Module-4 Managemnet of Water resources and related Infrastructures.pptx

MODULE – 4
MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND
RELATED INFRASTRUCTURES
Prepared By:- Chaudhari Silas
Civil Engineering Department
Pacific School of Engineering
Pacific School
of
Engineering
Gujarat
Technological
University
Semester : 7th
Subject: Infrastructures For Smart
City’s (3170628)
Civil Engineering Department

Contents
• Storage and Conveyance system of water
• Sustainable Water and Sanitation
• Sewerage system
• Flood Management
• Conservation System

WATER MANAGEMENT IN SMART CITY
• Smart city is an upcoming era, there are many houses in which high and
middle class people can have facilities according to their comfort. Based on
the people population, season, etc., the usage of water is varying. So, water
supply management is very much needed and it should be maintained
properly. In existing method, corporation may not know how much water is
used and the wastage.
• There are many challenges in the Smart city. One of them is water
management. To overcome the water problem, the proposed model has been
developed for the water management.
• The monitoring system has been designed with sensors. Readings from the
sensor are processed with microcontroller and communicate through
computers or wireless networks.

• Water supply system is used to deliver water with appropriate quality, quantity
and pressure.
• There are three major problems in urban water supply system such as
1. Rapid urbanization
2. Depletion of water resources
3. Deteriorating water distribution
• Sometimes, water resources brings in threats to the public by means of natural
disasters and malicious attacks.
• The fresh drinking water are also affected by the wastage from factories and
industries to the great level.
• Ensuring the safe and clean, reliable water supply to the cities requires many
new technologies and new investments.

The best with these new technologies are water treatment and desalination
plants which are efficient and lower cost.
Drawback of existing system
1. There are unnecessary usage of water: When people wash their vehicle or
water their plants, there are possibility of using the water more than they
need which leads to unnecessary of water.
2. Leakage of water is inevitable due to faulty pipes over time
3. The corporation does not know if there is any water overflow in any of the
houses.
4. The amount of water used by the houses are not known to the corporation

SMART WATER MANAGEMENT
• Recognizing the challenges faced by the water sector, stakeholders from academia,
corporations and the ICT sector have developed water intelligence tools that use
ICTs to alleviate global water issues.
• The role played by smart water systems in optimizing the efficiency, effectiveness
and flexibility of water and wastewater infrastructure assets and their management
constitutes a topic of increasing attention.
• ICTs offer valuable opportunities to improve the productivity and efficiency within
the water sector, with the aim of contributing to the sustainability of the resource.
• In cities, SWM strives to achieve three main goals through the utilization of ICTs,
namely:
(a) coordinated water resource management and distribution,
(b) enhanced environmental protection, and
(c) sustainable provision of public services and economic efforts.

SMART WATER MANAGEMENT
SWM tools can be categorized in main areas listed below.
1. Data acquisition and integration (e.g. sensor networks, smart pipes, smart metres).
2. Data dissemination (e.g. radio transmitters, wireless fidelity (WiFi), Internet).
3. Modelling and analytics (e.g. geographic information system (GIS). Mike Urban,
Aqua cycle, assessing and improving sustainability of urban water resources and
systems (AISUWRS), and urban groundwater (UGROW).
4. Data processing and storage (e.g. software as a service (SaaS), cloud computing).
5. Management and control (e.g. supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA),
optimization tools).
6. Visualization and decision support (e.g. web-based communication and
information systems tools).
7. Restitution of data and information to cities' technical services and to the end users
(e.g. Tools for sharing information on water and on services).

SWM technologies
1. Smart pipes and sensor networks
2. Smart metering
3. Communication modems
4. Geographic information systems (GIS)
5. Cloud computing
6. Supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA)

BENEFITS ASSOCIATED TO WATER AND WASTE WATER
MANAGEMENT
• Economic savings: SWM tools can greatly reduce non-revenue water by
identifying leaks and illegal connection, regaining revenue necessary to
maintain the infrastructure. SWM enables sustainable water use, thereby
reducing the amount of water abstracted, treated and distributed which reduces
operational costs.
• Improved services: Smart metering can improve the relationship between the
water utilities and the customers by providing more transparent water
consumption information. Improved monitoring and operations prevents supply
interruptions and disruptions within the water distribution network, for
example, in the event of sewerage and storm water overflows. Better
management relieves pressure on water resources that may be scarce
during periods of drought.

