The Mughal Period

‫سلطنت‬ ‫مغلیہ‬

INDEX
1. INDIA ON THE EVE OF BABUR’S INVASION
2. MUGHAL EMPIRE CLASSIC PERIOD
3. BABUR (1526-1530)
4. HUMAYUN (1530-1556)
5. AKBAR, THE GREAT (1556-1605)
6. JAHANGIR AND NOOR JAHAN (1605-1627)
7. SHAH JAHAN (1627-1658)
8. AURANGZEB ALAMGIR (1658-1707)
9. MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION
10. ART AND LITERATURE IN MUGHAL INDIA
11. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN
MUGHAL INDIA
12. DISINTEGRATION OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

1. INDIA ON THE EVE OF BABUR’S
INVASION
• Political Conditions :- there were innumerable small Independent Kingdoms, no
powerful central Authority, political condition of southern India was also weak, no
feeling of Modern Nationalism.
• Social Conditions :–
i.) Division- the society was divided into two groups i.e. Hindu and Muslim.
ii.) Category- the categories were three (feudals, middle group and lower group )
iii.) Traditions- sati system, child marriage, slaughter of daughters, Jauhar etc.
prevailed.
iv.) Merits- charity and faithfulness, guests were respected.
v.) Demerits- drinking, prostitutions, gambling, opium etc. evils were present.
• Economic Conditions :- India was prosperous at the time of Mughal invasion.
There was ample gold and silver, the things of daily use were cheap. It seems that
poor and rich both groups were present at that time. The richness of the country
was enough to attract any invader.

2. MUGHAL EMPIRE CLASSIC PERIOD
BABUR
HUMAYUN
AKBAR
JAHANGIR
SHAH JAHAN
AURANGZEB
30 April 1526 – 26 December 1530
26 December 1530 – 17 May 1540 and
22 February 1555 – 27 January 1556
27 January 1556 – 27 October 1605
15 October 1605 – 8 November 1627
8 November 1627 – 2 August 1658
31 July 1658 – 3 March 1707

3. BABUR (1526-1530 A.D.)
 Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur also known as Babur
was born in 1483. He became the king of Farghana (a city
in Uzbekistan) at the early age of 12 after the death of his
father Sultan Umar Sheikh Mirza.
 He lost the territories of Farghana and Samarkhand to
his uncles and cousins due to a trick played upon him.
Babur decided to capture Kabul after he was left with
nothing in 1502. He occupied Kabul in 1504 and ruled
from 1504-1526.
 Babur, in his auto-biography “Baburnama” has stated
that he always wanted to invade the land of Hindustan
after conquering Kabul but was always prevented because
of the misconduct of the Amirs or the opposition of his
brothers.

I. BATTLE OF PANIPAT,
1526
First Battle of Panipat was fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi on 21st
April, 1526. This battle plays a significant role in the establishment of
Mughal rule in India.
a) Causes – Ambition of Babur, Miserable political condition of India, Immense
riches of India, Meagre Income from Kabul, Fear of the Uzbeks, Geographical
Reasons and Invitations extended by Daulat Khan Lodi (Governor of Punjab),
Ala-ud-Din (uncle of Ibrahim Lodi) and Rana Sanga (King of Mewar).
b) Events – In November, 1525 Babur attacked India with 12,000 soldiers.
When reaching Peshawar, he got the news that Daulat Khan Lodhi had changed
the side, therefore Babur paid his heed towards Daulat Khan Lodi. At Babur’s
approach, Daulat Khan Lodi surrendered and was pardoned. On 20th April, 1526
Babur reached the famous historical field of Panipat with a numerically inferior
army than that of Ibrahim Lodi. In the morning of 21st April, 1526, they fought a
pitched battle. Babur with the tactical use of Tulugama and artillery destroyed
Lodi army. Ibrahim Lodi lost his life alongwith his 15,000 soldiers in the Battle of
Panipat.
c) Effects – End of the Rule of Lodi Dynasty, Foundation of the Mughal Empire,
End of Babur’s bad days, Use of Artillery in India, Popularity of Tulugama, Birth
of new struggles.

II. BATTLE OF KANWAH,
1527
The victory of Panipat did not make Babur the ruler of India. He met a
stronger foe in Rana Sanga of Mewar. The Battle of Kanwah was fought
between Rana Sangram Singh of Mewar (popularly known as Rana
Sanga) and the founder of Mughal Dynasty, Babur, in 1527 A.D. at a place
Kanwah, about forty kilometres away from Agra.
a) Causes – Ambitions of Rana Sanga, Rana Sanga being accused of
treachery by Babur, Charges of Rana Sanga against Babur, Inciting of
Rana Sanga by the Afghans.
b) Events – The Armies of Babur and Rana Sanga met at Kanwah on
March 10, 1527. This time again, he had to face an army which was
numerous. A bloody war followed which lasted for about 12 hours. After
an obstinate battle, the Rajputs were defeated and Babur became the
victor of Kanwah. Rana Sanga escaped and wanted to renew the conflict
but he was poisoned by his own nobles and died.
c) Consequences – This battle was more decisive than that of the First
Battle of Panipat. It consolidated the Foundation of Mughal Empire by
bringing the Rajput power to an end. The centre of activity of Babur had
shifted from Kabul to Hindustan and, thus the work of defeating the rest
of the unimportant local chiefs and Afghans became easier.

III. BATTLE OF CHANDERI &
GHAGRA
a) Battle of Chanderi (1528) – Medini Rai, a powerful
Rajput chief of Malwa refused to enter into any treaty with
Babur and also didn’t accept Babur’s offer of a Jagir in lieu of
Chanderi. Consequently, Babur pressed the seige of Chanderi
with full vigour and attacked the Fort of Chanderi from all sides.
On 29th January, 1528, the Fort of Chanderi was captured. The
Rajputs lost their lives and their women burnt themselves by
performing Jauhar. After this no other Rajput chief could
challenge the authority of Babur.
b) Battle of Ghagra (1529) – Although the Rajput
menace was removed, there were still the Afghans who had to
be subdued. Babur decided to put an end to the Afghan menace,
even at the risk of a war and marched towards Bengal to defeat
Mahmud Lodi (brother of Ibrahim Lodi) who had taken refuge in
Bengal. On 6th May, 1529 Battle of Ghagra was fought and the
Afghans were completely defeated.

IV. DEATH OF BABUR
The circumstances leading to the death of Babur in
December 1530, are curious. It is stated that his son,
Humayun, fell sick and it was declared that there was no
possibility of his survival. It was at this time that Babur is
said to have walked three times round the bed of Humayun
and prayed to God to transfer the illness of his son to him. It
is stated that from that time time onward Humayun began
to recover and the condition of Babur went from bad to
worse and ultimately he breathed his last .
At the time of his death, Babur was hardly 48 years of age.
However, he was the “the King of thirty-six years, crowded
with hardship, tumult and strenous energy.” In accordance
with his will, his dead body was taken to Kabul and there
lies at peace in his grave in the garden, surrounded by those
he loved.

