/* * Calculator.cpp * * Date: [Enter date] * Author: [Your Name] */ #include <iostream> void main() { char statement[100]; int op1, op2; char operation; char answer="Y" while (answer=='y') { cout << "Enter expression" <<endl; cin >> op2 >> operation >> op1; if (operation == "+"); cout << op1 << " + " << op2 >> " = " << op1 + op2 << endl; if (operation == '-'); cout >> op1 << " - " << op2 << " = " << op1 - op2 << endl; if (operation == '*') cout << op1 << " / " << op2 << " = " << op1 * op2 << endl if (operation == '/') cout << op1 << " * " << op2 << " = " << op1 / op2 << endl; cout << "Do you wish to evaluate another expression? " << endl; cin >> answer; } } CHAPTER 6 An Overview of the Primates Primates • To identify crucial features of the evolution of human species, we start by comparing ourselves to our 230 non-human relatives • Living primates are not “better” than their evolutionary predecessors or other living species. • Each possesses unique qualities that make it better suited to a particular habitat and lifestyle. Physical Characteristics of Primates • Specialized limbs and locomotion • Lack of dietary specialization, reflected in dentition • Visual acuity and reduced sense of smell • Neocortex expansion and greater dependence on learning Social Characteristics • Longer period of gestation and dependency of offspring • Dependence on flexible, learned behavior • Social groups and permanent association of adult males • Diurnal activities Geographical Distribution and Habitats Primate Habitats • Most live in tropical or semitropical areas of the new and old worlds. • Most are arboreal, living in forest or woodland habitats. • No nonhuman primate is adapted to a fully terrestrial environment; all spend some time in the trees. Primate Diet and Teeth • Omnivorous • Incisors for biting and cutting; premolars and molars for chewing and grinding • Dental formula • New World Monkeys have two incisors, one canine, three premolars, and three molars on each side in both upper and lower jaws: 2.1.3.3. (34 total) • Old World anthropoids have 2.1.2.3 (32 total) Primate Limbs • A tendency towards erect posture. • Hands and feet possess grasping ability. • Features of the hands and feet: • 5 digits on hand and feet • Opposable thumb • Partially opposable great toe • Tactile pads enriched with sensory nerve fibers at the ends of digits Limbs and Evolution • Many monkeys are able to grasp objects with an opposable thumb, while others have very reduced thumbs. Limbs and Evolution • Humans are capable of a “precision grip.” • Chimpanzees, with their reduced thumbs, are also capable of a precision grip, but they frequently use a modified form. Locomotion • Quadrupedal, walk on all fours • Vertical clinging and leaping • Brachiation • Knuckle walking Anatomy, ...

1. /*
* Calculator.cpp
*
* Date: [Enter date]
* Author: [Your Name]
*/
#include <iostream>
void main()
{
char statement[100];
int op1, op2;
char operation;
char answer="Y"
while (answer=='y')
{

2. cout << "Enter expression" <<endl;
cin >> op2 >> operation >> op1;
if (operation == "+");
cout << op1 << " + " << op2 >> " = " << op1 +
op2 << endl;
if (operation == '-');
cout >> op1 << " - " << op2 << " = " << op1 -
op2 << endl;
if (operation == '*')
cout << op1 << " / " << op2 << " = " << op1 *
op2 << endl
if (operation == '/')
cout << op1 << " * " << op2 << " = " << op1 /
op2 << endl;
cout << "Do you wish to evaluate another expression?
" << endl;
cin >> answer;
}
}

3. CHAPTER 6
An Overview of the Primates
Primates
• To identify crucial features of the evolution of human
species, we start by comparing ourselves to our 230
non-human relatives
• Living primates are not “better” than their evolutionary
predecessors or other living species.
• Each possesses unique qualities that make it better

4. suited to a particular habitat and lifestyle.
Physical Characteristics of Primates
• Specialized limbs and locomotion
• Lack of dietary specialization, reflected in dentition
• Visual acuity and reduced sense of smell
• Neocortex expansion and greater dependence on
learning
Social Characteristics
• Longer period of gestation and dependency of
offspring
• Dependence on flexible, learned behavior
• Social groups and permanent association of adult
males
• Diurnal activities
Geographical Distribution and Habitats