BENEFITS ASSOCIATED TO WATER AND WASTE
WATER MANAGEMENT
• Improved wastewater management: These benefits are associated to
improvements in the performance and economic efficiency of the wastewater
treatment, as well as enhanced monitoring that helps prevent infrastructure
overload.
• More efficient treatment: Improved water quality monitoring throughout the
systems utilizing sensors creates the possibility of source control of resource
pollutants and the use of natural systems, thus reducing the potential treatment
required for water supply systems, or the separation of specific pollutants in
wastewater.
• Environmental protection and enhancement: Reduced demand and
improved environmental monitoring helps to maintain and restore ecosystems
that rely on a healthy aquatic environment.

BENEFITS ASSOCIATED TO WATER AND WASTE
WATER MANAGEMENT
•Reduced carbon emissions: Improved management results
in less energy consumed for the abstraction, treatment and
distribution process of water resources, thus helping to
reduce a city's carbon footprint.
•Flood control and storm water management: Improved
weather awareness and prediction through weather
intelligence allows cities to plan more effectively their flood
prevention strategies, as well as to manage urban drainage
systems and storm waters accordingly.

WATER SMART CITY(WSC)
 WHAT IS SMART CITY?
 Water Smart City Approach
• Water Smart City approach is a visionary approach
to integrate sustainable urban planning and water
management that aims to minimise the
hydrological impacts of urban development on the
surrounding environment.

1. Cities as water supply catchments:
Cities would have diverse water resources delivered through an integrated
mixture of centralized and decentralized infrastructure at different scales.
Hence cities can be granted with flexibility to access to portfolio of sources at
least environmental, social and economic costs.
2. Cities providing ecosystem services and increase livability
The integration of urban landscape design and green infrastructure/nature
based solutions can help capture the essence of sustainable water management,
to some extent mitigate urban heat island effects, contribute to local food
production, support biodiversity, and cut down on the greenhouse gas
emissions.

• With nature based solutions for water management it is possible to:
• Protect and enhance natural water systems in urban developments;
• Integrate storm water treatment into landscape by incorporating multiple use
corridors that maximize visual and recreational amenity of developments;
• Protect water quality draining from urban development;
• Reduce runoff and peak flows from urban developments by emplacing local
detention measures and minimizing impervious areas;
• Integrated solutions for flood reduction, drought and heat mitigation;
• Add value while minimizing drainage infrastructure development costs.

 Water Smart City Solution
A. Restore the natural drainage capacity of cities by introducing nature
based solutions
a) Retention
b) Infiltration
c) Water Storage
d) Water Treatment
e) Adaptive water management
f) Water Drainage
WATER SMART CITY SOLUTIONS AND BENEFITS

WATER SMART CITY SOLUTIONS
AND BENEFITS
B. Closing the urban water cycle
a) Reduce water use
b) Improve water efficiency
c) Water storage
d) Water treatment
e) Water reuse

WATER SMART CITY SOLUTIONS AND BENEFITS
 Benefits
1. Creating attractive places where people want to live, work and play through the
integration of water and green spaces:
2. Provide public space for recreation, social interaction and physical activity:
3. Increase of property value of buildings close to green space and open water;
4. Reduce flood risk and protect and improve the quality of ground- and surface water
from polluted run-off;
5. Enable a healthy city by reducing urban heat island effect and noise, and improve air
quality:
6. Improving soil moisture and replenish depleted groundwater levels;
7. Supporting and improving local natural habitats and biodiversity:
8. Provide society with valuable supply of water;
9. Create awareness and improve people's understanding of how run off their
development is being managed and used.

ROADMAP TOWARDS WATER SMART CITIES
• Municipalities need to have a leading role in
this transition. They decide the goals and
ambitions for their city, how these goals can
be reached and realize projects.
Step 1: Identify the challenges and
opportunities of the city
Step 2: A Water Smart City vision for your city
Step 3: Explore co-creation opportunities
Step 4: Co-design solutions
Step 5: Define solid business case
Step 6: Implement & evaluate

RAINWATER HARVESTING
• Rainwater harvesting is the simple process or technology used to conserve
Rainwater by collecting, storing, conveying and purifying of Rainwater that
runs off from rooftops, parks, roads, open grounds, etc. for later use.
 Rainwater harvesting systems:
1. Storage in receptacles
2. Recharge into the aquifer

 Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rainwater
1. Surface runoff harvesting
2. Roof top rainwater harvesting
1. Surface runoff harvesting
In urban area rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff could be
caught and used for recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.
2. Rooftop rainwater harvesting
It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the
roof becomes the catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of
the house/building. It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to artificial
recharge system. This method is less expensive and very effective and if
implemented properly helps in augmenting the groundwater level of the area.

