayeva R., Salamov O.,
Mahmudova T., Yusupov I., Velizade I.
THERMAL CALCULATION OF THE SOLAR COLLECTOR
AND ITS FEASIBILITY STUDY ......................................82
Serikov B.
USING MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES AND THEIR SENSORS
FOR WORKING WITH DATA.......................................84
Rakhmetova A.
ANALYSIS OF THE EFFICIENCY OF THE WELL FUND AT
THE WEST KAZAKHSTAN FIELD..................................87

4 The scientific heritage No 88 (2022)
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
ASSESSMENT OF FACTORS AFFECTING THE POTENTIAL RISK OF EROSION OF MOUNTAIN-
BLACK AND MOUNTAIN-BROWN SOILS SPREAD IN THE TERRITORY OF GADABAY
DISTRICT
Aliyev B.
doctor of technical sciences, professor
Hajiyev T.
dissertant
National Aerospace Agency (NASA)
Institute of Ecology
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6532491
Abstract
It is necessary to identify and assess erosion-prone soils in order to properly prepare measures to protect soils
from erosion. This issue is of particular importance in connection with the intensification of agricultural production
and more efficient use of land in other areas of production. In mountainous and foothill areas, the most eroded
lands are used for agricultural purposes. Therefore, in connection with the further intensification of agricultural
production, these areas require special consideration.
Keywords: Soil erosion, relief, natural factor, digital map, spatial analysis, surface flow.
Introduction. The protection of the soil surface
from the effects of erosion is one of the most important
issues in the conditions of surface runoff of mountain
slopes.
The complexity of the country's relief, as well as
the diversity of soil-forming factors, lead to erosion and
the spread of large areas. It has been determined that at
present 43.3% of the country's lands are subject to
erosion [1]. As in all mountainous areas, erosion is
widespread in the northern part of the Lesser Caucasus.
In modern times, the pace of development of any
economic region is directly proportional to the intensity
of natural changes in this territory. One of the main
problems facing the geographers is to quickly apply the
map to the rapidly evolving process. It is no longer
possible to ensure such efficiency by classical methods.
The best way to do this is to use remote sensing data
and GIS technology [2]. Modern geographic
information technologies (GIS) are used to determine
the risk of all types of erosion, protect soils and predict
future complications.
Over time, when studying and analyzing spatial
(spatial) data, it becomes necessary to apply new
methods for obtaining results (collecting and storing
information) that meet modern standards and their
effective use. It is the approach to the ecological state
of emerging soils from the point of view of erosion
hazard that plays a key role in identifying natural and
anthropogenic impacts, accompanied by significant
changes not only in quantity, but also in quality. In this
regard, the small detail of each soil sample obtained
should be considered an important quantitative
indicator for future forecasting. According to the
famous American theorist Turner, the importance of
such an approach in preventing the erosion process is
undeniable [3]. The high elevation of the existing relief
and the steepness of the slopes are the main factors that
create favorable conditions for the occurrence of
erosion processes. One of the main morphometric
indicators of slopes is the exposure. It characterizes the
degree of solar energy supply of the slopes and affects
almost all areas of agriculture in the local area.
Research object and methodology. Mountain-
brown and mountain-black soils, formed in different
expositions of the northern slope of the northern part of
the Lesser Caucasus, were taken as the object of study.
The degree of soil erosion at the object of study was
determined on the basis of a comparative geographical
method proposed by K.A. Alekbarov, and the
determination of morphogenetic features by Sh.G.
Gasanov [4,5].
Analysis of results. The terrain model DEM
(Digital Elevation Model) was created using GIS
technologies. The created digital height model
combines the following procedures. The first stage
includes scanning of topographic maps and geographic
closure in the coordinate system, digitization of the
map, creation of vertical and isotopic vector layers,
electronic design of topographic maps at a scale of
1:100,000. (Picture 1).

The scientific heritage No 88 (2022) 5
Picture 1. Digital altitude model of Gadabay district
At the next stage, it is very quick and easy to create
a map of exposure and slope rates based on GIS
technology with the help of the DEM model. Different
characteristics of the slope of the relief of the area
where the soil layer is formed are widely used in
geographical research. Spatial analysis of slope slopes
directly confirms their connection with the
geolithological and morphostructural structure of the
area [6]. The relief conditions of the area have a great
influence on the occurrence and development of
erosion. One of the relief factors that affect the
occurrence of erosion in the mountain-steppe zone is
the shape of the slopes. Depending on the shape of the
slopes, the direction of erosion and the impact force
change rapidly. Depending on the relief forms on
complex slopes, the erosion process also proceeds in
different directions. As the length of the slopes
increases, the mass of water increases, resulting in the
destructive energy of the water flow. Erosion is
stronger on flat and convex slopes. In the lower parts of
such slopes, the risk of soil erosion is greater. However,
on gentle slopes, most of the topsoil accumulates at the
bottom of the slope as the slope decreases downstream
of the watershed. As sloping areas are replaced by steep
slopes on steep slopes, the effect of erosion is
drastically reduced, i.e. terraces reduce or stop surface
water runoff and erosion.
Researches conducted in the Gadabay district
showed that along with surface erosion, linear erosion
also developed intensively. This is due to the relief of
the area, especially the presence of mountain plateaus
(Slavyanka, Duzyurd, Bashkend and others). Thus, on
the territory of 1 km2
around the village of Gadabay
there are small ravines and pits 10 km long. Active
landslides are more pronounced on slopes at altitudes
of 1000-2000 m. This is due to the diversity of
lithological composition of the rocks that make up these
slopes and the large amount of atmospheric sediment.
The exposition of the slopes determines the flow of
sunlight (radiation) to the earth's surface, determines
the microclimate of the slopes, the development of
vegetation, productivity, erosion and washout (Picture
2).

Picture 2. Exposition map of Gadabay region
The southern and western slopes erode faster than
the northern and eastern slopes. Temperature and
humidity fluctuate more on the southern exposition
slopes than on other slopes. In summer, the southern
exposition slopes become hotter and drier, the process
of humus formation is disrupted due to the rapid
destruction of vegetation on these slopes, and the
amount of humus in the soil gradually decreases [7].
From this point of view, the humus and soil layer is less
on the southern exposition slopes, and the sparseness of
the vegetation in the fields increases. All this increases
erosion on these slopes, causing soil erosion and a sharp
decrease in fertility. The exposure map of the slopes,
compiled in electronic form, allows you to analyze the
spatial patterns of illumination of the area. This makes
it easier for us to assess the conditions of landscape
formation in terms of heat supply. The first approach
reflected the proportional duration of direct exposure to
sunlight. The processing of the obtained data makes it
possible to compare and compare areas, to find patterns
of spatial expansion on them.
In the obtained digital maps, each selected area is
assigned a serial number. The parts are then grouped by
major types. According to the exposition, the slope is
divided into two types - cold and hot. Transitions are
considered moderately cold and moderately warm.
Cold and moderately cold slopes prevail. On the
northern slopes, landslide and denudation processes
predominate; on the southern slopes, the processes of
surface and linear erosion are accelerated. Due to the
sparse vegetation of the southern slopes, well warmed
by the sun's rays, the soil layer can partially retain its
structural composition without being completely
washed out by atmospheric sediments. The strongest
erosion is observed on the southern and very gentle
eastern and western slopes, since the vegetation on
these slopes is so sparse that it cannot prevent the
destructive effects of precipitation and surface runoff.
Therefore, the soils on these slopes are very skeletal,
and rocks often come to the surface.
It should be noted that in the eroded areas of the
study object, the arable soil layer was erased, the profile
was shortened and degraded. The structure of the soil
on arable land was sharply disturbed, and the subsoil
was strongly compacted. In such areas, the roots of
crops, especially potatoes, are poorly supplied (gas
exchange), making it difficult for them to breathe,
resulting in low quality products [8]. Erosion has
intensified due to the lack of improvement of hayfields,
as well as unsystematic and excessive grazing of these
areas after hay harvesting, as a result of which the grass
cover of hayfields has significantly thinned out and
productivity has decreased. Pastures in the surveyed
area have fallen into disrepair. There are practically no
non-eroded soils on pastures. Erosion in the mountain-
steppe zone is widespread in all areas of natural
economy and covers a very large area. All types of
erosion occur here. (Picture 3).