V. BABUR’S PERSONALITY,
CHARACTER & HIS
ACHIEVEMENTS
Almost all the Historiansof the periodspokehighof the personalityand character of Babur.
Theyregarded himas one of the most Impressive Emperors of the Central Asia.
• As a man – Babur has been appreciated as a man of ‘lofty judgement and noble ambition’. He was
loved by his kith and kin. He was fond of wine and good company. At the same time, he was a stern
disciplinarian and a hard task master.
• As a Religious man – Though an orthodox Sunni, Babur was not bigotted or led by the religious
divines. His theory of Kingship was not Islamic or Quarantic but purely Indian. He had visualized the evil
effects of discrimination between the Hindus and the Muslim Subjects therefore, he accepted Rajputs in
his forces and gave them position of honour.
• As a scholar – Although Babur had almost spent his whole life in warfare, he was fond of poetry and
literature. He had a good knowledge of Turkish and Persian and used to compose poetry on both the
languages. He wrote his autobiography in Turkish language which is known as Tuzuk-i-Baburi. He also
composed Mathnavi-e-mubin in Persian.
• An able Commander – Babur was brave, courageous and showed patience and presence of mind in
abnormally risky situations. The battles, he fought shows, undoubtedly, of his ability as an efficient
General and could lead his army well.
• As an Administrator – Babur was not a good administrator. He did not get enough time to effect the
administrative re-organization. He made no significant change in the administration and let the old
institutions work as usual. He practically did nothing for the welfare of the public. According to famous
historian Rush Brooke Williams, “Babur is considered as a founder of Mughal empire not in the capacity
of a ruler but rather that of a conqueror”.
• As a lover of art – Babur had a great love for fine arts and architecture. There was an unprecedented
growth of fine arts during the very short period of Babur’s Rule. He patronized the art of painting. He
had the taste for music also. He got constructed many beautiful buildings in Gwalior, Daulpur and Agra.

VI. BABUR’S MEMOIRS
Babur’s Autobiography called Tuzuk-i-Baburi is popularly
known as Memoirs of Babur. Babur wrote this book at
different times whenever he had any leisure. It was written
in Turki. It was twice translated into Persian by Payanda
Khan and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana.
Babur was a master of flawless style of Turki. He has given in
impressions in a very frank manner. He did not hesitate
even while recording his own shortcomings. The only
unfortunate thing about them is that they are not
complete. There are gaps at certain places.
From the historical standpoint, the Memoirs are very
valuable. It gives a unique picture not only of Babur’s
personality, adventures and achievements but equally of
the habits and customs of his time and country.

4. HUMAYUN (1530-1556 A.D.)
 Humayun was born at Kabul on 6th March, 1508, A.D. He
was the eldest son of Babur. His mother’s name was
Mahim Begum. Kamran, Askari and Hindal were his real
brothers.
 Humayun had a good knowledge of Arabic, Persian and
Turkish. He had keen interest in Philosophy, Astrology
and Mathematics.
 Babur sent Humayun to capture Agra after the defeat of
Ibrahim Lodi which he did and got kohinoor as prize from
his father.
 An attempt was made to place Mahdi Khwaja (brother-in-
law of Babur) on the throne of Agra because he was an
experienced and competent administrator. On the other
hand, Humayun had not shown any signs of greatness but
he successfully seated himself on the throne of Agra on
30th December, 1530.

I. EARLY DIFFICULTIES OF
HUMAYUN
The throne inherited by Humayun was not a bed of roses. Babur had practically got no time to
consolidate his position on authority. Before he could put the whole country on a stable
basis, he was removed from the scene. There were so many difficulties before Humayun
but , some of them were follows :-
a) Conspiracy by Khalifa and other people – After the death of Babur, the sucession of Humayun
to the throne raised confusion becaue of the differences between Khwaja and Khalifa. But Humayun
neither gave hard punishments to the rebels nor removed them from the high offices and his kind
nature dragged him into difficulties.
b) Disorderly Administration – Humayun inherited an Empire which was beset with many
difficulties. The Empire was although vast yet lacked cohesion and internal unity and did not
involved any policy with regard to land system or judicial system. The Jagirdars, created by Babur,
were creating many problems for Humayun.
c) Economic Problems – Humayun enhanced his own economic problems due to his own foolishness.
He distributed the money against his Amirs, soldiers, and relatives, in order to please them. Because
of the lack of money, he could not carry on military preparations to face his enemies.
d) His Brothers – Humayun made a mistake in showing kindness to his brothers. In accordance with
the wishes of his father, he gave Sambhal to Askari, Alwar to Hindal and Kabul , Kandhar to Kamran.
Kamran’s actions created problems for Humayun as he was over-ambitious and he did not remain
loyal to hUMAYUN in the hour of need.
e) Enmity of the Afghan rivals – Babur had defeated the Afghans, yet their power was not
crushed. Mahmud Lodi was trying to get back the throne of Delhi for Afghans. More dangerous than
all the other Afghan Chiefs was, Shershah Suri.
f) Personal Weaknesses of Humayun – It is true that Humayun faced many difficulties but he could
have overcome them if he had possessed tact and stronger will power. He was addicted to wine and
opium. He was very pleasure loving. He was incapable of sustained effort and lacked resolution.

II. MAIN VICTORIES AND
STRUGGLES OF HUMAYUN
a) Expedition of Kalinjar (1531) – In 1531, Humayun besieged
the fort of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand. It was believed that the
Raja was “probably in the interest of the Afghans.” Humayun
was not able to defeat the Raja and consequently failed in his
mission.
b) Battle of Dourah (1532) – Humayun had to meet the danger
from the Afghans. Under the Leadership of Mahmood Lodi,
the Afghans of Bihar were marching on to the province of
Jaunpur. Humayun defeated the Afghans in the Battle of
Dourah or Dadrah in August 1532 A.D.
c) Siege of Chunar (1532) – After defeating Mahmood Lodi,
Humayun beseiged the fort of Chunar under Sher Khan (Sher
Shah Suri). The siege lasted from September to December
1532. But instead of conquering and crushing the power of
Sher Khan, he accepted a submission.

III. BAHADUR SHAH
Bahadur Shah was the son of Muzaffar II who
ascended the throne of Gujarat in 1511. He
aimed to become Emperor of India. He annexed
in Multan in 1531, captured Raisin Fort in 1532
and defeated the ruler of Chittor in 1533. After
the fall of Chittor, Humayun proceeded against
Bahadur Shah but he ran away and took shelter
in the fort of Mandu. Humayun seized the Mandu
fort and captured it. Bahadur Shah took shelter
in the island of Diu. Humayun then appointed his
brother Askari as Governor of Gujarat. As a

IV. WAR WITH SHER
KHAN
After the loss of Gujarat in 1536, Humayun stayed in
Agra for a year. Although he got information that
Sher Khan was strengthening his position in Bengal
and Bihar, he did nothing to move against him. It
was in 1537 when Humayun felt that he should do
something against Sher Khan. He beseiged the Fort
of Chunar which belonged to Sher Khan. He was
fortunate enough to capture the Fort but it was of no
substantial use as it didn’t command any land route.
Instead of taking action aginst Sher Khan at once,
Humayun decided to conquer Bengal and reached Gaur,
he wasted about 8 months in merry-making. During this
interval, Sher Khan strengthened his position and
captured Kara, Kannauj and Sambhal. By January 1539,
the whole of the country between the Kosi and the

V. BATTLE OF CHAUSA &
KANNAUJ
• Battle of Chausa (1539) – The Armies of Humayun and Sher Khan
faced each other for three months from April 1539 to June
1539 and neither of them started the fighting. The result was
that the rains started and the Mughal encampment was
flooded which created confusion in the Armies of
Humayun. Sher Khan found his opprtunity and Battle of
Chausa was fought on 26th June, 1539. Humayun was
defeated and with difficulty he save his life with the help of
a water-carrier. He even lost his wives.
• Battle of Kannauj (1540) – After his defeat at Chausa, Humayun
reached Agra and managed to raise an army of the Muughal
Soldiers was about 40,000. The Battle of Kannauj was
fought on May, 1540 . In this case also, Humayun did not
start the attack for full one month. Humayun was defeated
and Sher Khan became the master of Delhi and Agra.