• Objectives of Rainwater Harvesting
1. Increase Available Water During Dry Season
2. Reduce Flooding and Erosion
3. Prevent Overuse of Aquifers
4. Save Money
• Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting
1. The cost of recharge to the subsurface reservoir is also lower than the
surface reservoirs.
2. it helps minimize the possibility of rivers drying up.
3. Reduces erosion and flooding around buildings
4. An adequate means for Irrigation purpose
5. Reduces demand on Ground Water

STORAGE OF WATER
• Water storage is a broad term referring to storage of both potable water
for consumption, and non potable water for use in agriculture. In both
developing countries and some developed countries found in tropical
climates, there is a need to store potable drinking water during the dry
season.
• In agriculture water storage, water is stored for later use in natural water
sources, such as groundwater aquifers, soil water, natural wetlands, and
small artificial ponds, tanks and reservoirs behind major dams.
• Types of water storage structures
A. Water towers or Overhead water tank
B. Dams, Reservoirs, Ponds, Lakes

CONVEYANCE OF WATER
• There are two stages in the transportation of water:
1. Conveyance of water from the source to the treatment plant.
2. Conveyance of treated water from treatment plant to the
distribution system.
• In the first stage water is transported by gravity or by pumping or
by the combined action of both, depending upon the relative
elevations of the treatment plant and the source of supply.
• In the second stage water transmission may be either by pumping
into an overhead tank and then supplying by gravity or by
pumping directly into the water main for distribution.

CONVEYANCE OF WATER
• Canals
• Flumes
• Grade aqueducts
• Grade tunnels
Water Conveyance System
Free flow system (Gravity system)
1.Canals
2.Flumes
3.Grade aqueducts
4.Grade tunnels
Pressure system
1. Pressure aqueducts
2.Pressure tunnel
3.Pressure mains
4.Inverted siphons

PIPES
• Pipe is a circular closed conduit through which the water may flow either under gravity or under pressure. When
pipe do not run fully, they run under gravity such as in sewer lines. However, in supply pipes mostly run under
pressure.
• The selection of pipe material depends on the following factors
1. The internal pressure and external loads to which the pipe is subjected.
2. Type of water to be conveyed and its corrosive effect on the pipe material.
3. Capital cost and maintenance cost
4. Availability of funds
5. Carrying capacity of pipe
• Following types of pipes are commonly used
1. Ci pipes
2. WI pipes
3. Steel pipes
4. RCC pipes
5. PSC pipes
6. AC pipes
7. Plastic pipes

SUSTAINABLE WATER AND SANITATION
• The problem of access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities in urban
areas of India is a major concern.
• India is facing huge problem about safe drinking water.
• In India, 163 million people do not have access to safe drinking water and 210
million people lack access to improved basic sanitation in India.
• In addition, there is a lack of wastewater treatment facilities to treat the
wastewater of growing population.
• Smart water management systems can provide a more resilient and efficient
water supply system, reducing costs and improving sustainability.
• High technology solutions for the water sector include digital meters and
sensors, supervisory control and data acquisition system and GIS.

• The ultimate goal of a more integrated approach to urban water management
development more sustainable. Sustainable development has been defined by
the World Commission on the Environment and Development as:
"Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs"
• In the case of water management, sustainability can be divided into three major
dimensions:
1. Social - Water management contributes to the quality of life of all citizens
2. Economic - Operation and maintenance of water services are cost-efficient
3. Environment - The ecological balance of natural water systems is maintained
by not abstracting more than can be replenished and preventing pollution and
erosion.

• When applied to the three basic components of urban water management, the
different dimensions of sustainability can be considered as follows
1. Water supply
2. Sanitation Systems
• Benchmarks for Smart Water Supply:
1. 24 x 7 supply of water
2. 100% household with direct water supply connections
3. 135 liters of per capita supply of water
4. 100% metering of water connections
5. 100% efficiency in collection of water related charges Supply

SUSTAINABLE SANITATION
• Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the
safe disposal of human urine and feces, and its proper disposal in an
economically viable, socially acceptable and technically and institutionally
appropriate, besides protecting environment and the natural resources.
• Sustainable Sanitation is not a technology, but an approach having certain
principles.
• The first principle of Sustainable Sanitation is to recognize that excreta and
wastewater are not wastes, but resources that are valuable and can be
reused and recycled.
• The main objective of sanitation is to provide a healthy and clean
environment and breaking the cycle of disease.