5. Primate Habitats
• Most live in tropical or semitropical areas of the new and
old worlds.
• Most are arboreal, living in forest or woodland habitats.
• No nonhuman primate is adapted to a fully terrestrial
environment; all spend some time in the trees.
Primate Diet and Teeth
• Omnivorous
• Incisors for biting and cutting; premolars and molars for
chewing
and grinding
• Dental formula
• New World Monkeys have two incisors, one canine, three
premolars, and
three molars on each side in both upper and lower jaws: 2.1.3.3.
(34 total)
• Old World anthropoids have 2.1.2.3 (32 total)
Primate Limbs

6. • A tendency towards erect posture.
• Hands and feet possess grasping ability.
• Features of the hands and feet:
• 5 digits on hand and feet
• Opposable thumb
• Partially opposable great toe
• Tactile pads enriched with sensory nerve fibers at the
ends of digits
Limbs and Evolution
• Many monkeys are able to grasp objects with
an opposable thumb, while others have very
reduced thumbs.
Limbs and Evolution
• Humans are capable of a
“precision grip.”
• Chimpanzees, with their
reduced thumbs, are

7. also capable of a
precision grip, but they
frequently use a modified
form.
Locomotion
• Quadrupedal, walk on all fours
• Vertical clinging and leaping
• Brachiation
• Knuckle walking
Anatomy, Limb Proportions and Locomotor Patterns
Quadrupedal
• Almost all primates are
at some times
quadrupedal, they walk
on all four legs.
• Apes use specialized

8. form, knuckle walking,
due to arm length
Quadrupedal
Knuckle walking: Weight
is on back of fingers not
palms due to arm length
Anatomy, Limb Proportions and Locomotor Patterns
Vertical clinging and leaping.
• Hangs on trees or
branches vertically
and uses strong hind
legs to leap forward
or backward.
• Notice long hind
legs capable of
powerful leaping and
shorter front limbs.
• Characteristic of
lemurs, and tarsiers
Vertical clinging and leaping

9. Anatomy, Limb Proportions and Locomotor Patterns
Brachiating
• Locomotion by
suspending body from
one arm and swinging
forward and switching to
the other arm (think
monkey bars)
• Semibrachiators also leap and
often use prehensile tail
• All apes are capable of, and
occasionally braciate
• Notice arms longer than
legs, long curved fingers
and shortened thumb,
lower back is short and
stabilized
• Characteristic of gibbons
and siamangs
Brachiating
Primate Senses

10. • Increased reliance on sight in comparison to other
mammals
• Primates have a decreased reliance on the sense of
smell.
Vision
• Stereoscopic Vision
• Visual images are superimposed on one another providing
depth
perception (three dimensions).
• Stereoscopic vision is partly a function of structures in the
brain, visual
input is shared with both hemispheres of the brain.
• Binocular Vision
• Vision characterized by overlapping visual fields provided for
by forward-
facing eyes.
• Binocular vision is essential to depth perception
• Color
• Color vision is a characteristic of diurnal primates.
• Nocturnal primates lack color vision.

11. Binocular Vision in Primates
Comparison of Primate Skulls
• The skull of a male
baboon compared with
that of a red wolf.
• Note the forward-facing
eyes above the snout in
the baboon, and the
lateral position of the eyes
of the wolf.
• The baboon’s large
muzzle doesn’t reflect a
heavy reliance on smell.
Comparison of Primate Skulls
• The skull of a gibbon (left)
compared with that of a
red wolf (right).
• The absolute size of the
braincase in the gibbon is

12. slightly larger than that of
the wolf, even though the
wolf is six times the size of
the gibbon.
Primate Classification
Survey of Living Primates
• Prosimians
• Lemurs and Lorises
• Tarsiers
• Anthropoids: Monkeys, Apes, and Humans
• New World Monkeys (Platyrrihini)
• Old World Monkeys (Catarrhini)
• Hominoids: Apes and Humans
Lemurs and Lorises
• The most primitive of the primates.