VI. CAUSES OF HUMAYUN’S
FAILURE
Some of the important causes which were responsible for
the failure of Humayun were :-
• The main cause of the failure of Humayun was the hostility of his
brothers for whom he had shown so great kindness. They did
not help him when he was in trouble. Dr. R.P. Tripathi contents
that “Humayun’s brothers contributed very little, if at all, to his
ultimate failure.”
• It was the height of folly on the part of Humayun not to have
done anything for the welfare of his own people during the 10
years he was on the throne. On the other hand, he spent all
these years in wars which resulted into emptied treasury and
discontented people.
• Humayun failed to make a correct estimate of the growing power
of Sher Khan. He ought to have appreciated the dangers ahead
and taken a stiff action against Sher Khan from the very outset.
His delay in taking action against Sher Khan resulted in his own
failure.

5. AKBAR, THE GREAT
(1556–1605 A.D.)
Akbar, the Great, was one of the Greatest Rulers of
Indian History. He came to the throne in 1556 after
the death of his father Humayun. At that time, he
was the child of hardly 14. The throne he inherited
was not a bed of roses but it was Akbar who
possessed that broad-minded sympathy, that
capacity to trust and to evoke trust, that generous
confidence in loyal people which enabled him to
weld together a great and durable empire out of the
poor fragments of military conquests left to him by
his father. Akbar is a hero whose memory is
immortalized as a great king in the hearts of the
people of India.

I. CONDITION OF INDIA
IN 1556
• Political Conditions – The State of Delhi was recovered by Humayun in 1955
but he had not found enough time to consolidate his position in India. Everything
was still unsettled in India. Sikandar Sur had been defeated by Humayun but his
powers had not been crushed. He was still at large in the Punjab. In the Eastern
Provinces, the Afghans were strong under the king Mohammad Adali Shah and
his minister Hemu who was determined to prevent Akbar from taking possession
of the dominion of his father. The Rajput prince’s of Mewar, Jaisalmer, Bundi
and Jodhpur had increased their military strength to such extent that they were
thinking in terms of fighting against the Mughal Empire. The States of Gujarat,
Malwa, Sindh, Multan, Kashmir, Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda, Bidar, Berar
and Khandesh were absolutely independent and their rulers didn’t owe any
allegiance to the Sultans of Delhi.
• Economic Conditions – The economic condition was deplorable. A famine was
raging in full furty and was bringing havoc to the people. Thousands of people
died in Delhi and Agra due to starvation. An epidemic plague ensued and men
were driven to feed on human flesh.
• Social Conditions – Regarding the social life of the people, the Hindus were
looked down upon. They had to pay such discriminatory taxes as Jizya and
pilgrimage tax. The people in general were steeped in superstitions and attached
great importance to witchcraft, omens and dreams.

II. SECOND BATTLE OF
PANIPAT (1556)
 The immediate problem facing Akbar was to deal with the rising power of
Hemu, the Prime Minister of Mohammad Shah Adali of Bengal. On hearing
the news of the death of Humayun, Hemu marched towards Agra and Delhi
and occupied the same.
 Hemu was a man of extraordinary personality who proved himself to be a
great administrator and general. He won battles and conquered territories for
Mohammad Shah Adali. Undoubtedly, Akbar was in a desperate position.
 The armies of Hemu and Akbar met on the historic battle-field of Panipat in
November, 1556. At that time, a severe famine was going on at Delhi and in
the neighbouring territory. To begin with, Hemu was struck in the eye by an
arrow and he became unconscious. This was a turning point in the battle. The
leaderless Afghan army fled away and 1,500 war elephants and other booty
fell into the hands of Akbar and Bairam Khan.
 Hemu was captured and brought before Akbar and Bairam Khan. According to
Smith, “Akbar smote the prisoner on the neck.” According to Dr. Srivastava,
“Abul Fazl’s statement that Akbar refused to kill an already dying man, is
obviously wrong.”
 The Second Battle of Panipat was of far-reaching importance. The Mughals
got a decisive victory over the Afghans. The Afghans pretensions to the
sovereignty of India were gone once for all. Delhi and Agra were occupied.

III. BAIRAM KHAN
Bairam Khan was an extraordinary military general who served for
Mughal Emperors Humayun and his son Akbar and had great
contributions in expanding their kingdom. Bairam led Akbar to his
victory against Hemu in the second battle of Panipat. As an able
reagent, he guided Akbar during hostile situations. Akbar was only 14
years old when his father died and it was Bairam Khan who took the
responsibility to guide Akbar. Bairam was loyal to the Mughal Empire
until Akbar came close to his nurse Maham Anaga that developed
differences between the two. According to some historians, Maham
Anaga proved to be unworthy of the trust reposed in her. She did not
care for the interests of the country but merely favoured worthless
persons. She, along with his son Adham Khan hoped to rule herself In
1560, Akbar came under the influence of Maham Anaga, his foster-
mother and he arranged an excursion for Bairam to go on Hajj to
Mecca. Bairam left for Mecca but on his way, he was met by an army
sent by Adham Khan. Bairam felt humiliated and led an attack against
the forces. He was imprisoned and brought to court of Akbar. Instead
of disrespect, Akbar offered respect and honour and funded his
proper excursion to Mecca. However destiny had other plans for
Bairam, he was stabbed to death by an Afghan on the port city of
Cambay, whose father had been killed five years ago in a battle let by
Bairam. He died on January 31, 1561.

IV. WARS AND CONQUESTS
OF AKBAR
Akbar was a great general and conqueror. No wonder, he spent practically the
whole of his life in making wars and adding to his territories. He defeated
Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat, Baz Bahadur in 1561, Adham Khan in
1562, the Uzbegs (Khan Zaman and Bahadur Khan) in 1567.
RANIDURGAVATI– The State of Gondwana included the regions of Sagar, Damoh,
Mandla, Seoni, Narmada Valley and possibly a portion of Bhopal. Dalpat Shah was its
ruler. He died leaving behind his widow Durgavati and his infant son Bir Narayan.
Durgavati became the regent.
According to Abul Fazal, “Durgavati ruled her country with wisdom and ability. She
delighted in hunting and bringing down wild animals with her own gun.”
Asaf Khan, the Governor of Kara or Allahabad, was tempted by the wealth of
Gondwana and started revageing the borders of his kingdom which led Rani
Durgavati start negotiations with Akbar for a peaceful settlement and when those
negotiations failed, she retailated by making forays against Bhilsa and Asaf Khan
marched against Gondwana. Durgavati defended her territory bravely. She was out-
numbered and defeated in a battle between Garh and Mandal in the modern
Jabalpur District. Rani Durgavati was wounded and she plunged a dagger in her
breast and ended her life to save herself from disgrace. Her country was devastated
and a lot of booty fell into the hands of Mughals. Bir Narayan died fighting in the
defence of his country.
According to V.A. Smith, “Akbar’s attack on a princess of a character so noble was
mere aggression, wholly unprovoked and devoid of all justification other than the
lust for conquest and plunder.”