SUSTAINABLE SANITATION
 Issues and challenges in Urban Sanitation
• The challenges in urban sanitation includes:
1. Rapid urbanization and need for a policy for urbanizing areas such as the census
towns and Nagar Panchayats.
2. Inadequate maintenance
3. Ineffective management of faucal water
4. Rising groundwater contamination.
5. Over-dependence on centralized waste water management
6. Maintenance and up gradation of STP/Waste treatment facilities,
7. Need for capacity building of officials.
8. Management and accountability by ULB officials. (ULB= urban local authority)
9. Gender considerations

PROBLEMS IN PRESENT SANITATION PRACTICES
1. Consumption of more Water and Energy
2. Unable to separate Feces and Urine
3. Problems with existing drainage system

INNOVATIVE SANITATION SOLUTIONS FOR
SMART CITIES
1. Reducing the quantity of water usage in toilets.
• Present Toilet sanitation needs 13 to 15 liters of water per one
flush. As with a typical Indian house needs 60 to 90 liters of
water for cleaning toilet in a day. This situation witnesses high
electric power consumption for both fetching water from ground
and for recycling flush water, and water consumption.
• In the new redesigned five liter toilet, siphon system pipe is
modeled with spring. As feces, urine and water comes the center
of gravity moves to left causing spring bend downwards to allow
easy exit, which in turn requires less water.

SMART CITIES
2. Bi-Slant Conveyor Belt Toilet.
• Current toilets use single tank system result in mixing of urine and feces making
wastewater treatment not efficient. Urine contains large amount of nutrition, when
mixed with feces, at wastewater treatment plant the mixture loses good amount of
nutrition such as phosphorus and nitrogen.
• The suggested Bi-Slant Conveyor Belt Toilet, eliminates the need of flush water apart
from providing the separating technique for urine from feces. Conveyer belt carries
and delivers feces into the back tank, while urine slopes into front urine tank.
3. Solar-Powered, Self-Cleaning Toilet.
• Sleek and made of stainless steel, these toile are designed to be installed in places
where access to electricity and common sanitation methods is difficult, if not
impossible. What makes these toilets even more user-friendly is that they can be
located through an Android app called e-Toilet.

SMART CITIES
• They come equipped with sensor's for light and exhaust fan to ensure that
they consume less power minimum amount of water.
• Also, there are provisions for waste treatment using anaerobic bio
degradation. the added advantage of being eco-friendly, with provisions for
waste treatment using anaerobic biodegradation
4. Ensuring sanitation of toilets using lot.
• In large premises like hospitals, railway stations and educational there whose
sanitation supervision is difficult by physically visiting them. The difficulty can
be reduced by placing odor sensors in toilets, getting sensors equipped with
communication modules connected to WLAN to get the notifications in the
institute monitoring server/system when odor intensifies.

SEWERAGE SYSTEM
 Wastewater generation scenario in Indian city and its treatment
• In India, the estimated sewage generation from Class I cities and Class II towns
(representing 72% of urban population) is 38,524 million litres/day (MLD), of
which there exists treatment capacity of only 11.787 MLD (about 30%). The 35
major metropolitan areas (with population over 1 million) have a collective
sewage treatment capacity of just over 50%, but high variability exists among
them. Only five metro cities have treatment capacity close to 100% of their
sewage generation, these are Hyderabad, Vadodara, Chennai, Ludhiana and
Ahmedabad. Delhi has the largest sewage treatment capacity in absolute
terms, but it is only about 60% its needs, while Mumbai has the second
largest treatment capacity in absolute terms but meets only 80% of its needs.
Almost all other major metropolitan cities have treatment capacities below
50% of their sewage generation.

SEWERAGE SYSTEM
 There have two type of challenges in wastewater treatment trade.
(a) On site challenges
(b) Offsite challenges
(a) On site challenges
• The conventional engineered wastewater treatment system is extremely
expensive and requires complex operations and maintenance cost of expanding
sewer networks, which are very rudimentary or non-existent in many Indian
cities.
• The total capital cost of establishing collection and treatment systems for the
entire urban wastewater generated is much more than what the government
plans to spend; as a result progress in increasing coverage is likely to be slow
in the foreseeable future.

SEWERAGE SYSTEM
(b) Offsite challenges
Analysis exhibits that macro factors such as FTA (Free Trade
Agreement), cost sensitivity, and varied climatic and usage
considerations directly impact operations in India. There exists
immense opportunities for foreign companies owing to:
1. Commercially viable advanced technology
2. Environmentally conforming solutions

SEWERAGE SYSTEM
Need For Wastewater Treatment
• Waste Water contains a variety of organic and inorganic substances dissolved
which also includes toxic elements such as Cadmium, Zinc, Copper(Cu),
Chromium (Cr), Ar-senic(As), Mercury (Hg), Lead(Pb) etc.
• Disposal of the waste water directly into water bodies like rivers and oceans
may affect the aquatic animal life.
• Consumption of this contaminated water leads to health problems in a long run.
 Sewer Network The Present Indian Scenario
• The proper sewerage system includes collection of sewage from source of
generation through sewer network, treatment using appropriate available
economical technology to the prescribed disposal standards and sate disposal to
natural water bodies.