Picture 3. Soil erosion map of Gadabay district
Water erosion is more common on sloped crops.
This is due to the fact that plowing, sowing, sowing and
tillage are often carried out along the slope. This makes
it possible to form a surface runoff of water and easily
wash out fertile soil particles along the slope [9]. With
prolonged planting of plants in the same area,
especially tilled crops, the topsoil loses its structure
more, and in such crops erosion becomes more
frightening, and in some areas the parent rock comes to
the surface. In mountainous areas, hayfields and
pastures have also become badly damaged as a result of
erosion. It should also be noted that erosion is caused
by natural and anthropogenic factors. Natural factors
include relief, climate, soil and vegetation of the area,
anthropogenic - types of human economic activity.
Result. Based on the maps of exposure and slopes,
it was found that most of the area is at risk of moderate
to severe erosion. Taking into account the characteristic
features of the terrain where the object of research is
located, it can be seen that the areas where the erosion
process proceeds intensively are located mainly on the
northern and western slopes. Especially on the northern
slopes, low temperatures throughout the year lead to an
increase in relative humidity, and the latter leads to
rotting of the grass cover. It is concluded that sufficient
soil moisture in the spring-autumn period causes its
aggravation and increased plasticity, and the latter leads
to large-scale landslides.
References
1. Aliev B.G., Aliev I.N. Problems of erosion in
Azerbaijan and ways to solve it. Baku, 2000, 120 pages.
2. Longley P.A., Goodchild M.F., Maguire D.J.,
Rhind D.W., 2005, Geographic Information Systems
and Science, 2nd
Edition, John Wiley & Sons. p. 98-107
3. Turner M.G. 1989, Landscape ecology: the ef-
fect of pattern on process, Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 20,p.
171-197
4. Alekperov K.A. Soil protection from erosion in
Azerbaijan SSR. 1979, 220 pages.
5. Sh.G. Hasanov, M.M. Askerova. Soil
geography with the basics of soil science. Baku-2010.
418 p.
6. Ostrovski Y., Safarli S. Use of GIS programs in
soil erosion studies in Azerbaijan and determination of
conditions for their protection. Educational materials.
Ed. ITP. Poland, 2010, 117 pages.
7. Shakuri B.K. Exogenous and anthropogenic
processes are factors in the destruction of nature and the
environment around us. Publishing house "MVM",
Baku, 2011, 172 pages.
8. Qiyasi H.A. Some indicators of fertility of
mountain soils and the impact of erosion on them.
Works of the Institute of Erosion and Irrigation. I
Volume. Nurlan Publishing House. Baku, 2000, 124-
129 p.
9. Mammadov Q.Sh., Mammadova S.Z.,
Shabanov J.A. Soil erosion and protection. Baku, Elm
Publishing House, 2009, 340 pages.

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
MORPHOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL PROPERTIES OF KOUMISS DRINKS FOR PREPARATION
Kazhybekova A.,
Mantai M.,
Berdaman A.,
Ramazan K.,
students
L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
Sagyndykov U.
L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, candidate of biological sciences, acting associate professor
supervisor
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6532542
Abstract
This article presents the results of research to determine the morphological and cultural properties of lactic
acid bacteria for the production of koumiss drink with probiotic properties from isolated microorganisms.
Keywords: lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, colonies, nutrient medium, koumiss, probiotic properties.
In recent years, various viral diseases that have
spread around the world, the sharp deterioration of the
ecological situation in the country and the lack of
movement have led to greater attention to public health.
The society pays special attention to the health of each
person and its strengthening. This is one of the most
essential issues for every state. The key to good health
lies in proper and nourishing nutrition.
Mostly, the population of the city lacks useful
biological substances (vitamins, proteins, etc.), which
are found only in natural dairy products. In order to
prevent this deficiency, it is enough to use natural dairy
products in the daily diet. A special place is given to
koumiss, a national, nutritious product obtained by
fermenting mare's milk. This drink has therapeutic-
prophylactic and probiotic properties.
Koumiss plays an important role in replenishing
the balance of vitamins in the human body. Especially,
it is very rich in vitamin C in formation of the human
immune system. In addition, there are vitamins of
groups A, B, E and D. These vitamins help to stimulate
the appetite, stimulate the body's metabolism and
increase the body's ability to withstand various
diseases.
In addition to vitamins, koumiss is rich in minerals
and organic substances. Each of them has a specific
function in the human body. Due to its special
composition, koumiss is absorbed faster than cow's
milk and is quickly digested by the organism.
Currently, the procedure for the treatment of
chronic diseases with koumiss is developing rapidly.
The treatment with koumiss is given in a certain dose
depending on the condition of each patient. People who
regularly consume koumiss have normal
cardiovascular, pulmonary and gastrointestinal
functions. In addition, koumiss has a positive effect on
the central nervous system. [1-4]
However, one of the modern issues is the need to
improve the technology of making koumiss, by
extracting the microflora of this koumiss and making a
passage in cow's milk.
Materials and methods
Objects of research are local koumiss samples
from the regions of the Republic of Kazakhstan
including Nur-Sultan (Urker microdistrict) and East
Kazakhstan (Katon-Karagay district, Kyzylzhuldyz
village and Ulan district, Mamai batyr village) and
lactic acid bacteria isolated from koumiss.
Research methods are well-known in the field of
microbiology and biotechnology [5, 6].
Results
Morphological and cultural properties of
microorganisms isolated from koumiss.
Morphological and cultural properties of lactic
acid bacteria isolated from koumiss samples, that are
typical of Nur-Sultan (Urker microdistrict) and East
Kazakhstan (Katonkaragai district, Kyzylzhuldyz
village and Ulan district, Mamai batyr village) were
studied. The isolated koumiss strains were grown in
MRS and Saburo nutrient mediums.
Lactic acid bacteria grown in solid nutrient
medium (MRS) formed spherical, light-colored
colonies. Koumiss yeasts grow in Saburo's nutrient
medium. The colonies of koumiss yeasts are slightly
larger than lactic acid bacteria colonies.

Table 1
Cultural properties of lactic acid bacteria isolated from koumiss
№ Samples
Nutrient
medium
Number of
colonies
Colony
dimensions,
mm
Colony color
Description of the
surface and edge of
the colony
1
Koumiss №1
(Urker
microdistrict)
MRS 8-10 1-1,2 Pale
The surface is
smooth, the edges
are wavy
2
Koumiss №2
(Katonkaragay
district,
Kyzylzhuldyz
village)
MRS 12-14 0,9-1,4 White
The surface is
slightly convex, the
edges are smooth
3
Koumiss №3
(Ulan district,
Mamai batyr
village)
MRS 6-8 1-1,3 White
The surface is
smooth, the edges
are smooth
As shown in the table above, about 8-10 colonies
grew in sample №1, with an average size of 1-1.2 mm.
The color of the colony was light, the surface was
smooth and the edges were wavy (Fig. 1).
Figure 1 - Sample №1 grown in MRS culture medium
In №2 samples 12-14 colonies grew, their size was
0.9-1.4 mm. The surface of the colony is slightly
convex, and the edges are evenly distributed (Fig. 2).
Figure 2 - Sample №2 grown in Saburo medium
6-8 colonies grew in 3 samples. The size of the
colony is about 1-1.3 mm. Its surface is smooth, the
edges are smooth (Fig. 3).

Figure 3 - №3 Sample grown in MRS medium
As a result of the study, 5 lactic acid strains were
isolated from koumiss samples. According to Berge's
definition, the isolated strains belonged to the group
Lactococcus and Lactobacillus.
In addition, koumiss strains were sown by the
stroke method (Fig. 4).
Figure 4 - Lactic acid bacteria inoculated according to the streak culture method
As a result of the study, it was found that the
strains isolated from koumiss are immobile, Gram-
positive and do not form spores. For these reasons, they
are lactic acid bacteria. According to Berge's definition,
lactic acid bacteria isolated from koumiss belong to the
group Lactococcus.
5 different strains were isolated from koumiss
samples: Lactococcus lactis 1, Lactobacillus delbruekii
1, Torulopsis 1, Lactococcus lactis 2, Torulopsis 2.
The table below (Table 2) shows images and
morphological characteristics of lactic acid bacteria
isolated from koumiss.
Table 2
Morphological characteristics of lactic acid bacteria isolated from koumiss
№ Lactic acid bacteria Morphological
characteristics
Picture
1 Lactococcus lactis 1 Spherical in shape,
0,5-1,2 microns in
size, arranged in
pairs. Still, Gram
positive. The
optimum growth
temperature is 300
C.

2 Lactobacillus
delbruekii 1
It is long and short,
rod-shaped, 0,8-1,0
microns in size. The
optimum growth
temperature is 30-
400
C.
3 Torulopsis 1 Oval shape, size 2,9-
5,4 microns.
4 Lactococcus lactis 2 It is oval in shape, 0,5-
1,5 microns in size,
arranged in a short
bead.
5 Torulopsis 2 Oval shape, size 2,9-
6,3 microns.
Morphological properties of koumiss strains were
determined. Strains isolated from koumiss were grown
in MRS and Saburo nutrient media. As a result of the
study, the microorganisms cocci and rod-shaped,
immobile, gram-positive, measuring (0,5-1,2) × (1,2-
1,7) microns. The colonies were white, the surface was
smooth and the edges were wavy.
References
1. Черебедов М.В., Григорьев М.Е.,
Пилипчук В.К. Биологически автивные и полезные
свойства кумыса. – //Современные научные
исследования. – 2021. – С.208-210
2. Михайлова С.М., Яковлева К.М. Кумыс в
народной медицине якутов. //Арктика XXIвек. –
2021. – № 3(25). – С.44-49

3. Джуманиязова З.Ф., Аскарова Р.И.,
Маткурбанов Х.И., Абидов Ф.О. Лечебное
действие кумыса при туберкулезе легких.
//International scientific review of the problems of
national sciences and medicine. – 2019. – С.93-103
4. Сагындыков У.З., Акжанов Н., Нурыш
А.Б., Набиев К.К. Қышқыл сүт өнімдері мен
пробиотикалық препараттың антибиотиктерге
тұрақтылығын зерттеу. - Материалы
международного научного форума "Биология и
биотехнология ХХІ века". – Нур-Султан. – ЕНУ им.
Л.Н. Гумилёва – 2020. – С.3-5
5. Шоқанов Н.К., Сағындықова С.З.,
Серікбаева Ф.А. Микробиология (практикалық
жұмыстар бойынша студенттерге арналған
оқулық). - Алматы, «Арыс» баспасы.– 2003. – 192б.
6. Сагындыков У.З. Практические занятия по
биотехнологии. – Учебно-методическое пособие. –
Нур-Султан. – Изд-во: ЕНУ. – 2019. – 135с.