V. WARS AGAINST
RAJPUTS
Akbar’s Rajput Policy was important to understand because it consolidated the Mughal
Empire and provide a solid foundation. He followed a reconciliation with The Rajputs.
Some of the Rajput princes entered into matrimonial alliances with him. Akbar married
the eldest daughter of Raja Bhar Mal of Jaipur in 1562. Most of the Rajput Rajas had
tendered their submission to the Mughal Emperor, Udai Singh, youngest son of Rana
Sanga still refuged the monopoly of Akbar and defended his For of Chittor. After the
death of Rana Sanga in 1528, he was succeeded by his eldest son Rana Ratan Singh who
was murdered in 1531. His brother Vikramaditya Singh met the same fate in 1537. Banbir
killed him and usurped the throne. He also tried to kill Udai Singh but the latter was
saved by his nurse Panna Dhai who sacrificed her own son in order to do so. In 1540,
Udai Singh was crowned as the King of Chittor. He had given refuse to Baz Bahadur, the
King of Malwa. Akbar attacked Mewar in 1567 out of anger and also captured Chittor.
Udai Singh died in 1572 and his nobles placed Rana Pratap on the throne. After Chittor,
the famous forts of Kalinjer and Ranthambore also felll into the hands of Akbar.
Battle of Haldighati – One of the bravest King of India, Maharana Pratap refused
to accept Akbar as the ruler of India and fought gainst him all his life. Akbar tried to
win Pratap diplomatically but all his attempts were in vain. Rana Pratap refused to
accept any matrimonial alliance with the Mughals. This caused the Battle of Haldighati
on 21 June, 1576. Mughal forces defeated Pratap decisively in this battle but Pratap
continued his guerilla warfare against Akbar.

VI. REFORMS OF AKBAR
 Akbar abolished the Pilgrim Tax in 1563 with a view to
winning over the good-will of the Hindus.
 The next reform was the abolition of Jizya which was a
tax on the “conscientious faith of any man.”
 Akbar tried to remove the custom of Sati from the Hindus
in general. Some inspectors were appointed to keep a
awtch on the voluntary or forced Sati.
 Akbar discouraged child-marriages and the system of
female-infanticide. A law was made that no boy below
the age of 16 and no girl below the age of 14 was to be
married. If a Hindu was converted to Islam in his
childhood, he was given the option to become a Hindu
again if he so desired.
 Akbar abolished the system of enslavement of the wives
and children of the conquered people. All persons in India
were to be free.

VII. CHARACTER AND
ACHIEVEMENTS OF AKBAR
A study of the Ain-i-Akbari and the
Akbarnama of Abul Fazal gives us an idea
of the personality of Akbar. He was
sympathetic towards the people and
always ready to do all that he could do to
win over their affection. He was a man of
deep affections. He hated pride and
arrogance. Akbar started Din-i-Ilahi in
1581 which aimed to establish a national
religion which could be acceptable to the

6. JAHANGIR & NOORJAHAN
(1605-1627 A.D.)
A) Jahangir – He was born in August, 1569 as a result of many prayers offered by
Akbar to God and the saints. It is said that Akbar waited on Chisti at Ajmer for the
same purpose and thus, a son was born who was named Muhammad Salim (popularly
known as Jahangir).
 Prince Salim was a young man of very loose morals and was too much addicted to
wine. He started his education at the age of 4 and many capable tutors were
employed to teach him Persian, Arabic, Turki, Hindi, Arithmetic, History,
Geography and other sciences.
 In spite of all the care which his father took, Prince Salim acquired all the evils of
his age. He is said to have more than 800 wives in his harem.
 In 1600, when Akbar was away in the Deccan engaged in capturing the Fort of
Asirgarh, prince Salim broke into open rebellion, and declared himself as Emperor.
Akbar was disheartened by this occurences and he thought of superseding Salim
by putting Prince Khusrau (nephew of Raja Man Singh of Amber) on the throne.
 When Akbar fell ill in October, 1605 and there was no chance of his life being
spared, two parties were formed at the court. The one party headed by Man Singh
and Mirza Aziz Koka in favour of the succession of Khusrau and the other party was
in favour of the succession of Prince Salim.
 Prince Salim came to the throne in November, 1605, as the party of Man Singh and
Mirza Aziz Koka was in minority. Akbar himself, before his death, placed the
Imperial Turban on the head of Salim, thereby recognising him as the successor.
 Prince assumed the Title of Jahangir or “World Grasper”. He released many
prisoners and struck coins in his name. He proclaimed a policy of 12 famous
regulations.

B) Nur Jahan – The story of Nur Jahan must occupy a very important place in the history of Jahangir.
 Nur Jahan was the daughter of Mirza Ghiyas Beg. Mirza Ghiyas Beg on account of his hard work and honesty,
rose to the high position of Diwan of Kabul.
 While Mirza Ghiyas Beg was on his way to India, a daughter was born at Kandhar who was named
Mahrunnissa.
 When Mahrunnissa reached the age of 17, she was married to Ali Wuli Beg Istaglu who was a Persian
Adventurer. He was given a Jagir in Bengal and also the title of Sher Afghan.
 Jahangir learnt that Sher Afghan was insubordinate and disposed to be rebellious. Qutb-ud-Din, the New
Governor of Bengal was killed by Sher Afghan who himself was put to death by the attendants of Qutb-ud-
Din.
 Mahrunnissa (widow of Sher Afghan) was brought to Agra and placed under Sultana Salima Begum (step-
mother of Jahangir) in 1607.
 In 1611, she married Jahangir who gave her the title of Nur Mahal or “Light of the Palace”. The title changed
later onto Nur Jahan or “The Light of the World”.
 The character of Nur Jahan provides a fascinating study. She had a piercing intelligence, a versatile temper
and sound commonsense. She could understand the most intricate problems of the state without any
difficulty. She was fond for poetry and wrote verses. She not only possessed superb beauty but great
strength and courage too, she did a lot to add the splendour and glory of Mughal court. She set the fashions
of the age. Even generals and soldiers were amazed at the manner in which she behaved at the time of an
emergency.
 If Nur Jahan had virtues, she had her faults also. She was extremely jealous and couldn’t tolerate the rise of
others. She was also responsible for the loss of Kandhar in 1622.
According to Dr. Ishwari Prasad, it was under the influence of Nur Jahan that Jahangir became a thorough-
Bred pleasure-seeker and completely forgot the duties of his office. If Jahangir’s reign forms an inglorious
period in the annals of the Mughal Dynasty, she must share the responsibility in no small measure.
The facts, however indicate that far from being an evil genius hovering over Jahangir, she was his guardian
angel.”

I. REVOLT OF PRINCE
KHUSRAU (1606)
Prince Khusrau started revolting for the throne five months after
the succession of Jahangir. He started marching towards Lahore
while he got the blessings of Guru Arjun on his way. On reaching
Lahore, Jahangir with his big army defeated Prince Khusrau and
his followers. They started to flee towards Kabul when they were
captured and brought before Jahangir. The prince was chained and
handcuffed and was ordered to be thrown into the prison. Cruel
Punishments were inflicted on the followers of Prince Khusrau.
Guru Arjun who had blessed the Prince was not excused. He was
ordered to be put at death and his property was confiscated. Up
to 1616, Prince Khusrau was kept in the capital as prisoner. In
March, 1622, the prince was murdered. Prince Khusrau was very
popular with the people and the Nobility. It is stated that long
after his death, his last resting place in Allahabad was visited by
people in a spirit of veneration and he was considered to be a
“martyred saint.”