SEWERAGE SYSTEM
• There are two systems available in general for Waste Water Collection and Disposal,
viz.
1. Separate System - Sewage and storm water are collected separately & sewage is
treated for safe disposal
2. Combined System
• The following are the major disadvantages or challenges being faced due to lack of
proper sanitation facilities.
1. Population affected with health issues and ultimately affecting GDP of the country
2. The ground and surface water sources are being polluted and hence water supply is
becoming costly & inadequate

SEWERAGE SYSTEM
• The major reasons for inadequate sewer networks / sanitation facilities are
as follows.
1. Insufficient funds.
2. Improper design approaches & management of sewer network systems

IOT BASED SMART WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS
1. Preventing CSOs (combined sewage overflows)
• The lot sensors are capable to detect combined sewage overflows. You can set
threshold values with the help of smart solutions and get a real-time notification
as soon as the sewage water overflows.
• During rains, rainwater results in an overflow of combined sewer systems in
poor wastewater management systems.
• Monitoring the inflow of water with the help of lot sensors can help water
utilities to detect overflows in real-time and take appropriate actions to reduce
water wastage.
2. Tracing chemical detection
• loT can play a significant role in detecting chemicals in water pipelines. With
non-loT wastewater management systems, researchers would have to detect
chemical levels in water manually.

IOT BASED SMART WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS
• lot sensors can not only easily detect the presence of chemicals, but also send
alerts to a remote dashboard.
3. Replacing leaky pipes
• A leak in distribution pipes that distributes water regionally can result in heavy
loss of water. Hence, these pipes need to be changed regularly according to
necessity.
• lot sensors can collect data like type of sand that pipes rest on, topography, and
weather records. And then Al can help analyze these data to find patterns that
offer clues to the water utilities about which pipes are at risk of leakage.
4. Select best treatment process
• Specific constituents require particular treatment processes to be removed. The
advanced analytics feature of an loT solution can recommend a series of apt
processes based on the concentration of water.

ADVANTAGES OF USING SMART WASTEWATER SYSTEM
1. Real-Time Data Integration
2. Enhancing Customer Satisfaction
3. Accurate Forecasting of Demand

FLOOD MANAGEMENT
• India is highly vulnerable, as most of its geographical area is prone to annual flooding.
The high losses and damages due to floods show the poor adaptation and mitigation
status of India and inadequacy in disaster management and preparedness.
• Thus, there is a need for an Integrated flood management system.
1. Disaster Preparedness Plan:
• A comprehensive flood management plan is needed to include Disaster preparedness.
This may require strengthening of the following:
• Flood Hotspot Mapping at local and regional scale.
• Management and regulation of riparian zones to prevent spilling and erosion.
• River flood modelling to prepare for incidences like reservoir breach and emergency
water release from dams.
• Advanced techniques such as mapping based on satellite imagery and Geographic
Information Systems will help in development of flood early warning systems.

FLOOD MANAGEMENT
2. Integrated Approach
• Steps need to be taken for watershed management through an integrated approach.
• Hard Solutions: It involves civil engineering construction such as dams, culverts
and dykes, widening and deepening of river channels and diversion channels to store
and divert water to increase the lag time of water reaching downstream.
• Ecological Soft Solutions: The solutions such as restoration and management of
riparian zones, Afforestation along the river channels which led to retention of
rainwater and reduces the river discharge.
3. Prioritizing Buffers, Flexibility and Adaptability
• This includes reviewing safety criteria of dams and canals, re-building these with
higher safety factors, creating new intermediate storages.
4. Reducing Disaster Risk Reduction
• There is a need for efficient implementation of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction, this will reduce the vulnerability of any disaster.

CAUSES OF FLOODS
• The causes of flooding in all the major river systems are:
1. Intense rainfall
2. Topography of the catchment
3. Sedimentation of rivers and reservoirs
4. Obstruction in the river flow
5. Failure of dam
6. Failure of river embankment
7. Inadequate cross drainage works
8. Contraction of waterway

CAUSES OF FLOODS
1. Intense rainfall
• An intense rainfall can occur only over a comparatively small area. Whenever
such a precipitation bursts over a small watershed, it results in a high surface
runoff, which reaches the main channel faster than it can be discharged,
flooding the low lying area along the stream.
• The seriousness of the flood will depend upon the following factors:
• The intensity- and duration of precipitation
• Surface slopes of the watershed
• Nature of the surface soil and covering vegetation
• The intense precipitation sometimes also known as cloud burst.