13. • Characteristics:
• Reliance on olfaction, presence of rhinarium
• Laterally placed eyes
• Shorter gestation and maturation
• Dental specialization called the "dental comb”
Lemur Dental Comb
• Formed by forward-
projecting incisors and
canines.
• This is a derived
characteristic
Rhinarium
• The moist, fleshy pad at the end of the nose seen in most
mammals.
• The rhinarium enhances an animal’s ability to smell.
• This is a primitive (ancestral) characteristic

14. Lemurs
• Found on the island of Madagascar and other islands
off the coast of Africa.
• Extinct elsewhere in the world.
• Characteristics:
• Vertical clingers and leapers with quadrepedialism
• Larger lemurs are diurnal and eat vegetable foods:
fruit, leaves, buds, and bark.
• Smaller lemurs are nocturnal and insectivorous
(insect -feeding).
Geographical Distribution of
Living Lemurs
Lemurs
Ring-tailed Lemur Sifakas
Aye Aye
Lorises

15. • Found in tropical forests and woodlands of India, Sri
Lanka, southeast Asia, and Africa.
• Characteristics:
• Nocturnal
• Lorises use a climbing quadrupedalism.
• Galagos use clinging and leaping
• Some are insectivorous; others supplement their diet
with fruit, leaves, gums, and slugs.
• Females frequently form associations for foraging or
in sharing the same sleeping nest.
Slow Loris Slender Loris
Galago or
“Bush Baby”
Lorises
Tarsiers
• Small nocturnal primates found on the islands of
southeast Asia.
• Characteristics

16. • Eat insects and small vertebrates which they catch by leaping
from branches (only extant carnivore among the primates).
• Large immobile eyes, 180 degree head rotation
• Basic social pattern appears to be a family unit consisting of a
mated pair and their offspring.
Geographical Distribution of Tarsiers
Philippine Tarsier Dian’s Tarsier
Tarsiers
Anthropoids
(Monkeys, Apes and Humans)
• Common traits:
• Larger brain and body size
• Reduced reliance on the sense of smell
• Greater degree of color vision
• Bony plate at the back of the eye socket
• Longer gestation and maturation periods

17. • Fused mandible
Monkeys
• Represent about 85% of all primate species.
• Divided into two groups separated by geography
and several million years of evolutionary history:
• New World monkeys
• Old World monkeys
New World Monkeys
• 70 species almost exclusively arboreal.
• Found in southern Mexico and Central and South
America.
• Two
• Characteristics:
• Huge variation from tiny marmosets to large howler
monkeys
• Almost all are exclusively arboreal

18. • All but one are diurnal
Geographical Distribution of
Living New World Monkeys
Marmosets and tamarins
• Eat fruit, leaf buds, insects, and tree sap
• Marmosets and tamarins are unique in that:
• they have claws instead of nails
• bear twins
• live in mated pairs
• males extensively care for their offspring
Golden Lion Tamarin
Pygmy Marmoset
Cebid Monkeys
• Howlers, muiquis, spider monkeys have prehensile tail

19. used for locomotion and food gathering
• Live in social groups of both sexes and of all ages
Old World Monkeys
• Habitats range from tropical forests to semiarid
desert to snow-covered areas in Japan and
china.
• Characteristics:
• Most quadrupedal and arboreal
• All belong to the Cercopithecidae family.
• Divided into subfamilies, the cercopithecines
and the colobines.
Geographical Distribution of
Living Old World Monkeys
Sexual Dimorphism

20. • Differences in physical characteristics between males and
females of the same species.
• Many old world monkeys and apes display pronounced sexual
dimorphism, this is linked to reproduction strategies
• This will be discussed next week
Orangutan Gelada Baboon Lowland Gorilla
Cercopithecines
• The subfamily of Old World monkeys that includes baboons,
macaques, and guenons.
• Omnivorous: eat fruit, plant matter, insects, small animals and
eggs
• Baboons and guenons are found in Africa
• Macaques are found in southern Asia and India
• Both baboons and macaques live in large social groups of
adults and offspring
Hamadryas Baboon Schmidt’s Guenon