II. WAR WITH AHMEDNAGAR
(1610-1620)
In the time of Jahangir, Malik Ambar, An
Abyssinian Adventurer, was able to restore the
Nizam Shahi Dynasty in Ahmednagar. He is been
regarded to be one of the Greatest Generals and
Statesmen of Medieval India. He trained the
Marathas in guerrilla warfare. Malik Ambar took
advantage of the rebellion of Prince Khusrau and
attacked the imperial force in the Deccan,
defeated Abdur Rahim ( Jahangir’s step-brother)
and recaptured Ahmednagar in 1610. Jahangir’s
mind was busy with the affairs of Nur Jahan, no
action could be taken against Malik Ambar. Later
on, Adil Shah offered terms of peace to Malik
Ambar and the latter accepted the same. There

III. DEATH OF JAHANGIR
(1627)
The health of Jahangir was completely
shattered on account of too much of
drinking. He was trying to restore it by
visiting Kashmir and Kabul. He was going
from Kabul to Kashmir and returned to
Lahore on account of severe cold. He died
on the way in October 1627. His body was
brought to Lahore and was ultimately
interred in the Jahangir tomb near
Shahdara (Lahore).

7. SHAH JAHAN (1627- 1658
A.D.)
Shah Jahan was one of the four sons of Jahangir. His original name
was Khurram. He wasborn on 5th January, 1592, at Lahore froma
Hindumother.
He was pointed out to be the successor of the Mughal Throne after
the death of Jahangir because he was smart, intelligent and
ambitious.
 ShahJahan came into the throne on 1627 after the death of
Jahangir. He had to revolt against Nur Jahan (Jahangir’s step-
mother) and his relatives who were preventinghim to sit on the
throne.

I. REBELLION OF KHAN
JAHAN LODHI (1628)
Khan Jahan Lodhi was the Commander-in-
Chief and Viceroy of the Deccan. He was
originally an Afghan Adventurer who
entered into an alliance with the Ruler of
Ahmednagar and revolted. Shah Jahan
realized the gravity of the situation and as
a result, Khan Jahan was killed while
fighting near the Fort of Kalinjar in 1630.

II. DEATH OF MUMTAZ
MAHAL
Mumtaz Mahal was the daughter of Asaf Khan.
She is rightly called the Lady of Taj. She was too
much loved by her husband who had many other
wives also. She was Shah Jahan’s companion
during those days when his fortune got a a
setback.
When Shah Jahan became Emperor in 1628, she got an
opportunity to show her real worth. She tried to do
all that she could to help widows. She gave a lot of
money in charity. She died in 1631 and Shah Jahan
built the Taj in her memory. The Taj is one of the
wonders of the world and is a noble monument of
conjugal love and fidelity. At present, Taj’s position is
first in list of the wonders of world.

III. WAR OF SUCCESSION
(1657-58)
• In September 1657, Shah Jahan fell ill. The physicians were not
hopeful of his recovery. He even made his last will and testament.
• A disputed succession had become a sort of a family tradition in
the Mughals. Although all the four sons were born of the same
mother, they were not prepared to give up their inherent right to
fight for the throne.
• As soon of the news of the dangerous illness of Shah Jahan
reached the various princes, all of them satrted making
preparations for capturing the throne.
• Shah Shuja and Murad took up the imperial title. However,
Aurangzeb moved very cautiously. He managed to dispose all his
brothers one by one . So far as, Murad was concerned, he was
invited to a dinner and arrested while drunk. As regards Shuja, he
started revolting and was killed. As regards Dara Shikoh, he was
put on a trial as an apostate from Islam and a verdict of death
was given against him.
• Shah Jahan was made a prisoner and he died in captivity in 1666.

8. AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
(1658-1707)
 Aurangzeb was born on 3rd November, 1618 A.D. at Dohad
near Ujjain. He was the Governor of Deccan at the time of
his father Shah Jahan. He had also commanded many
expeditions in his father’s reign.
 A horrible home war was fought when Shah Jahan was
about to die. Aurangzeb got success in it and sat upon the
Mughal Throne in 1658 A.D. On the latter occasion,
Aurangzeb assumed the Title of “Abdul Mizafffar Muin-ud-
Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgeer Badshah-i-
Gazi.”
 According to Sir J.N. Sarkar, the Famous Biographer of
Aurangzeb, “The History of Aurangzeb is practically the
History of India for sixty years. His own Reign (1658-1707)
covers the second half of the seventeenth century and stands
forth as a most important epoch in the annals of our
country.

I. DECCAN POLICY OF
AURANGZEB
• Aurangzeb spent the last 25 years of his life (1682-
1707) in the Deccan. The object of his Deccan wars
was to conquer the States of Bijapur and Golconda
and crush the power of the Marathas. The States of
Bijapur was conquered in 1686 and Golconda in 1687.
• The Deccan Policy of Aurangzeb had far-reaching
consequences. The operations of the Imperial Armies,
especially the numerous sieges, led to a total
destruction of forests and grass. The Mughal soldiers
on the march destroyed the cops on the way and the
government could not compensate the peasants for
their losses. The financial condition of the Mughal
Empire became so weak that it was on the verge of
bankruptcy. The spirit of the Mughal Army in the
Deccan was utterly broken. The Mughal Empire had

II. ESTIMATE OF
AURANGZEB
Aurangzeb has beencriticised by some non-Muslimwritersfor his
alleged intolerance of Hinduism. Lane Poole had made the
followingobservations with regardto Aurangzeb, “For the first
time in their history, the Mughalsbeheld a rigid Muslimin their
Empire. However, he was an ideal person in many ways, he was
simplein his habitsand pious in his life. His proceedingsin the
Deccan weresimply ridiculous as military operations. He did
nothing for literature or art.

9. MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION
a.) Sources of Information – The ‘Ain-i-Akbari’ of Abul Fazal, Dastur-ul-
Amals (official handbooks prepared in the time of Shah Jahan and
Aurangzeb), “Manual of the Duties of Officers” by Sir Jadunath
Sarkar, “The Iqbal-Namah Jahangiri” by Mutamad Khan, the Padshah-
Namah of Abdul Hamid Lahori, the Tazuk-i-Jahangiri, the Tabaqat-i-
Akbari of Nizam-ud-Din and Muntakhb-ut-Tawarikh of Badauni gives
useful information on certain aspects of Mughal Administration.
b.) Nature of Mughal Government – The Mughal Administration
presented a combination of Indian and extra-Indian elements; or, more
correctly, it was the Perso-Arabic System in India setting. The
principles of the Government, their church policies, their rules and
taxation , their departmental arrangement and their very titles of the
officials were imported readymade from outside India. The rulers were
certainly Muslims, latitudinarian, indifferent or zealous. However, it
cannot be said that their public administration was inspired by even the
current ideas of Muslims Polity. The organisation of the government,
the ceremonies and the procedure in the Mughal Court, the method of
raising revenue and recruiting public servants owed more to Indian
traditions than to Islam. The Hindus were largely left in the enjoyment
of their institutions. On the whole, it can be said that the Mughal
Government comprehended both the varieties.