CAUSES OF FLOODS
2. Topography of the catchment
• For mountainous regions the relation of intensity of rainfall and slope of the surface
have been found to have a good relationship. The same intensity of rainfall
produces more discharge in a mountainous region than plain area.
• The shape of the catchment also affect the surface runoff and flood. For a fan-
shaped catchment, the time of concentration will be less and hence the peak flow
will be more. But, in case of fern-leaf type (elongated) catchment of the same area
and same storm, the time of concentration will be more.
• The more pervious the soil, the greater is its water retention power and longer the
period of saturation, resulting in lesser floods.
3. Sedimentation of rivers and reservoirs
• If the top soil layer in the catchment area is loose and the vegetation cover is less,
the tributaries flowing through such areas carry heavy sediment load. This sediment
load is deposited in the river bed and the reservoir in which the river merges.

CAUSES OF FLOODS
4. Obstruction in the river flow:
• Sometimes, due to heavy landslides in the river, the natural flow of water is obstructed
resulting in flood situation on the upstream of the river. When the obstructions in the
river are removed due to heavy water pressure accumulated on the upstream, flooding is
caused on the downstream of the river.
5. Failure of dam
• to tore huge quantity of water in the reservoir created on the upstream of the dam. Due
to failure of the dam the large quantity of water stored in the reservoir instantly released
causing flood in the downstream of the dam.
A dam may fail due to the following reasons:
• Piping
• Erosion
• Foundation failure
• Earthquake, etc.

ILL EFFECTS OF FLOODS
• The ill-effects of floods can be classified into the following three groups:
1. Inundation of low lying areas
2. Erosion of river banks
3. Change of river course
1. Inundation of low lying areas
• The following factors may cause the inundation of low lying areas:
(i) excessive runoff and inadequate channel capacity
(ii) Presence of obstructions in the stream
(iii) Inadequate waterway due to rail, road or canal crossing.
(iv) Congestion of confluences
(v) Tides resisting flood flows
2. Erosion of river banks:
• The fast flowing current may eat away the banks, formed of easily erodable soil and
thus may affect vast stretches of agricultural land.

3. Change of river course:
The change in the course of the river may develop due to the following reasons:
i. Due to high velocities of the river water
ii. Due to abrupt variation in the bed gradient and heavy sediment charge.
iii. Due to oscillatory bed of the river Flood Damages
FLOOD DAMAGES
Flood damages can be classified into two groups:
1. Direct damage
2. Indirect damage
1. Direct damage:
• It implies damage due to physical contact with water.
• For example, Erosion of agricultural land
• Loss of human life and animals
• Loss of property Breach of roads, canals, ponds, etc. - Loss of forest and wild life
• Breach of roads, canals, ponds, etc.
• Loss of forest and wild life

2. Indirect damage
• In this case flood water does not come in direct contact of the property,
etc. but causes damage by interruption and other causes..
• Labour is put out of employment or work due to submergence of the
factory.
• Schools and colleges remains closed for few days due to flood.
• Due to interruption of transportation services, business industry is
affected.

FLOOD ALLEVIATION OR FLOOD
MITIGATION OR FLOOD CONTROL
• Flood control is also known as flood management.
• In India about 40 Mha of land is food prone, which is about 12% of the total geographical
area of 328 Mha.
• There are two types of measures to mitigate the lood disaster:
1. Structural mitigation measures
2. Non-structural mitigation measures
1. Structural mitigation measures
• Storage reservoirs
• Levees
• Flood Walls
• Channel improvement works to flood ways
• Construction of high earth platforms
• Diversion of flood water to
• Sluices

FLOOD ALLEVIATION OR FLOOD MITIGATION OR
FLOOD CONTROL
2. Non-structural mitigation measures
Flood plain zoning
• Flood plain zoning means dividing the entire flood plain area into different zones and
to restrict the occupancy of the different zones of the flood plain to uses which will
suffer little or no damage du floods.
• The objectives of flood plain zoning are:
i. To restict encroachment of the zone which frequently comes under the influence of
flood.
ii. To direct selected activities in the zone which come under the influence of flood
less frequently in such a manner that they are susceptible to flood damage.
iii. To demarcate the zones which are subjected to flood only on rare occasions.