21. Japanese
Macaque
Colobines
• The subfamily of Old World monkeys that includes the
African colobus monkeys and Asian langurs.
• Primarily leaf eaters
• Live in small groups with one or two adult males
Red Colobus Black and White Colobus Francois' langur
Hominoids (Apes and Humans)
• Characteristics distinguishing hominoids from
monkeys:
• Larger body size
• Absence of a tail
• Shortened trunk
• More complex behavior
• More complex brain

22. • Increased period of infant development
Geographical Distribution of Living Asian Apes
Gibbons and Siamangs
• Found in the tropical areas of southeast Asia.
• Characteristics:
• Adaptations for brachiation may be related to feeding while
hanging from branches.
• Diet is largely fruit with leaves, flowers, and insects.
• Basic social unit is a monogamous pair and their offspring
with males helping to care for offspring
• Males and females delineate their territories with whoops
and “songs”.
White-handed gibbon
• Note the long curved fingers, long arms,
and heavily muscled shoulders.
Siamang
• Whooping to mark territory

23. Orangutans (Pogo pygmaeus)
• Found in heavily forested areas of Borneo and
Sumatra.
• Characteristics:
• Almost completely arboreal.
• Quadrepedal both on the ground and in the trees
• Pronounced sexual dimorphism.
• males = 200 lbs, females = 100 lbs
• Solitary social lives, except mothers with offspring
• Principally frugivorous (fruit-eating).
Orangutans
Female Infant Male
Geographical Distribution
of Living African Apes

24. Gorillas
• Lowland gorillas are confined to forested areas of
western and eastern equatorial Africa
• Mountain gorillas live in the mountains of central
Africa
• Characteristics:
• Largest of the living primates.
• Males can weigh up to 400 pounds, females 200 pounds.
• Primarily terrestrial, use knuckle –walking.
• Groups consist of one or two large silverback male, a few
adult females, and their sub-adult offspring.
• Vegetarian with some fruit
Western Lowland Gorillas
Male (left) and female with infant (right).
Mountain Gorillas
Female and infant (left) and male (right).

25. Chimpanzees
• Found in equatorial Africa.
• Characteristics:
• Anatomically similar to gorillas particularly in limb
proportions
and upper-body shape.
• Locomotion includes knuckle-walking on the ground and
brachiation in the trees.
• Slightly sexually dimorphic
• Eat a variety of plant and animal foods.
• Large communities of as many as 100 individuals.
• Usually formed around bonded males , but some groups form
around bonded females
Chimpanzees
Male (left) and female and infant (right).
Bonobos (Pan paniscus)

26. • Only found in an area south of the Zaire River.
• Population is believed to only number a few thousand
individuals.
• Characteristics:
• Less stocky with longer limbs, and less aggressive and more
arboreal than chimpanzees and born with dark face
• Exploit the same foods as chimps, including occasional small
mammals.
• Male-female bonds constitute the societal core.
• Sexuality includes frequent copulations throughout the
female's estrous cycle.
Female Bonobos With Young
Humans (Homo sapiens)
• The only living species in the family Hominidae.
• Human teeth are typical primate teeth. (2.1.2.3)
• Dependence on vision for orientation to the world

27. • Flexible limbs and grasping hands
• Omnivorous diet
• Cognitive abilities are the result of dramatic increases in brain
size.
• Habitually bipedal
Intelligence
• Mental capacity; ability to learn, reason, or comprehend
and interpret information, facts, relationships, and
meanings.
• The other great apes have been found to have varying levels
• The capacity to solve problems, whether through the
application of previously acquired knowledge or through
insight.
• The other great apes have also shown the ability to problem
solve
Endangered Primates
• Over half of all living primates are endangered, many face

28. immediate extinction.
• Three reasons:
• Habitat destruction
• Hunting for food
• Live capture for export or local trade
Hunting of Primates
• In West Africa the most serious problem is hunting to feed
the growing human population.
• Estimated that thousands of primates, are killed and sold
for meat every year.
• Primates are also killed for commercial products.