c.) Position of Mughal Emperor – The Mughal Emperor was the head
of the administration. When the new king sat on the throne, he was
saluted by cries of “Badshah Salamat”. Very often, the new king took
up a new title. The Mughal Emperors enjoyed many prerogatives like
Jharokha-i-Darshan, Taslim-i-Chauki, Naqqara, affixing special seals,
witnessing of elephant fights and the Hindu practice of Tula-dan or
weighing against articles for charities. The Mughal kings worked very
hard. They kept longer hours and enjoyed lesser holidays. These
Emperors had to play a double role. He had to govern all the people in
his dominions as their king and also act as the missionary, defender
and agent of the creed of a section of his subjects.
d.) Departments – As was to be expected, there were many
departments of the Government, but the following were the most
important :-
• The Exchequer and Revenue under the High Diwan or Diwan-i-Ala.
• The Imperial Household under the Khani-Saman or High Steward.
• The Military Pay and Accounts Office under the Imperial Bakshi.
• Canon Law, both Civil and Criminal, under the chief Qazi.
• Religious endowments and charity under the Chief Sadar.
• Censorship of Public Morals under the Muhtasib.
• The Artillery under the Mir Atish or Darogha-I-Topkana.
• Intelligence and Posts under the Darogha of Dak Chauki.
• Mint under a Darogha.

e.) Criticism of Mughal Administrative system –
Reference may be made to some of the points of
criticism levelled against the Mughal Administrative
System.
• Mughal Administration was Foreign in its
Character.
• Economic and Social Results of Mughal
Rule were disastrous.
• Mughal Government was extremely limited
and Materialistic.

10. ART AND LITERATURE IN
MUGHAL INDIA
The fine arts like architecture, painting, sculpture
as well as literature made great progress during
the Mughal period. It shall be fruitful to make a
survey of the progress of various fine arts during
the Mughal period.
a.) Architecture :- The Mughals were great
builders, they were more Indian than foreign
and consequently there was a fusion of
cultures. The pre-Mughal Architecture was
known for its massiveness and simplicity and
the Mughal Architecture was known for its

• Babur – He held a very poor opinion of Indian
Architecture. He had a mind to invite from
Constantinople a pupil of Sinan, the famous
Albanian Architect, to assist him in his building
projects. Out of the many buildings built by
Babur, only two have survived and those are the
mosques in the Kabul Bagh at Panipat and the
Jama Masjid at Sambhal.

• Humayun – Although Humayun led a very
stormy life, he found some time to construct
certain buildings. There is a Mosque at Fatehbad
in the Hissar District of the Punjab. It is
decorated with enamelled tiels in the Persian
Style. Humayun’s Palace at Delhi called Din
Panah was built in a hurry and it appears that
considerations of quality and durability were
completely ignored by its builders.

• Akbar – The chief characteristics of the
Architecture of Akbar’s period were the
extensive use of red sandstone, ideal synthesis of
Hindu and Muslim Art Traditions, construction
of vastly improved domes, arches and portals,
increased use of marble, and incorporation of
regional styles. The Hindu Style was favoured in
his Palaces at the Agra Fort and at Fatehpur Sikri.
Akbar built Humayun Tomb, Jama Masjid,
Buland Darwaza, House of Birbal, the Sonhala
Makan, the house of the Princes of Amber, the
Palace of Turkish Sultana and the Diwan-i-Khas.

AGRA FORT HUMAYUN’S TOMB
BULAND DARWAZA DIWAN-I-KHAS
MARIAM-UZ-ZAMANI MAHAL
HOUSE OF BIRBAL

• Jahangir – Jahangir did not take so much interest in
architecture as his father did. However, Nur Jahan erected
the famous Itmad-ud-Daulah Tomb in the memory of her
father. It is one of the most earliest buildings in which
pietra dura was used. As regards the Tomb of Jahangir at
Shahdara near Lahore, it was built by Nur Jahan. It is to be
noted that the Tombs of Jahangir, Asaf Khan and Nur Jahan
were very badly injured by the Sikhs.
ITMAD-UD-DAULAH TOMB OF JAHANGIR
PIETRA DURA

• Shah Jahan – Shah Jahan was one of the greatest of the
builders among the Mughals. In his time, the arts of
the jeweller and the painter were blended into one.
The important buildings of Shah Jahan were the
Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas in the Fort of Delhi,
the Jama Masjid, the Moti Masjid and the Taj.
DIWAN-I-AM DIWAN-I-KHAS
MOTI MASJID JAMA MASJID

The Taj was built by Shah Jahan in the memory of his
beloved queen, Arjumand Banu who died in 1630. We
are told that prominent artisans were invited from
various countries to help in designing and constructing
the Taj. The Taj was constructed under the guidance of
Ustad Isa and he was paid a salary of Rs. 10,000 per
month. It took 22 years to complete the work of the
construction of the Taj. According to Fergusson, “Taj
Mahal at Agra is almost the only tomb that retains its
grandeur in anything like its pristine beauty, and
there is not perhaps in the whole world a scene where
nature and art so successfully combine to produce a
perfect work of art as within the precints of this far-
famed mausoleum.”

b.) Painting in Mughal Period :- The origin,
nature and development of Mughal painting is
similar to Mughal Architecture. It is a
combination of many elements. This art was
carried by the Mughals into India from Persia.
• Akbar – In the time of Akbar, painting made very
great progress. The personal interest of Akbar led
to the growth of National Indian School of
Painting. We are also told that Akbar had an
album of portraits. In the time of Akbar, the
Chingiznamah, the Ramayana, Kalyadaman,
Ayardanish, Zafarnamah, Naldaman and
Razmanamah were illustrated.

• Jahangir – Like his father, Jahangir gave an impetus to
the art of painting. Sir Thomas Roe who visited the
Mughal court in the time of Jahangir testifies to the
fact that Jahangir was a great lover of painting. There
was the predominance of realism during Jahangir’s
reign. The favourite subjects of painting were
buildings, flowers, animals, birds and natuiral objects.
The great painters of Jahangir’s time were Farruk Beg,
Mohammad Nadir and Mohammad Murad. It is true
that the Hindu painters were not favoured by Jahangir,
but Bishan Das, the Keshva brothers, Manohar,
Madhav and Tusli flourished at this time. The Mughal
School of Miniature Painting reached its climax in the
time of Jahangir.

c.) Music :- The Mughals were patrons of music.
• According to Lane-Poole, “the art of improving quatrain on the spot, quoting
Persian classics, writing a good hand and singing a good song were appreciated in
the time of Babur who himself was fond of music.
• Humayun was also fond of musicians and singers and had fixed Mondays and
Wednesdays for that purpose.
• According to Abul Fazal, there were 36 singers and performers on various
instruments at Akbar’s court. Mian Tansen was the best singer of Akbar’s time. His
original name was Ramtanu Pande. He was born in 1506. Abul Fazal says of Mian
Tansen, ‘A singer like him has not been known in India for the last thousand years.
He was by far the best of the group of musicians of the imperial court of whom
atleast 36 are enumerated in the history. In the time of Akbar, the different
systems of music were fused together and a New Indian Music came into being.
• Like his father, Jahangir had an ear for music. He himself was the author of many
Hindi songs which were very interesting.
• Shah Jahan was also a lover of music. According to J.N. Sarkar, “the voice of Shah
Jahan was so attractive that “many pure-souled Sufis and holy men with hearts
withdrawn from the world who attended these evening assemblies lost their
senses in the ecstacy produced by his singing.”
• Aurangzeb was fond of music only during the first ten years of his reign. He
maintained a large number of singers at his court. However, as Aurangzeb began
to grow, he became an opponent of music and no wonder turned out the court
musicians.