CHEMISTRY SCIENCES
COMPOSITIONS BASED ON EPOXY RESINS ARE FILLED WITH DIFFERENT FILLERS
(Overview)
Mamedov B.
Corresponding Member of ANAS, Doctor of Chemical Sciences, Professor,
Director of the Institute of Polymer Materials
Azerbaijan, Sumgait
Musayevа A.
Associate Professor of the Department of “Chemistry and Materials Science”,
PhD in Chemistry
National Aviation Academy,
Azerbaijan, Baku
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6532553
Abstract
The review considers scientific works devoted to composite materials based on a filled epoxy oligomer. Fill-
ing the epoxy oligomer with various fillers improves the performance properties of compositions based on them.
A number of formulations of composites based on epoxy resin have been analyzed and the effect of some fillers
and modifiers on their properties has been shown. The properties of composites based on epoxy oligomer (EDO)
and wood ash (DR) have been studied. As a result of research, it was proved that the addition of WA increases the
impact strength of the composition by 2 times, increases the density up to 40%, the hardness of the composite
gradually increases with increasing WA content. A uniform distribution of WA particles in the matrix has been
obtained.
Keywords: filler, epoxy oligomer, composite materials, basalt, compounds, shells, of cow bone, three ash.
Epoxy polymers have such a complex of proper-
ties (adhesion, mechanical, electrical, etc.), which in
many cases makes them irreplaceable as a basis for ad-
hesives, paint coatings, compounds and reinforced
plastics. Thanks to this, epoxy resins have occupied an
important place in the range of industrial polymer ma-
terials.
The production of epoxy resins began with re-
search conducted in the US and Europe on the eve of
the Second World War. The first resins, the products of
the reaction epichlorohydrin with bisphenol A, were
obtained on an industrial scale in 1947. Over 10 years
their production level was over 13.6 thousand tons, in
the next six years their production level increased three-
fold. In the late 50's, new epoxy resins were obtained,
other than diglycidyl ether; In late 1960, the industry
mastered the production of at least 25 types of resins.
At this stage, the term "epoxy resin" becomes general
and is currently applied to a large family of materials.
Epoxy resins belong to the class of thermosetting
plastics and are similar to such materials as phenols and
polyesters. A number of valuable properties of epoxy
resins led to their widespread use in industry. Epoxy
resins are universal due to their small shrinkage, ease
of curing, good chemical resistance and extremely high
strength of the glue joint.
But epoxy is not without flaws. Exactly in some
cases the high viscosity, low thermal and flammability
of epoxide oligomers.
One of the effective ways to control the properties
of this oligomer is their modification. In this regard, the
actual task is to search for modifiers. The discovery of
specific features of modification additives and purpose-
ful use of their optimal technological, physical and me-
chanical, adhesion, optical properties allows control-
ling the processes of collecting materials on their basis.
Recently, most attention has been paid to adding
strong compounds to the polymer mesh. In this case,
phosphorus, nitrogen-containing compounds convert
EO into high-grade and heat-resistant materials, dura-
bility, adhesion properties.
The development of various sectors of the econ-
omy requires the creation of highly effective composite
materials, which involves the search for new promising
fillers. At the same time, modern economic conditions
require the production of composites, not only with a
high set of characteristics, but also affordable, with a
fairly low cost. Therefore, the great potential for im-
proving the characteristics of composite materials lies
in the use of inexpensive and effective fillers, includ-
ing, of course, basalt and its derivatives. Unique prop-
erties of basalt make it one of the most popular materi-
als. Basalt is non-flammable and able to withstand tem-
peratures up to 9000
С, is durable and resistant to
mechanical influences, has high sound and heat insulat-
ing properties, biological resistance, and chemical neu-
trality - resistant to corrosive acid and alkaline media,
does not accumulate radiation. Basalt is environmen-
tally friendly and harmless for humans and animals [1].
In this paper, we investigated the possibility of us-
ing basalt as a filler of an epoxy compound consisting
of epoxy resin grade ED-20, hardener polyethylene pol-
yamine (PEPA) and a multifunctional action modifier -
trichloroethyl phosphate (TCEP). The preparation of
basalt consisted in its grinding and fractionation. The
investigated filler has a significant particle size distri-
bution, which is confirmed by optical microscopy data.
The possibility of creating highly filled compositions is
proved. the introduction of 50 wt / h of basalt into the
composition provides high values of the properties. It
should be noted that in epoxy compositions, crushed

basalt behaves as an active filler that enhances proper-
ties. And this is manifested as an increase in mechanical
properties - Brinell hardness, resistance to static and
dynamic bending (impact) more than doubles, and
physico-chemical - heat resistance also increases from
114 to 2060
C. When studying the thermal stability of
samples with thermogravimetric analysis, it was noted:
an increase in coke residues, a decrease in pyrolysis
rates, a significant decrease (more than twofold), mass
losses up to 6000
С / g. The revealed influence of dis-
persed basalt on the pyrolysis of epoxy resin is also
manifested in the behavior of the material during com-
bustion in air. Samples containing 30 and 50 parts by
weight basalt do not support combustion in air and the
weight loss is 1.4 and 0.7%, respectively. Thus, the ef-
ficiency and expediency of using ground epoxy resin
for ground basalt is proved, without processing it into
fibers. An increase in the physicochemical and mechan-
ical properties of compositions filled with basalts has
been established, which allows expanding the scope of
basalt application to create a wide range of use of PCM
[2].
The use of magnesium oxide (MgO) as a filler in
an epoxy molding compound (EMC) was considered to
identify the maximum thermal conductivity that could
be achieved without compromising rheological or
processing control and processing flexibility. MgO is
an attractive candidate filler for EMCs used in
automotive and other applications because MgO is
inexpensive, electrically insulative, has relatively high
thermal conductivity, is nontoxic, and is a relatively
soft filler material meaning it will be less abrasive to
surfaces it contacts during its processing and shape
molding. EPOXY molding compounds (EMCs) are
used in a multitude of electronic and electric motor
component applications, and for those specifically used
or considered for automotive application, low cost has
equivalent importance as service performance. Optical
microscopy images of the two used MgO powders. The
powder on the left is designated as 10C and that on the
right is 50C [1], [2].
A bulk thermal conductivity up to 3 W/mK can be
achieved with concomitant low cost if MgO is used as
a filler in an EMC. This is a 10×increasein
thermalconductivitycompared with unfilled epoxy and
about twice that of traditional SiO2 filled EMCs. The
MgO-filled EMCs also had a higher thermal diffusivity
than SiO2-filled EMCs, meaning thermal transfer
occurs more quickly in the MgO-filled EMCs. MgO-
filled EMCs possess electrically insulative, thermal
expansion, and water absorption characteristics that are
equivalent to those of traditional silica-filled EMCs.
The results signify that MgOEMCs would be more
effective than SiO2-EMCs at lowering the maximum
temperature of encapsulated components. Obtaining a
thermal conductivity of >3 W/mK using MgO would
require a filler content greater than 56 vol%; however,
a higher volume fraction would compromise and limit
rheological control during the transfer molding process.
Given this, the authors assert that 3 W/mK is the highest
thermal conductivity achievable for a low-cost,
electrically insulative, nontoxic EMC with versatile
flow characteristics and with thermal expansion and
water absorption responses equivalent to silica-filled
EMCs. Epoxy-based composites Al particles and
milled fibres SEM image of the fracture surface of an
aluminium filled epoxy; (b) fracture surface of the
unfilled epoxy; (c) fracture surface of the aluminium
filled epoxy resin (fig.3) (more brittle and stiffer) [5].
Polished cross sections of the six different test sets
at 200 × magnification.
Fig.1.