FLOOD CONTROL
2. Flood forecasting and warning:
• Flood forecasting or warning, if could be conveyed earlier, disaster due to the probable flood
can be minimized to a great extent. Temporary evacuation of persons and shifting the
important property to safe places could be done before the flood arrives. Once the flood
occurs, the normal activities of the society are badly disrupted with immense losses.
• In India, seven flood forecasting units have been operating at New Delhi, Guwahati,
Jalpaiguri, Patna, Bhubaneswar, Surat, Lucknow.
• Forecasting of flood magnitude is evaluated by the following methods:
1. Rainfall-runoff relationship
2. Unit Hydrograph (UH)
3. Synthetic unit Hydrograph (SUH)
4. Flood routing model both hydrological and hydraulic
5. Stage discharge relationship

FLOOD CONTROL
3. Emergency evacuation of area:
Sometimes emergency evacuation of the threatened area is one of the most effective ans of
reducing flood damage. This technique is adopted for sparsely populated means areas
where the property is also low valued. These areas do not justify other expensive methods
of flood control. Loss of life can be prevented by emergency evacuation.
4. Management of flood plain
The flood plain of a river is formed by sediment deposition or removal which usually
occurs due to intermittent overflows of the stream above its banks.
The various tools of flood plain management are as follows:
(1) Flood hazard surveys
(2) Flood plain zoning
(3) Flood proofing
(4) Flood insurance

FLOOD CONTROL
5. Flood proofing
• It essentially consists of a combination of both structural change and
emergency action. Structural change includes construction of the building wall
with some water proofing material, closure of lower level windows,
construction of the house with the arrangement of stilts.

FLOOD FORECASTING AND WARNING IN INDIA
Concepts
Flood forecasting (FF') enables us to be forewarned as to when the river is going to use its flood
plain, to what extent and for how long. The forecast of a flood may be for the water level (state
forecast), discharge and area likely to be submerged (inundation forecast) at various
points/particular stations at a specific time.
A nation-wide food forecasting and warning system covering major inter-state rivers has been
established by the Central Water Commission (CWC). The system under CWC is often
supplemented by the states that make arrangements for advance warning at other stations
strategically important to them. The CWC also extends FT services to such stations strategically
important to them. The CWC also extends FF services to such stations at the request of the
states concerned. With reliable advance information/warning about impending Moods, loss of
life and property can be reduced to a considerable extent. People, cattle and valuable assets can
be shifted in advance to safer places.

Methodology
Flood forecasting services include the following phases
1. Data Collection
• Real time hydrological data viz. gauge and discharge and meteorological data, viz.
rainfall basic requirements for the formulation of a flood forecast. The
hydrological and hydro-meteorological data from over 945 stations in the 62 river
sub-basins are daily collected, analysed and utilised for formulation of flood
forecasts.
2. Transmission of Data to the Forecasting Centers
• Transmission of data on a real-time basis from the hydrological and hydro
meteorological stations to the flood forecasting centers is a vital factor in the FF
system. Landline communication.
• During the flood season, the data is communicated two to three times in a day.

Methodology
3. Data Processing and formulation of Forecasts
• Historical data like gauge, discharge and rainfall are utilised for the development
of techniques for formulation of forecasts on a real-time basis. Forecasts are
formulated at the FF stations by predicting river stage/inflow with time of
occurrence. After receipt of the hydrological and meteorological data from field
formations, the data is processed in FF centers/control rooms to check its
consistency and the data is modified, if any inaccuracy is found, before using in
forecast formulation. All the forecasting centers of the CWC have been provided
with computer facilities for datą processing.
• Forecasts (stage/inflow) are issued whenever the river stage at the FF site exceeds
or is likely to exceed a specified level called warning level of the site which is
fixed in consultation with the concerned state government. The warning level is
generally 1 m below the danger level of the site.

Methodology
4. Dissemination of Flood Forecasts and Warnings
• The final forecasts are then communicated to the user agencies such as the
concerned administrative and engineering authorities of the state/central
governments including railways, defence and other agencies connected with flood
protection and DM by special messenger/telegram/wireless/telephone /fax/e-mail
etc. Flood forecasts are also passed on to the All India Radio (Air), Doordarshan
and local newspapers for wide publicity in the affected area.

WATER RESOURCES CONSERVATION
SYSTEM
Water Resources of India
• India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of the world's surface area, 4 per cent of
the world's water resources and about 16 per cent of the world's population. The
total water available from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000
cubic km. The availability from surface water and replenish able groundwater is
1,869 cubic km. Out of this, only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses.
Thus, the total utilizable water resource in the country is only 1,122 cubic km.
• The per capita availability of water is dwindling day-by-day due to increase in
population.

WATER RESOURCES CONSERVATION
SYSTEM
Water Conservation and Management -Need
• water availability from sea/ocean, due to high cost of desalinization, is
considered negligible, India has to take quick steps and make effective policies
and laws, and adopt effective measures for its conservative.
• Besides developing water-saving technologies and methods, attempts are also to
be made to prevent the pollution.
• There is need to encourage watershed development, rainwater harvesting, water
recycling and reuse, and conjunctive use of water for sustaining water supply in
long run.