d.) Growth of Literature under the Mughals :- The Mughal
period was productive of great literature. The
literatuire was in Persian and Hindi.
• As regards Persian Literature, Babur himself was a great scholar and knew thoroughly
Arabic, Persian and Turki. He wrote his Memoirs in the Turkish Language. Babur has
been described as “the Prince of autobiographers.” According to Elphinstone, “Babur’s
Memoirs were almost the only piece of real history in Asia.”
• Humayun collected a large number of poets, philosophers and divines and took delight
in their company. He was so much fond of books that wherever he went, he took a
library of books with him. It is to be noted that Gulbadan Begum, daughter of Babur,
wrote the Humayun Namah.
• A large number of books were translated into Persian in the time of Akbar. Badauni
translated the Ramayana of Balmiki into Persian. A portion of the Mahabharata was also
translated. Abul Fazal was undoubtedly the ablest writer in Persian. The Akbarnamah
and Ain-i-Akbari are the two monuments of Abul Fazal’s fame as a writer and a
historian. The Tabakat-i-Akbari or the Annals of Akbar was written by Nizam-ud-Din. He
has given lengthy accounts of the conquests of Akbar.
• Jahangir himself was a great scholar and writer. His own book, Tuzk-i-Jahangiri, is a work
of great literary merit and historical importance. There is freshness, frankness and
sincerity in this autobiography. The important writings of his period were MasirI
Jahangiri, Iqbalnamah-i-Jahangiri and the Zabud-ut-Tawarikh.
• As regards Shah Jahan, he patronised writers like Abdul Hamid Lahori, Amin Qazwini,
Inayat Khan and Mohammad Salih. Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, was a
great scholar. It was under his patronage that books like the Upanishads, the Gita and
the Yoga Vashist were translated into Persian.
• The Fatwa-i- Alamgiri was compiled under the patronage of Aurangzeb. He did not like
the writing of the history of his reign and no wonder Khafi Khan or Mohammad Hashim
wrote Muntakhab-ul-Lubab in secret. The other important writings of this period were
Alamgirnamah, Masiri-Alamgiri, Ruaqat-i-Alamgiri and Khulasat-ul-Tawarikh. Zebunnissa
, daughter of Aurangzeb, wrote the Diwan-i-Makhfi.

11. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
CONDITION IN MUGHAL INDIA
It is difficult to write about the social and economic
conditions of Mughal India as the material on the
subject is scanty. Contemporary writers, particularly
Mohammadan Historians, tell us practically nothing
of the man in the street and his ways of living. It is
rightly pointed out that there was not much to write
about the life of the people of the villages as the
same was hopelessly dull and monotonous. The
various aspects of the social life of the people may be
studied under the following heads :-
a.) King – Society in Mughal times was organized on a feudal basis and the head of the
social system was the king. He enjoyed an unparalleled status. He was the ultimate
authority in everything. Every one tried to win over the goodwill of the king as success in
life depended upon his goodwill. The Mughal Rulers were notorious for their large
harems. There was a separate staff of women officers to look after them. A big kitchen was
run by the king. Feasts and festivities were common. Pleasures, amusements and

b.) Nobles – The Mughal Nobles monopolised most of the jobs in the
country. They enjoyed the goodwill and the patronage of the king. They
demanded and commanded great honour and dignity in society. There were
men of every type and nationality among the Mughal Nobles. Most of the
nobles lived a life of extravagance. They also followed the example of the king
and maintained a large number of mistresses and dancing girls. They were
generally corrupt. It is stated that when a nobleman died, all his property was
taken away by the king to prevent the nobles to collect money by fair or foul
means. However, this law had also an unhappy effect i.e. encouragement of
extravagance.
c.) Middle Class – The middle class was heterogeneous in composition.
It included the wealthy merchants, professional men and petty Mansabdars. It
is stated that the merchants usually concealed their wealth as there was always
the danger of the same being forcibly taken away by the local Governor or
Faujdar. The Petty Mansabdars tried to copy the big Mansabdars in their
extravagance and pomp and show. In order to maintain their position, they
resorted to all kinds of malpractices such as bribery and extortion. The Petty
Mansabdars did not play any significant part in the society.

d.) Lower Class – The lower classes comprised of the cultivators, artisans, small
traders, shop-keepers, household servants, slaves, etc. Most of them were condemned
to live a hard and unattractive life. Their clothings were scanty. Their lives were
simple and their belongings were limited. There was no scarcity of food except in
times of famine. Consequently, there was practically no starvation in normal
circumstances.
e.) Customs – Customs also played animportant part. The important rites
observed by the Hindus were Chhati, Mundan, Chatavan, Vidyarmbha, Vivah and
Shraddha. The Muslims also observed their own rites of Aquiqah, Bismillah,
Marriage ceremony and Chahlum.
f.) Fairs and Festivals – The Hindus and Muslims observed certain fairs
and festivals. The important festivals of the Hindus were Holi, Basant Panchami,
Dussehra, Diwali, Shivaratri and Sankranti. People went to places of pilgrimage such
as Pushkar, Kurukshetra, Kashi, Prayag, Puri, etc. The Fair of Kumbh was also
celebrated y the Hindus who assembled in millions on that occasion. The important
Muslim Festivals were Id-ul-Zuha, Id-ul-Fitrs, Shab-i-Barat, Muharram and Milad-un-
Nabi. On these days, there were fire-works and illuminaions of houses and mosques.
The Muslims also celebrated the Urs of the various Sufi saints.

g.) Outdoor Sports – The Early Mughal Emperors inherited a taste for
outdoor exercise and sport. The Mughals were fond of hunting, swimming and
hawking. Animal-fighting was also popular with the Mughal Emperors and their
courtiers. The other outdoor amusements popular at that time were wrestling, polo and
pigeon-flying. Chess was also popular during the Mughal Period. Another popular
game was Chaupar or backgammon. It is stated in Ain-i-Akbari that the game was
played on a cloth board in the form of a cross, each arm of the cross being divided, into
24 squares in three rows of 8 each. This board also served the purpose of 3 other games
named Phansa, Pachisi and Chandel-Mandal. Phansa was played with dice and Pachisi
was played with Kawries. Mujra and Mushaira were also very popular. Mujra means the
performance of singers and dancers in private assemblies. Mushaira means the gather of
the poets.
h.) Dress – The royal family and the nobility spent a lot of their income on dress,
which, consisted of a large coat, tight trousers, a turban or cap and a silk scarf tied at
the waist with the ends hanging down. The nobles also put on daggers, necklaces, ear-
tops, sandals, etc. The dress which was the most common among the people was the
Dhoti. The ordinary people could not afford to put on expensive dresses.Most of the
people were virtually half-naked. They managed to put on good clothes on festive
occasions. The dress of the Hindu ladies was Dhoti or Sari. The Muslim women used
the Pyjama or Gharara with jacket Kurtas. The use of ornaments was practically