Fig. 2. Epoxy-based composites Al particles and milled fibres SEM image of the fracture surface of an
aluminium filled epoxy; (b) fracture surface of the unfilled epoxy; (c) fracture surface of the aluminium filled
epoxy resin
The thermal conductivity of epoxy resin
composites filled with combustion-synthesized
hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) particles was
investigated. The mixing of the composite constituents
wascarriedoutbyeitheradrymethod (involvingnouseof-
solvent) forlowfillerloadingsorasolvent method (using
acetone as solvent) for higher filler loadings. It was
found that surface treatment of the h-BN particles using
the silane 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane
(GPTMS) increases the thermal conductivity of the
resultant composites in a lesser amount compared to the
values reported by other studies. Thermal conductivity
of cresol Novolac epoxy (CNE) resin filled with
combustion-synthesized h-BN particles was
investigated. Surface treatment of the h-BN particles
with 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GPTMS)
was found to increase the thermal conductivity of the
composites by 7.7%–35.4%, which is less than a value
reported in another study at a high filler content. This
was explained by the fact that the combustion
synthesized h-BN contains less –OH or active sites on
the surface, thus adsorbing less amount of GPTMS.
However, the thermal conductivity of composites filled
with the combustion synthesized h-BN were found to
comparable to that with commercially available h-BN
reported in other studies. The thermal conductivity of
the composites was found to be higher when larger h-
BN particles were used. The thermal conductivity was
also found to increase with increasing filler content to a
maximum and then begin to decrease with further
increases in this content. In addition to the effect of
higher porosity at higher filler contents, more
horizontally oriented h-BN particles formed at higher
filler loadings (perhaps due to pressing during
formation ofthe composites) were sugges ted to bea
factorca using this decrease of the thermal conductivity.
The measured thermal conductivities were compared to
theoretical predictions based on the Nielsen and Lewis
theory. The theoretical predictions were found to be
lower than the experimental values at low filler contents
(<60 vol %) and became increasing higher than the
experimental values at high filler contents (>60 vol %)
[6].
The influence of the silver-carbonate microdispers
particles on the properties of epoxide resin has been
investigated. The effects of Ag2CO3 microdispers
particles on the thermophysical properties of the
epoxide composition have been revealed as a result of
experiments.
Thermal linear expansion coefficient of materials
that can be used in different temperature ranges was
established. Temperature ranges, at which the structural
transformations occur, namely, the deformation of
epoxy binder macrochains and segments and chemical
bonds destruction, were also identified by complex
analysis. Conclusion, Permissible temperature ranges,
at which the use of epoxy composites filled with silver
carbonate is possible, were set on the basis of thermal
properties testing using modern research methods.
Economically expedient to input minimum Ag2CO3
amount in epoxy binder (q = 0,025 wt %) for the
formation of a composite material or a protective
coating with enhanced thermophisical properties, since
the Martens heat resistance value for the selected range
of filler content does not significantly change – ΔТ =
358-360 К. The behavior of developed composites
under the thermal field influence was investigated.
Experimentally established that composites containing
Ag2CO3 particles of q = 0,500 wt % are advisable to use
at the maximum temperatures range of ∆Т = 303-473
К. Such materials are characterized by the lowest value
of thermal linear expansion coefficient, which is α =
6,84×10-5 К-1. Electrical performance of epoxy resin
filled with micro particles and nanoparticles, composite
products are also suffering from issues such as low
tracking resistance and early failures. The use of nano
or micro fillers is considered to be one of the methods
that can further improve the properties of the composite
product. This study is aimed to study the electrical
properties of nano and micro filled epoxy resin. SiO2
and Al2O3 nano and micro fillers are used in this
research for comparison purposes. The host matrix,
which is epoxy resin, is filled with nano particles, micro
particles or both nano and micro particles. Micro
particles and nano particles are dispersed into epoxy
resin using planetary centrifugal mixing technique and
degassed in vacuum. In total, seven types of materials
are prepared in this study. These materials are neat
epoxy, nanocomposite filled with 1 wt% nano SiO2
fillers, micro-composite filled with 20 wt% micro SiO2

fillers, micro-nano composite filled with 1 wt% nano
SiO2 and 20 wt% micro SiO2 fillers, nanocomposite
filled with 1 wt% nano Al2O3 fillers, micro-composite
filled with 20 wt% micro Al2O3 fillers, micro-nano
composite filled with 1 wt% nano Al2O3 and 20 wt%
micro Al2O3 fillers. In this study, AC electrical
breakdown strength test are performed using a sphere-
to-sphere setup. The thickness of all the samples is 1
mm ± 0.1 mm in accordance to the IEC standard.
Surface partial discharge measurement is also
performed to evaluate the surface property. All of the
filled specimens show an improvement in the dielectric
strength. The breakdown strength of nano-micro-
composite increased from 32.45 kV to 34.45kV (Al2O3
specimens) and 34.6kV (SiO2 specimens). Al2O3
specimens showed a better resistance against surface
discharge. The experimental results can be concluded
as follows. A higher breakdown strength is recorded
from nanocomposite samples compare to neat epoxy.
Micro-composite showed an improvement in
breakdown strength due to the improvement in
dispersion using centrifugal mixing method and high
vacuum degassing procedure. Better dispersion created
larger interface area between the particles and epoxy
resin matrix and eventually leads to an increase in
breakdown strength. Adding nano particles into micro-
composite can further increase the breakdown strength
of the material. Similar results are observed in the
breakdown strength test of Al2O3 and SiO2 particles. A
significant improvement in surface PD resistance is
observed on the nanocomposites. Al2O3 nano fillers
successfully reduced both of the dissipation current and
PD counts by more than 99% at 5kV. The SiO2 samples
also reduced the dissipation current and PD counts by
66.4% and 92.9% respectively.
Different nano- and micro-fillers are added to
modify the mechanical properties, wear resistance,
thermal properties and the curing process of polymers.
A very important application for epoxy resins is to be
used as coating for anti-cavitation painting. Pyrogenic
silica is already used in adhesives and paints, being its
application related to rheology. The objective of this
work is to study the effect of pyrogenic silica on epoxy
resins, usually not present in their formulation.
SiO2/epoxy nanocomposites with two different loads of
nano-silica, 3 and 5 wt% were manufactured. In partic-
ular, the study focuses on the influence that the addition
of nano-silica has on the mechanical, wear and cavita-
tion erosion properties as well as on the thermal prop-
erties and the curing reaction. To accomplish these
goals, nanocomposite samples in bulk and as coating
were prepared. Mechanical properties (hardness, bend-
ing and tensile strength), wear resistance (in bulk and
coating) and cavitation erosion were evaluated. The
epoxy curing process and the influence of nano-SiO2
additions on the glass transition temperature (tg) were
studied by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). In
general, a plasticising effect was observed with nano-
silica addition. Moreover, the resistance to erosion by
cavitation, in terms of cumulative erosion and erosion
rate, was higher for the nanocomposites than for clear
resin. The wear is influenced by the addition of nano-
particles. Nanocomposites H5SiO2 must not be used for
applications with requirements of a high wear re-
sistance. A lower content of silica (3%) should be used,
especially for “in-bulk” applications, as seen for the lu-
bricating effect observed at 1000 m sliding distance.
All cavitation erosion parameters are reduced adding
nano-SiO2, although a difference between additions of
3% and 5% cannot be appreciated. The tests have
shown a decrement in cumulative mass loss and an in-
crement in incubation time. The cavitation resistance
improvement is due to the increment in root shape frac-
tures and plastic deformation in some areas. Mechani-
cal properties are also affected by nano-SiO2 addition.
The composite tends to have less strength and hardness,
but be more ductile. Also, its Young's modulus de-
creases when a larger percentage is added. Lower tg
values indicate that the nanocomposites plasticise more
with respect to clear resin. The observed plasticisation
is consistent with the loss of strength and hardness to-
gether with augmented ductility. Nano-particles also
affect the curing process, promoting the initial curing
mechanism (autocatalytic reaction), but in high amount
they hinder crosslinking and the total curing is inhib-
ited.
The reinforcement by high strength fibers
provides the polymer substantially enhanced
mechanical properties and makes them more suitable
for a large number of diverse applications. This
research evaluates the effects of particulate Cow bone
and Groundnut shell additions on the mechanical
properties and microstructure of cow bone and
groundnut shell reinforced epoxy composite in order to
assess the possibility of using it as a material for
engineering applications. Cow bone and groundnut
shell particles reinforced with epoxy (CBRPC and
GSRPC) was prepared by varying the cow bone and
groundnut shell particles from 0-25 wt% with 5 wt%
intervals. The results revealed that mechanical
properties did not increase uniformly with additions in
filler but exhibited maximum properties at specific
percentages of filler additions. From the Microscopic
evaluation, it was discovered that homogeneity
decreases with increase in % filler, this could be due to
poor interfacial bonding. Natural-fiber composites with
thermoplastic and thermoset matrices have been used
for various applications such as car manufacturing and
suppliers for door panels, package trays, dashboards
and interior parts. Natural fibers cultivation depends
mainly on solar energy. For the natural fiber
production, processing and extractions, relatively small
amount of fossil fuel energy is required. While in
comparison, the production of synthetic fiber depends
mainly on fossil fuels and needs nearly ten times more
energy as compared to natural fiber. As a result, the
pollutant gas emissions to the environment from
synthetic fiber production are significantly higher than
that from the natural fiber production. Agunsoye
studied the effects of particulate cow bone additions on
the mechanical properties and tribological behavior of
cow bone reinforced polyethylene composite in order
to assess the possibility of using it as a new material for
engineering applications. The results revealed that
tensile strength and the hardness values of the
composite increased with increase in wt.% cow bone