METHODS FOR WATER RESOURCES
CONSERVATION
1. Prevention of Water Pollution
• In plains, river water is used intensively for irrigation, drinking, domestic and
industrial purposes. The concentration of pollutants in rivers, especially remains very
high during the summer season when flow of water is low.
• The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in collaboration with State Pollution
Control Boards has been monitoring water quality of national aquatic resources at 507
stations. Ex. the Sabarmati at Ahmedabad
• Groundwater pollution has occurred due to high concentrations of heavy/toxic metals,
fluoride and nitrates at different parts of the country.
• The legislative provisions such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
1974, and Environment Protection Act 1986 have not been implemented effectively.
• There is a strong need to generate public awareness about importance of water and
impacts of water pollution. The public awareness and action can be very effective in
reducing the pollutants from agricultural activities, domestic and industrial discharges.

CONSERVATION
2. Recycle and Reuse of Water
• Use of water of lesser quality such as reclaimed wastewater would be an attractive
option for industries for cooling and fire fighting to reduce their water cost.
• In urban areas water after bathing and washing utensils can be used for gardening.
Water used for washing vehicle can also be used for gardening.
3. Watershed Management
• Watershed management basically refers to efficient management and conservation of
surface and groundwater resources. It involves prevention of runoff and storage and
recharge of groundwater through various methods like percolation tanks, recharge
wells, etc.
• Watershed management aims at bringing about balance between natural resources on
the one hand and society on the other.
• There is a strong need to generate public awareness about importance of water and
impacts of water pollution. The public awareness and action can be very effective in

CONSERVATION
• The Central and State Governments have initiated many watershed development and
management programmes in the country. Ex. Neeru-Meeru (Water and You)
programme (in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Pani Sansad (in Alwar, Rajasthan)
• Watershed development projects in some areas have been successful in rejuvenating
environment and economy.
4. Rainwater Harvesting
5. Redistribution of Water
• Water found on the surface of the earth is not equally distributed. Existing form of
distribution also becomes a reason for the water crisis.
• By arranging supply of water from areas having lesser demand to the areas having
greater demand, water crisis can be minimized. By construction of surface water
reservoirs and storage of excess water in them, supply can be made to scarcity
affected areas.

CONSERVATION
• Excess rainfall water which flows away from rivers without being used, can be
stored by construction of water reservoirs, from where it can be supplied for
agriculture, industries, urban areas etc. Facilities of fisheries and transport also exist
in stored water.
• Redistribution of water is also possible through canal system.
6. Rational use of ground water
• Groundwater meets 25 per cent of total supply of water in the world, remaining 75
per cent supply is met by surface water sources of rivers, lakes etc.
• After exploitation a groundwater, its re-infiltration takes a very long time to
complete. Ex. India
• For recharging ground-water, necessary drainage area should also be made available.

CONSERVATION
7. Renovation of Traditional Water Sources
• In India, traditional water storage places have been able to meet the demand of
drinking water in many regions but they have been renovated from time to
time.
• Important traditional water conservation methods for irrigation include Kuhul
in hilly areas, Jing (Ladakh), Kool, Water Kundis called Khoop in Arunachal
Pradesh, Zabo method of Nagaland, Aabi tanks of Haryana, Dong Pokhar of
Assam, Bandhare of Maharashtra, Kere of Karnataka
8. Use of Modern Irrigation Methods
• A large portion of water can be conserved by adoption of modern methods of
irrigation. Irrigation consumes double the quantity of water in comparison to
all other uses. Sprinkler and drip irrigation methods save 50 per cent water.

CONSERVATION
9. Increasing forest cover
• Forest cover has been destroyed there due to mining of limestone. As a result
of it, rain water flows away very fast to the rivers. A similar thing is happening
in the Dehradun area of Uttaranchal.
• The old tradition of tree plantation on the banks of rivers and tanks will have
to be revived. Forest cover will have to be developed on uncultivable waste
lands and hilly slopes on a large scale.
10. Water Conservation by Municipal Bodies
• Municipal bodies should manage both individual demand and supply of water
as well as conserve water. Municipal laws should provide for collection of rain
water from roof tops and implement it. Individual awareness is very important
in water conservation.

CONSERVATION
11. By Individuals
• Installing flow-restricting shower heads to save water during showers. Taking
bucket baths instead of showers. Turning off the tap while shaving or brushing
teeth. Immediately fixing any leaking taps and pipes in our homes. Practicing
rainwater harvesting to reduce the wastage of rainwater.

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