i.) Food – There was no uniformity in India with regard to the food habits. While
the Hindus were mostly vegetarians, the Muslims were generally non-vegetarians.
Milk was a very important part of the diet of the people in the villages.
j.) Women – Women occupied a high position in the family. They commanded
respect. Most of them led a life of dignity and respect. They lived devoted lives. They
lived a life of sacrifice. The welfare of the family depended upon the care, love,
benevolence and dedication. Polygamy was very common among the Muslims. Talaq
or divorce and re-marriages were common among the Muslims. In some cases, the
Hindus also married many wives. There was no Talaq among the Hindus. Sati
System was common among the Hindus.
k.) Economic Condition – Very little is known about the economic
condition of the people of India during the Reigns of the Mughals. A reference to the
Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazal shows that wheat was sold at that time at the rate of 12
Dams per Man, Barley at 8, Gram at 16 ½ , Jawar at 10, Millet at 8, Ghee at 105, Oil
at 80, Milk at 25, and White Sugar at 128 Dams per Man. The vegetables were also
cheap. A sheep could be had for Rs.1-8-0 and a cow for Rs.10. If the prices of the
commodities were low, the wages were also low. An unskilled labourer ordinarily
earned 2 Dams or 1/20th part of a rupee per day. A highly skilled labourer, e.g., a
carpenter, was paid 7 Dams a day.

l.) Agriculture - Agriculture was the main industry of the people of India. The
peasants took full advantage of the peace established by the Mughals in the country.
Most of the Rice was grown in India in Assam, Bengal, ihar, Orissa, Eastern Coast,
the Tamil areas and Kashmir. Allahabad, Avadh, Khandesh, and Gujarat also
produced some Rice. Wheat and Barley were grown in the Punjab, Madhya Pradesh,
Agra, etc. Cash crops like Cotton and Sugarcane were known as Jins-i-Kamil or Jins-
i-Ala. The best quality of Indigo was produced in the Bayan Region and in Sarkhej
near Ahmedabad. The chief items of non-agricultural production were fisheries,
minerals, salt, sugar, opium, indigo and liquor.
m.) Foreign Trade – There was a great increase in the Foreign Trade of the
country. Akbar and Jahangir took great interest in the foreign sea- borne trade. The
important outlets for foreign sea-borne trade were the Ports of Cambay and Surat,
Bengal (particularly, Satgaon), the Coromandal Coast, the Malabar Coast and the
Indus. The chief items of export were textiles, pepper, indigo, opium, and other drugs
and miscellaneous goods. What was imported from abroad was bullion, horses,
metals, ivory, drugs, China goods, precious stones, coral, textiles including silk, velvet
brocade and broad cloth, European wines and African Slaves.

12. DISINTEGRATION OF THE
MUGHAL EMPIRE
There were many causes which were responsible
for the downfall of the Mughal Empire. Some of
them were as follows :-
 Religious Policy of Aurangzeb – Aurangzeb committed all sorts of
atrocities on the Hindus by imposing Jizyah, dismissing
the Hindu officials from state service (except the ones who
were prepared to embrace Islam), and banning the building
of the temples which led to the Rajput war. On the other
hand, the execution of Guru Teg Bahadur was a blunder
which led to the alienation of the Sikhs who became a
strong military power under Guru Gobind Singh and
ultimately threw the Mughals out of Punjab. The same
policy of religious persecution led to the rise of the
Marathas under Shivaji.

 The Deccan Policy of Mughals – The Mughal Government
being a centralised despotism, the absence of the
Emperor from the North for a long period encouraged
centrifugal tendencies among the Governors. After
the death of Aurangzeb, various provinces became
independent of the central authority. The failure of
Aurangzeb in the Deccan wars destroyed the military
prestige and made the Mughal government bankrupt.
Thus, gradually the Mughal Empire broke up.
 Size of the Mughal Empire became unwieldy – The size of the
Mughal Empire became so wide and large that it
became practically impossible for any man to govern
the same from one centre when the means of
communication and transport were not developed.

 Weak Successors of Aurangzeb – The successors of Aurangzeb lacked
intelligence and brilliance, they were busy in their luxuries and
intrigues and did nothing to remedy the evils that had crept into the
Mughal Polity. Bahadur Shah I was 63 years of age when he
ascended the throne in 1707 and did not possess the energy to
perform the numerous duties of the state. Rulers like Jahandar
Shah (1712-13), Farrukh Siyar (1713-79), Muhammad Shah
(1719-48), Ahmad Shah (1748-54), and Bahadur Shah II (1837-57)
were mere puppets in the hands of their Wazirs and and
unfortunately proved out to be worthless.
 Deterioration in the character of the Mughal Kings – It is said that when Babur
attacked India, he was so strong that he could run on the wall of a
fort while carrying men in his arms. Humayun was able to win
back his throne after the lapse of many years unmindful of the
difficulties confronting him. Akbar could walk miles and miles on
foot, and kill a lion with one stroke of his sword. After the death of
Aurangzeb, the Mughal Emperors became ease-loving and
cowardly. Their harems were full and were hardly fit to rule a
country having a mass population.

 Mughals Suffered from Intellectual Bankruptcy – The Mughals were
unable to organise an efficient system of education in
country which could produce leadersof thought. The
result was that they failed to produce any political genius
who could teach the country a new philosophy of life.
There was no good education and no practical training of
the Mughal Mobility. The Emperors drifted and dozed in
admiration of the wisdom of their ancestors and shook
their heads at the growing degeneration of the Moderns.
 Invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali – The easy victory of
Nadir Shah and the repeated invasions of Ahmad Shah
Abdali exposed to the world the military weakness of the
Mughal State. It gave a serious blow to an already
tottering Mughal Empire. The people lost all faith in the
capacity of the Mughal Rulers to protect them against any
foreign invader and also encouraged the Indians to assert
their independence.

 Widespread Corruption in the Administration – Another cause of
Mughal downfall was the widespread corruption in the
administration. Many officials from the highest to the
lowest took bribes for doing undeserved favour. The
exaction of official perquisites from the public by the
officials and their sub-ordinates were universal and
admitted practice.
 Unable to Satisfy the Minimum Needs of the People – The Mughal
Empire could no longer satisfy the minimum needs of the
people. The condition of the Indian Peasant gradually
worsened during the 17th and 18th centuries. The burden of
land revenue went on increasing and the constant transfer
of Nobles from their Jagirs further encouraged them to
extract as much bribe as possible in the short period of
their tenure as Jagirdars. There was stagnation and
deterioration in agriculture and impoverishment of the
peasant. Peasant discontentment found an outlet in a series
of uprisings such as the Satnamis, the Jats and the Sikhs
which weakened the stability and strength of the Empire.

 Rise of the East India Company – The territorial gains of
the English East India Company destroyed all
chances of the revival of the Mughal Empire.
The British won the Battle of Plassey and
continued to expand their Empire in the Deccan
and in the Gangetic Region. With the passage of
time, they were able to establish their hold over
the whole of India and there could be no chance
for the revival of the Mughal Empire.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
• History of Medieval India by V.D.Mahajan and Dr. Mahesh
Bhatnagar
• The Mughal Empire by John F.Richards
• Medieval India by Dr. Ishwari Prasad
• Rise and Fall of the Mughal Empire by R.P. Tripathi
• A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia by Elliot and Dowson
• Medieval India by Lane.Poole
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire
• https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-
affairs/story/from-babur-to-aurangzeb-facts-on-the-six-major-
mughal-emperors-of-india-1580020-2019-08-12
• https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/gess104.pdf

The Mughal Period

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