particles while the impact strength and rigidity
decreased. The study also revealed that the additions of
the particulate cow bone have the most significant main
effect on the wear behavior of the composite while the
interactions between load and time has no significant.
Hence, cow bone particles could be used to improve the
strength and wear properties of recycled low density
polyethylene (RLDPE). Isiaka investigated the
influence of cow bone particle size distribution on the
mechanical properties of polyester matrix composites
in order to consider the suitability of the materials as
biomaterials. It was discovered that fine cow bone
particles lead to improved strength while coarse
particles lead to improved toughness. The results also
showed that these materials are structurally compatible
and are being developed from animal fiber based
particle. It is expected to also aid the compatibility with
the surface conditions as biomaterials. From the
literatures, it is clear that natural fibres can be used to
reinforce polymeric materials and get composite
material with improve mechanical properties. In this
research, the relationship between the microstructure
and mechanical properties of groundnut shell, cow
bone and a hybrid of groundnut shell and cow bone
reinforced with epoxy is investigated in order to
evaluate their uses as an engineering material and a
biomaterial respectively.
Fig.3. Сow bone as filler
In experimental studies, the mechanical properties
of the epoxy oligomer were significantly changed in the
rectilinear direction. It can be seen that the hybrid
sample of 5% reinforcement showed the highest
resistance before shattering relative to other samples
the flexural test was performed on. This implies that the
hybrid reinforcement of 5% can be used in place of the
pure epoxy for applications where flexibility is a major
consideration. That the groundnut shell sample of 20%
reinforcement showed the highest stiffness before
shattering relative to other samples the tensile test was
performed on. Therefore, the groundnut shell
reinforcement of 20% can be used in place of pure
epoxy where stiffness is a major concern. that the
hybrid sample of 5% reinforcement showed to have the
highest surface hardness compared to all other samples
being tested. This implies that the hybrid reinforcement
of 5% can be used in place of the pure epoxy for
applications where surface hardness is a major
consideration. That the hybrid sample of 15%
reinforcement showed to absorb the highest amount of
energy before shattering relative to other samples the
impact test was performed on. Therefore, the hybrid
reinforcement of 15% can be used in place of pure
epoxy where impact strength is a major concern. That
as the filler concentration increased, the shapes of the
reinforcement became larger, changed from spherically
shaped to irregularly shaped and they became more
closely packed.
This paper presents the study of the tensile,
compressive, flexural, impact energy and water
absorption characteristics of the luffa fiber and Ground
nut reinforced epoxy polymer hybrid composites. Luffa
fiber and Ground nut reinforced epoxy resin matrix
composites have been developed by hand lay-up
technique with luffa fiber treated conditions and
Ground nut with different volume fraction of fibers as
in 1:1 ratio (10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%). Effects of
volume fraction on the Tensile, Compressive, Flexural,
Impact strength were studied. SEM analysis on the
composite materials was performed. Tensile strength
varies from 10.35 MPa to 19.31 MPa, compressive
strength varies from 26.66 MPa to 52.22 MPa, flexural
strength varies from 35.75 MPa to 58.95 MPa and
impact energy varies from 0.6 Joules to 1.3 Joules, as a
function of fiber volume fraction. The optimum
mechanical properties were obtained at 40% of fiber
volume fraction of treated fiber composites. Fractures
surface of the composite shows the pull out and de-
bonding of fiber is occurred. The variation of
compressive, impact, tensile and flexural properties of
the luffa fiber and groundnut reinforced epoxy polymer
hybrid composites for 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%
fibers content were studied as a function of alkali
treatment. It is reported that composites having 40%
treated fiber content exhibited higher values for the fore
mentioned properties than luffa groundnut fiber
polymer composites with 30% and 50% fibre contents.
The mechanical property values of luffa – groundnut
reinforced composite were slightly higher than that of
luffa fibre reinforced composite. After the alkali
treatment, it was found that, treated composites
possessed higher values of aforementioned mechanical
properties because the alkali treatment improves the
adhesive characteristics of the surface of the luffa fibers
and groundnut by removal of hemicelluloses, waxes,
impurities and lignin from the fibers. In the present
work, it was found that optimum values and significant

improvements were at 40% treated fiber reinforced
composites. The morphology of fractured surface
observed by SEM suggests that the networking of
structure restricts the pull out of fiber, which is
responsible for higher mechanical properties for 40 %
fiber content. The decrease in strength at 50% fiber
content is due to insufficient wetting of fiber with the
matrix.
The present work aims at investigating the effect
of locally produced clay (Algeria), along with the effect
of their size and rate on physical and mechanical prop-
erties of the composite material. This study is divided
into two parts: The first one is devoted to the study of
the composite material based on epoxy resin with kao-
lin, using different size fractions at rates ranging from
2% to 20%. The second part examines epoxy resin-
based composite with calcined kaolin (meta kaolin)
with regard to the influence of the structure, the particle
size and the charge rate on the properties of the mate-
rial. It is shown that the clay fillers give the epoxy resin
different properties compared to the epoxy resin alone
and, additionally, reduce the cost of materials. It was
also observed that the fillers enhance the mechanical
properties by increasing the rigidity of the material.
There is a maximum value of 2.4 GPa to 18% kaolin,
or more than 325% increase in the modulus of elasticity
with respect to unfilled resin for the finer particle size.
It was also found that the modulus of elasticity in-
creases with increasing the loading rate. Indeed, the ri-
gidity increases with increasing the filler rate. Moreo-
ver, for both fillers, lower fraction yields better results.
Moreover, for both types of added fillers, lower fraction
yields better results.
Epoxy resins are characterized by significant
thermosetting resins that are used for matrix surfaces
for aerospace or hydro - cosmic production, for the
perfect mechanic readability, good heat, electrical and
chemical stability, insulating materials for
electrotechnical and electronical production, materials
for reconstruction and other materials. At the same
time, there is a low productivity of the products, which
is distributed to the thresholds and is not expensive.
Calcium carbonate, used in this study, was found in
Rama 's crucible shells. CaCO3 uses the biological
epoxide system of biological resources. Potential
biosecond implants can be used in the epoxy resin and
CaCO3, based on the use of calcium carbonate calcium
and calcium phosphate, as well as calcium calcium. The
choice of p-amino benzoic acid (p-ABA) in the
solidification agent is based on the fact that the ten is a
non-toxic product used in a medical and human body.
The literary texts indicate that what is being studied is
directed to the acquisition of p-ABA in the epithelial
agent of the coupling agent [22].
Preparation of bio-based CaCO3 Natural CaCO3 as
an inorganic filler was obtained from the conch shell of
Rapana thomasiana (harvested from Romanian beach
of Black Sea) using the following procedure: Hundred
gram R, thomasiana conch shell was ground in a labor-
atory type ball-mill, washed with deionized water and
dried at 105 C. After drying, the conch shell sample was
heated at 600 C for 4 h to remove the organic part. 55 g
CaCO3 were obtained and were again ground into fine
powder. The majority of CaCO3 particle’s size has val-
ues around 57 lm.
In the work, the fillers for the compositions were
obtained from the preparation of a number of stages that
were processed in the laboratory. The fillers were
obtained from the shell collected from the coast of the
Caspian Sea, the beach area in the territory of the
Republic of Azerbaijan (from the coast of Nardaran).
Fig. 4. Preparation of filler and composite
In the study, it was found that composites based
on the epoxide of the CaCO3-containing agglomeration
of the particles were observed upon the addition of an
excess of filler. This reduced the adhesive properties
between the filler and the matrix and in turn led to a
reduction in the hardness of the compositions.
The properties of the composite are improved by
adding the shell by 35% to the epoxy matrix. As the
amount of filler increases, elasticity and hardness
decrease The study describes the ultimate strength,
softening point and water absorption of polymeric
composites based on epoxy resin (type ED-20) with
unmodified and / or modified mineral diatomite of
tetraethoxysilane (TEOS). Comparison of the
experimental results obtained for the investigated
composites shows that those containing modified filler
have higher technical parameters mentioned above than
composites with unmodified filler at the appropriate
loading. Experimentally is shown that the composites
containing binary fillers diatomite and andesite at
definite ratio of them possess the optimal
characteristics – so called synergistic effect.

Experimental results are explained in terms of
structural peculiarities of polymer composites.
Comparison of the density, ultimate strength,
softening temperature and water absorption for
polymer composites based on epoxy resin and
unmodified and modified by tetraethoxysilane mineral
fillers diatomite and andesite leads to conclusion that
modify agent stipulates the formation of heterogeneous
structures with higher compatibility of ingredients and
consequently to enhancing of noted above technical
characteristics [23-25].
Due to the huge demand in production of
environmentally friendly materials application of
natural sellulose is very popular in modern industry.
Tree ash has been examined as a filler in the epoxy
based composite materials in order to optimise
material’s characteristics. After physco-chemical tests
it has been estimated that addition of the tree ash on
epoxy olygomer incraesis physical parameters as
elastisity, rate of consolidation, impact resistance,
compression strength. Physical analysis has shown
100% increase in impact resistance, 40% increase in
extensibility parameters of epoxy based composite
materials. Material’s hardness gradually changes with
incresing amount of added tree ash.
After reaction of tree ash and polymer
composition matrix the metal oxide properties in ash
content influence parameters of polymer composite
material and results in complex changes in property
structures. Content of ash CaO, SiO2 and K2O gives
high fireproof to PKM. Silicagel which has 2,648 q·cm3
density (SiO2) and 1600-1725°C melting point,
Calciumoxide (CaO) 3,5 q·sm-3
density and 2572°C
melting point, potasium oxide (K2O) 2,35 q·sm-3
density and 350o
C melting point. Therefore SiO2
content increasis hardness, chemical and thermal
resistance of PKMi. Calsium oxide or othercalled
quicklime (CaO) is main content of tree and it also
increases mixture’s hardness and thermal resistance
and increases adhesion force between polymer matrix
and other components. Potasium oxide (K2O) content
improves solution and thermal stability of material.
Thereby, ash contains specific characteristics of
metallic and metal oxide samples [26].
The tree ash prepared from walnut tree at 4000
C
temperature from thermal pyrolysis procedure in closed
container. First coal received from the tree, thereafter
coal burned for 5-8 hours at 350 °C temperature to
transform into ash.
First of al tree ash prepared, then epoxy olygomer,
plasticizer and consolidation agent appropriately
mixed.
The mixture of olygomer with other components
blended to tree ash. Prepared mixture poured into the
mold accurately and constantly in order to make
material pores fully loaded. Consolidation proces of the
composite takes 24 hour at 60-800
C temperature. After
consolidation proces product removed from mold and
it’s properties investigated.
Table 1.
Properties of composition
Samples
Compression
strength,
MPa
İmpact viscosity,
N
İmpact resistance,
kq/sm
Elastisity,
mm
I 57.7 0.99 30 5
II 84.9 0.92 50 1
III 87.2 0.78 50 1
IV 95.2 0.55 40 1
V 104.2 0.54 40 5
Addition of tree ash amount to epoxy based
composite material influenced elastisity, impact
strength and compression strength. These parameters
has relatively changed by addition of fillers to the
composite material. This increase is characterised with
high interphase energy between epoxy resin and walnut
tree ash. Compression strength, impact strength
increses, whereas, elastisity of the material decreases
by addition of the filler particles [27].
In the last time, natural exponentials are used to
obtain new composite materials with high precision and
elasticity. Composite material refers to a combination
of two or more components. The composites for each
component are complemented by individual individu-
alities, which are complemented by other components
of the clay property [1-5].
The research has exposed the spectrum of the
spectrum used in the coconut orchard in the skill, con-
struction materials, and sailors, fishing boats, furniture
and other appliances. In fact, the coconut self-esteem in
the quality of the exterior has some of the ecological
advantages preceded by ordinary filler. It is also desir-
able to have low energy consumption, low energy con-
sumption, low safety, low density, and specific proper-
ties [6, 7].
Activated carbon is also used for the adsorbent
treatment of water. The active carbon is represented by
a porous carbonic material, which is highly adsorbed
and is used in the catalyst and catalyst to improve the
adsorbent concentrations of gaseous and fine powder in
industrial efficiencies. The active ingredient is widely
used in salmon, pharmaceutical, and car and seaweed
production [8, 9].
The use of natural volcanoes in the production of
plastics rapidly varies, because they magnify the me-
chanical properties and build up the cost of the compo-
site. The use of natural volcanoes is ecologically pure,
with the exception of inorganic fillers.
In the context of this context, there are many po-
tential sources of energy for CO2 emissions, but not for
carbon dioxide in plastics composites. Even though the
glasses are widely used in aerospace and transportation
regions, there are many shortcomings. What is the use

of energy in the process of production, exposure to
health, recycling, and removal.
Composite from the natural walnut are ecologi-
cally clean in alternatives to glass fibers. The best of the
best - a light and low cost natural gas, good sound in-
sulation and soundproofing.
Basic rocks of volatile composites do their own
technical materials. By typing in, you can buy the ma-
terial with unobstructed properties, controlling the se-
lection of the filler, matrices and methods of pro-
cessing.
In principle, you will be able to get composite ma-
terials in an infinite form. Taksim image, based on cha-
otic oriented and unidirectional volcanoes, can be ob-
tained from a large number of composite materials. In
the composites, a large number of combinations are
available for the form, size and orientation of the pene-
trator. The only correct choice of matrixes and enhancer
comforters is the acquisition of a guarantee of compo-
site materials with high complexity (4).
It has been noted that composites with volatile
composites, derived from disperse repellents, work
well in real-world conditions.
Epoxy oligomer is a widely used polymer matrix
for composites. However, the strength, low modulus of
elasticity of this polymer matrix limits its wider
application. To modify the epoxy oligomer with
various fillers is very important. Adding a filler to the
polymer matrix is one way to quickly and cheaply
change the properties of primary materials. The
addition of various shapes, sizes and fibers can affect
the properties of the epoxy matrix composite.
Therefore, the use of walnut nuts and hazelnuts is very
important. As we know, the precious walnut and
hazelnut use only the inside, and the shell is discarded.
These shells were collected, purified, dried, sieved in a
0.06 μm sieve. The addition of filler particles of 0.06
μm to the epoxy oligomer was economically and
environmentally efficient.
Formulation of the problem. As is known, epoxy
oligomers possess high adhesion, but have not high
thermal stability. One of its drawbacks is that the hard-
ening process even with hardeners is very long. Adding
a different natural filler to EDO seriously eliminated
these problems.
The structure, physico-mechanical and opera-
tional properties of a composition based on an epoxy
oligomer have been studied. To study these properties,
various modern methods of investigation have been
used. IR spectra were collected for each component and
analyzed. The force of tightening and bending of the
obtained composite material has been studied.
For all components of the composite, IR spectra
were taken (Figure 5 (a) (и) (d) (c)). The compositions
were examined by infrared spectroscopy on a
NICOLET Is10 spectrometer.
Fig. 5. IR spectra of components:
walnut (a), hazelnut (b), ED-20 (d) and filled with ED-20 (c)
In the IR spectrum of the absorption band, ν_on =
3478 cm-1
refers to the vibra- tional O-H bond vibra-
tions in the dimer state. On the spectrum, one can also
observe absorption bands at ν_сн = 3073 cm-1
pertain-
ing to alkenes or an aromatic nucleus. The series of
bands that are from ν = 2599-1961 cm-1
refer to the
characteristic bands of hazelnut absorption. All other
absorption bands belong to DMF.
The same can be said about the filler - walnut.
After the interaction of the fillers and the hardener
with the resin on the IR spectra, it can be seen that the
O-H group in the resin molecule with the absorption
band centered at ν_on = 3296.68 cm-1
for walnut, ν_on
= 3292.89 cm-1
for hazelnuts, ν_on = 3288.80 cm-1
for
a
b
c
d

wood flour. In general, the spectrum remained un-
changed compared to the spectrum of pure resin with-
out fillers and hardener.
The technological properties of the composition
depend on the chemical nature and the structure of the
hardeners. The process of curing resins at temperatures
of 20 - 200 ℃. The process is a complex multi-stage
process. As a result of the interaction of the hardener
with the resin, it passes into a cross-linked spatial struc-
ture. In our work, we used a hardener hardener - a rep-
resentative of the amine series PEPA.
To study the curing process of the epoxy resin,
samples were prepared in the following manner and the
following composition. These samples were subjected
to the following analyzes: the cure rate of each sample
was determined, the degree of cure, the adhesive prop-
erties, the chemical resistance to various solvents and
sea water.
The degree of curing of the compositions as a
function of the curing time and the additives adminis-
tered was studied by extraction with acetone in a
Soxhlet apparatus. Samples were ground to a powdery
state. Then 1-2 g of the crushed sample was wrapped in
filter paper in such a way that the powder did not pour
from the paper. On the filter paper, the designations for
each sample were put and placed in the apparatus
Curing of samples was carried out both at room
temperature and by heating in the oven to certain tem-
peratures.
Table 2.
Degree of curing of compositions with different fillers
The curing temperature ED-20 /Without filler ED-20 /Walnut ED-20 /Hazelnut
20 78.0 93,3 92,7
60 82.1 95 95,7
90 89,5 96,8 97,3
120 91,4 97.3 98.2
The amount of hardener in the manufactured com-
positions varied from 10 to 15.5 parts by weight. The
experiments showed that if the hardener is taken in an
amount of 10-11.5 parts by weight, the composition
will have low physical and mechanical strength proper-
ties. The best stable properties are observed at 10 parts
by mass, and the reaction proceeds with the release of
heat. Also in a small amount of hardener, even if the
sample is cured for several days, the coating is sticky.
An increase in the amount of hardener or higher than
15.5 parts by weight is also not desirable, since the sam-
ple acquires excessive strength, stiffness, is obtained
with deteriorated properties. Thermally cured epoxy
compounds are more impact-resistant, impact re-
sistance 3-4 times greater than those rejected at room
temperature.
Table 3.
Properties of epoxy compositions
Indicators of compositions I II III
Breaking stress at bending, MPa 14 15 17
Impact strength, kJ / m 2 2 3
Brinell hardness, MPa 170 250 225
Degree of cure after 24 hours 15 -20 5-7 5-7
In most cases, the fillers used for the resin are the
wastes of any production. Their application for any pur-
pose is positive. They reduce costs and improve the
technological and operational properties of epoxy com-
positions. The properties of two different fillers have
been studied: Walnut, Hazelnut.
The practical interest of the process is to create
highly filled materials and, in order to use them in var-
ious industrial environments, a thermomechanical anal-
ysis was carried out, the results of which showed that
the filled materials had low deformation in a highly
elastic state and a high glass transition temperature.
The resulting filled material can be used as a pro-
tective coating film for metal products, as adhesive
with increased elasticity and adhesion, material for bulk
floors. The best properties have compositions, the ratio
of the reagents in which the resin is made: a filler of 50:
30% by weight.
The curing process of ED-20 resin with fillers was
investigated: walnut, hazelnuts. The degree of curing of
epoxy resin was determined depending on the ratio of
the reagents: resin, oil, hardener and fillers. Samples
without fillers acquired a degree of curing no more than
92.7%, filled samples - 99.6%.
The chemical resistance of the cured resin ED-20
in aggressive media was determined. The highest
chemical resistance was found in a sample filled with
hazelnut
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16

СПОРНЫЕ ВОПРОСЫ ТЕОРИИ ЗАРОДЫШЕОБРАЗОВАНИЯ ПРИ КРИСТАЛЛИЗАЦИИ
ИЗ РАСПЛАВОВ И РАСТВОРОВ И ПУТИ ИХ ПРЕОДОЛЕНИЯ
Фролова С.А.
зав. кафедрой «Физика и физическое материаловедение» Донбасской национальной академии стро-
ительства и архитектуры, к.х.н.
Щебетовская Н.В.
Доцент кафедры «Физика и физическое материаловедение», Донбасской национальной академии
строительства и архитектуры, к.х.н.
Покинтелица Е.А.
Доцент кафедры «Физика и физическое материаловедение», Донбасской национальной академии
строительства и архитектуры, к.т.н.
DISPUTE ISSUES IN THE THEORY OF NUCLEATION DURING CRYSTALLIZATION FROM
MELTS AND SOLUTIONS AND WAYS TO OVERCOME THEM
Frolova S.
head of the department «Physics and physical materials science» of Donbas national academy of civil engi-
neering and architecture, PhD
Shchebetovskaya N.
associate professor of the department «Physics and physical materials science» of Donbas national academy
of civil engineering and architecture, PhD
Pokyntelytsia O.
associate professor of the department «Physics and physical materials science» of Donbas national academy
of civil engineering and architecture, PhD
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6532559
Аннотация
Предложены альтернативные варианты расчёта критических размеров k
l зародышей и работ k
A их
образования при кристаллизации из переохлажденных расплавов и пересыщенных растворов. Проведен
сравнительный анализ критических размеров k
l зародышей и работ k
A их образования, полученных по
формулам «классического» подхода и предложенного альтернативного. Результаты анализа продемон-
стрированы соответствующими графиками. Показано, что в роли зародышей могут выступать элементар-
ные ячейки, а работы их образования соответствуют энергиям связей в кристаллах.
Abstract
Alternative options for calculating the critical sizes k
l of nuclei and the work k
A of their formation during
crystallization from overcooled melts and supersaturated solutions are proposed. A comparative analysis of the
critical sizes k
l of nuclei and the work k
A of their formation, obtained by the formulas of the "classical" approach
and the proposed alternative one, has been carried out. The results of the analysis are shown in the corresponding
graphs. It is shown that elementary cells can act as nuclei, and the work of their formation corresponds to the bond
energies in crystals.
Ключевые слова: кристаллизация, переохлаждение, пересыщенный раствор, относительное пересы-
щение, зародыш кристалла, критические размеры, энергия Гиббса.
Keywords: crystallization, overcooling, supersaturated solution, relative supersaturation, crystal nucleus,
critical dimensions, Gibbs energy.
Термодинамические основы теории зародыше-
образования были изложены и развиты в работах
[1-6]. В них было обозначено, что процесс началь-
ной стадии кристаллизации протекает по меха-
низму флуктуационного возникновения мельчай-
ших зародышей кристаллов и их дальнейшего ро-
ста. Теоретическое рассмотрение этой стадии
кристаллизации сопряжено с необходимостью изу-
чения неравновесных систем, что существенно
усложняет решение данной задачи. Это приводит
зачастую к формальному подходу к ключевому во-
просу о механизме образования зародышей. Поста-
новка этого вопроса представляется актуальной,
т.к. излишне приближенное описание, принятое в
термодинамике, приносит мало пользы при рас-
смотрении опытных данных о наносистемах.
Как известно [3], в роли движущей силы кри-
сталлизации в изобарных и изотермических усло-
виях выступает разность свободных энергий Гиб-
бса ΔG между жидкой (GL) и твёрдой (GS) фазами.
Она связана с энтальпией ΔН и энтропией ΔS пре-
вращения
G H T S
 =  −  . (1)
Из этого равенства следует, что при 0
G
 =
фазовое превращение отсутствует. Следовательно,

0
H
 = и 0
S
 = . Предполагая, что кристалли-
зация может происходить при температуре T ниже
температуры плавления L
T , относят энтропию к
температуре L
T и записывают
/ L
S H T
 =  . (2)
Подставляя (2) в (1), получают
/ L
G H T T
−
 =   , (3)
где L
T T T
−
 = − – переохлаждение относи-
тельно L
T .
Таким образом связывают энергию Гиббса
напрямую с переохлаждением.
Использование выражения (3) для анализа
энергий Гиббса для процессов фазовых превраще-
ний приводит к различным недоразумениям.
В качестве примеров рассмотрим подобный
вариант представления ( )
G f T −
 =  примени-
тельно к расчетам размеров зародышей при кри-
сталлизации из расплавов и растворов.
Вначале рассмотрим зародышеобразование из
расплавов.
Расчёт размеров зародышей l и работ A их об-
разования при гомогенной кристаллизации основан
на анализе изменения свободной энергии Гиббса
ΔG между жидкой GL и твёрдой GS фазами. Для та-
кого малого объекта как зародыш конкурирую-
щими являются объемная ΔGV и поверхностная
F
G
 составляющие [3-4]:
V F
G G G
 = − +  . (4)
Для зародышей кубической формы с длиной
ребра l
3 2
6
V
G q l l

 = −  + , (5)
где  – межфазная поверхностная энергия,
Дж/м2
; /
V
q G V
 =  – удельная энергия Гиббса
на единицу объема, Дж/м3
.
При анализе (5) на предмет нахождения экс-
тремальных значений ( ) 0
k
l l
G l =
   = полу-
чают следующие выражения [7]:
– для критических размеров зародышей
V
k q
l 
= /
4 , (6)
– для работы их образования
3 2
32 /
k V
A q

=  . (7)
Согласно (1) величина V
q
 связана с удельной
энтальпией /
h H V
 =  и удельной энтропией
s
 = S
 /V фазового превращения на единицу
объема
V
q h T S
 =  −  , (8)
[ h
 ] = Дж/м3
, [ S
 ] = Дж/м3
·К.
Поскольку S
L
h 
=
 , то в соответствии с (3)
L
S
V T
T
L
q /




=
 −
, (9)
где L – удельная теплота плавления, Дж/кг; S

– плотность твердой фазы, кг/м3
.
Подставляя V
q
 из (9) в (6) и (7), выводят вы-
ражения для k
l и k
A через переохлаждения
4 /
k L S
l T L T
  −
=   , (10)
3 2 2 2 2
32 / ( )
k L S
A T L T
  −
=   , (11)
В таблицах 1 и 2 (верхняя сточка) приведены
расчетные значения k
l и k
A для олова и свинца
при различных переохлаждениях с использованием
справочных данных (табл. 3) по физическим харак-
теристикам.
Таблица 1.
Значения k
l и k
l
вещество
k
l , k
l
,
нм
переохлаждения
−
T , К
0 1.0 2.0 10 20 50 100
олово
k
l  278.54 139.27 27.85 13.93 5.57 2.78
k
l 0.58742 0.58734 0.58727 0.58666 0.58589 0.58362 0.57987
свинец
k
l  296.5 148.3 29.7 14.8 5.9 3.0
k
l 0.58079 0.58070 0.58062 0.57993 0.57907 0.57650 0.57226

Таблица 2.
Значения k
A и k
A
вещество
k
A ,
k
A
,
эВ
переохлаждения
−
T , К
0 1.0 2.0 10 20 50 100
олово
k
A  57217.22 14304.31 572.17 143.04 22.89 5.72
k
A 0,25448 0.25442 0.25435 0.25382 0.25316 0.25121 0.24799
свинец
k
A  93688 23422 937 234 37.5 9.4
k
A 0,35945 0.35934 0.35923 0.35838 0.35731 0.35415 0.34897
Таблица 3.
Справочные физические характеристики 8-9
вещество L
T ,
К
H
 ,
кДж/кг
,
мДж/м2
P
c ,
Дж/кгК
S
 , 103
кг/м3
L
 , 103
кг/м3

 , 103
кг/м3
нафталин 353.5 146.68 12.4 1610.4 1.170 1.150 0.020
олово 505.1 59.56 59.0 247.8 7.184 6.973 0.211
свинец 600.6 23.4 33.3 146.4 11.530 10.678 0.852
Анализ выражений (10) и (11) свидетель-
ствует, что с уменьшением переохлаждения вели-
чины k
l и k
A быстро увеличиваются, а вблизи тем-
пературы плавления достигают бесконечно боль-
ших величин, чего на практике никогда не
наблюдается. На рис. 1 показаны зависимости k
l (а)
и k
А (b) от величины переохлаждения T −
 для
олова и свинца, характеризующие эту закономер-
ность.
а b
Рис. 1. Графики зависимости k
l (а) и k
А (b) от переохлаждения T −
 для олова и свинца по формулам
(10) и (11).
Обратим также внимание на то, что величина
k
А при понижении переохлаждения всего на один
градус (например, от двух до одного) резко возрас-
тает для олова от 14304.31 эВ до 57217.22 эВ, а для
свинца от 23422 эВ до 93688 эВ. Эти примеры за-
ставляют усомниться в корректности изложенного
выше подхода к выводу выражений (10) для k
l и
(11) для k
А .
Далее приведем методику «классического»
подхода к рассматриваемой задаче в случае зароды-
шеобразования из растворов.
Расчет размеров зародышей l и работ А их об-
разования при кристаллизации из растворов, как и
из расплавов, основан на анализе изменения энер-
гии Гиббса ΔG между жидкой GL и твердой GS фа-
зами ((4)-(7)).
При адаптации уравнения (5) к процессу обра-
зования зародышей кристаллов из пересыщенных
растворов [10-11] вместо V
q
 используют разность
химических потенциалов 
 в расчете на моль ве-
щества
∆μ=R∙T∙ln(C/Csat), (12)
где R = 8.31 Дж/(моль·К); [ 
 ] = Дж/моль, С
– концентрация пересыщенного раствора, Csat –
концентрация насыщенного раствора.

Для представления ΔG, ΔGV, ΔGF в Дж вели-
чину 
 записывают в виде
∆μ=(R∙T∙ρ/M)∙ln(C/Csat) , (13)
где  – плотность кристалла, М – молярная
масса.
Выразим ln(C/Csat) через относительное пере-
сыщение ξ=∆C/Csat, где ΔС = С – Сsat – абсолютное
пересыщение.
При малых пересыщениях в первом приближе-
нии

 
+
=





 
+
=







 
+
)
1
ln(
1
ln
ln
C
C
C
C
C
sat
sat
.
В этом случае



M
RT
=
 . (14)
Подставляя (14) в (5), получают [12-13]


 2
3
6l
M
RT
l
G +
−
=
 .(15)
Приравнивая производную
k
l
l
l
G
=


 )
(
к
нулю, выводят выражение для критического раз-
мера k
l зародыша в зависимости от ξ



RT
M
lk
4
= . (16)
Подставляя же (16) в (15), записывают выраже-
ние для работы k
A образования такого зародыша
2
2
2
2
2
3
32



T
R
M
Ak = . (17)
Рассмотрим в качестве примера кристалл
нафталина, образующийся, например, из раствора с
бензолом, и рассчитаем для него величины k
l и k
A
. Примем для нафталина  = 30.0 мДж/м2
,
М = 128·10–3
кг/моль,  = 1.17·103
кг/м3
,
ТL = 353.5 К [8].
Используя приведенные физические пара-
метры, проанализируем функции )
(
k
l и )
(
k
A
по формулам (16) и (17).
На рис. 2 показаны графики этих функций при
образовании зародышей кристаллов нафталина из
пересыщенного раствора.
Анализ выражений (16) и (17), а также графи-
ков на рис. 2, свидетельствует о том, что с умень-
шением пересыщения раствора величины k
l и k
A
быстро увеличиваются, а вблизи насыщенного рас-
твора ξ ≈ 0 достигают бесконечно больших значе-
ний так же, как для олова и свинца.
а b
Рис. 2. Графики зависимости k
l (а) и k
А (b) от пересыщения ξ для нафталина по формулам (16) и (17).
Из таблицы 4 видно, что при понижении ξ от
0,02 до 0,01 критические размеры зародышей k
l
сразу увеличиваются от 225 до 447 нм, а величина
k
A возрастает от 18724 эВ до 74896 эВ. Пример с
нафталином, также как и в случае с расплавами
олова и свинца, вызывает сомнение в корректности
выражений (16) и (17).
Таблица 4.
Значения k
l ,
//
k
l , k
A ,
//
k
A для нафталина
ξ 0.0 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.50
k
l , нм  447.00 225.00 89.52 45.97 21.77 9.68
//
k
l , нм 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.73 0.75
k
A , эВ  74896.43 18724.11 2995.86 748.96 187.24 29.96
//
k
A , эВ 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.19 0.20 0.22

Примерами такого подхода к вычислению k
l и
k
A могут служить работы [12] и [13]. В первом
случае изучалась кристаллизация компонентов в
системе н-гексадекан – н-октадекан, а во втором,
кристаллизация п-терфенила в пересыщенном рас-
творе с толуолом. Во втором случае, несмотря на
хорошие результаты при учете влияния анизотро-
пии поверхностного натяжения на k
l и k
A , объем-
ная часть энергии Гиббса осталась в своем «класси-
ческом» варианте.
РЕШЕНИЕ ПРОБЛЕМЫ
а) альтернативный вариант расчета разме-
ров зародышей при кристаллизации из расплавов.
При переходе от уравнения (8) к выражению
(9) допускалось, что изменение энтропии S
 от-
носится к температуре плавления L
T . Однако, если
зарождение новой фазы происходит при темпера-
туре L
T T
 , то резонно отнести изменение энтро-
пии
/
S
 к температуре T , а не к температуре L
T .
В данном случае T
h
s /
/

=
 и уравнение (8) за-
пишется в виде
/
s
T
h
qV 
−

=
 . (18)
Появление зародыша кристалла в переохла-
жденной жидкости есть фазовый переход первого
рода, при котором «скачком» меняются энтропия и
объем. При изобарном и квазиизотермическом про-
цессах вблизи температуры T можно допустить 14
)
/
ln(
/
L
S
S
p v
v
c
s 
=
 , (19)
где S
v и L
v – удельные объемы твердой и
жидкой фаз, cp – удельная теплоемкость жидкой
фазы, Дж/(кг∙К).
Представим правую часть (19) через плотности
твердой S
 и жидкой L
 фаз







 
−
−
=







 
−
−
=
−
=

S
S
p
S
S
S
p
L
S
S
p c
c
c
s









 1
ln
ln
ln
/
. (20)
Разложив выражение в скобках под логариф-
мом в ряд, и ограничившись первым членом разло-
жения, запишем



 p
c
s/
, (21)
где L
S 

 −
=
 .
Подставляя (21) в (18), получим
V S P
q L c T
 
 = −  . (22)
Подставляя же величину V
q
 в уравнения (6)
и (7), были получены новые выражения для k
l и
k
A [7]
( )
4
k
S P L
l
L c T T

  −
 =
−  − 
, (23)
( )
( )
3
2
32
k
S P L
A
L c T T

  −
 =
−  − 
. (24)
Расчетные значения k
l и k
A также приведены
в таблицах 1 и 2 для сравнения с k
l и k
A . Анализ
этих данных свидетельствует, что критические раз-
меры k
l зародышей и работы k
A их образования,
вычисленные по формулам (23) и (24), являются
слабо зависящими функциями от переохлаждений
(рис. 3) в отличие от k
l и k
A , получаемых по фор-
мулам (10) и (11) (рис. 1). Кроме того, размеры k
l
зародышей достаточно близки к параметрам реше-
ток рассмотренных веществ. Так, тетрагональное
олово имеет параметры a = 0.58312 нм,
b = 0.31814 нм; у гранецентрированного свинца,
например, a = 0.49387 нм 9. Сравнивая параметры
решеток с соответствующими размерами k
l , полу-
чается, что в роли зародышей фактически высту-
пают примерно от одной до трех элементарных
ячеек, а работы k
A образования зародышей соот-
ветствуют энергиям связей между молекулами в со-
ответствующих кристаллах.
На рис. 3 приведены графики зависимости k
l
(а) и k
A (b) от переохлаждения
−
T в соответ-
ствии с уравнениями (23) и (24) для Sn и Pb. Для
наглядности сравнения работы образования заро-
дыша с энергиями межатомных связей размерности
приведены в эВ. В расчетах использовались спра-
вочные данные, приведенные в таблице 3.
Сравнивая графики, представленные на рис. 3,
с графиками на рис. 1, видим существенную раз-
ницу зависимостей размеров зародышей и работ их
образования, рассчитанных как по «классиче-
скому» варианту, так и по альтернативному. Дан-
ные расчеты подтверждаются исследованиями в ра-
ботах [15-16].

The scientific heritage No 88 (88) (2022)

The scientific heritage No 88 (88) (2022)

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