1. Biotechnological Approaches to Food Production
Caroline Bannon, Sai Cheung, Shane Doyle, Conor Keegan and Gráinne Madden
Emerging Issues in Biotechnology 2016 - UCD School of Biomolecular & Biomedical Science
Introduction The twin pressures of climate change and an ever-expanding population set to reach 9 billion by 2050 combine to pose an enormous challenge to food production. We have examined the application of historical, current and future approaches to biotechnological food production. We examine two major crops, maize
(Zea mays) and the Coffee plant (Coffea arabica) as examples of a staple food and a cash crop vital to the economy of developing nations. Climate change is set to have a severe adverse effect on agriculture. Combined with a population estimated to reach 9 billion by the year 2050, there will be major challenges involved in ensuring an
adequate food supply. We have examined the traditional, current and emerging ways by which people are applying genetics and biotechnology to the improvement of crops as well as the economics behind their cultivation. Two examples, Zea mays and the major coffee plants Coffea arabica andcanephora are presented as examples of a
staple food and a cash crop vital to the economy of developing nations.
New Biotechnology Approaches: CRISPR/Cas9
CRISPR/Cas9 is a newly developed gene editing technology that is being adapted and trialled for medical purposes but also for use in
agrobiotechnology. To date CRISPR/Cas9 has been used to create more drought resistant crops, crops that are resistant to herbicides and pests.
All of these traits can help us to ensure that the crops that we grow are less likely to be lost during the cultivation period and guarantee a more
promising yield.
CRISPR/Cas9 has been used to alter the genome of Zea mays as well as many other staple food crops in order to aid in increasing yield and making
the farming of the crop more sustainable. Figure 2 below illustrates how guide RNA (sgRNA) and Cas9, a DNA endonuclease, are cloned into a
plasmid for delivery to the desired plant. The plants can then be screened to see if the required gene has been incorporated into the plant
genome (Belhaj et al. 2015). Compared to other gene editing techniques that have been used previously (Zinc finger nucleases, Transcription
activator-like effector nucleases) the CRISPR/Cas9 system is cheaper and easier to use. It is also more accurate at targeting specific sequences with
a lower rate of off target mutations compared to ZFN’s and TALENS. Plants currently edited with CRISPR/Cas9 are not classified as GMO’s by the
USDA, making crops that have their genome edited in this way more publically accepted.
Traditional approaches to food production and improvement
A traditional approach to food production focusses on subsistence farming. Originally, wild-type plants are cultivated and over many generations of
selective breeding. A dramatic example of this type of crop improvement can be seen in the development of maize from teosinte using gradual
selection, as seen in figure 1 below.
Food Biotechnology Examples
Coffee
The control of weeds on coffee cultivation farms is often done through
herbicide applications, as these weeds can cause yield losses of up to 20%. High
density planting is becoming increasingly popular and as a result weed control
without herbicides is difficult. The non-selective herbicide ammonium
glufosinate is generally the most widely used herbicide in coffee growing
regions. Traditional plant breeding has not been successful in producing strains
of coffee that are resistant to certain herbicides. Using transformation
techniques, the BAR and PAT gene, isolated from Streptomyces hygroscopicus
and Streptomyces viridochromogenes were introduced to both Coffea arabica
and Coffea canephora. The gene was incorporated successfully as confirmed by
PCR techniques. Upon application of ammonium glufosinate to a transformant
and a non-transformant plant, the former showed resistance to the herbicide
while the latter did not (Ribas et al, 2006). A similar approach has been used to
confer pest resistance to the C. arabica were the coffee leaf miner can cause
approximately 20% loss of yield.
Figure 3: Picture A is the herbicide tolerant coffee plant with the resistance genes incorporated. Picture B
is a non-transformed plant. This is the results after one week of applying the herbicide ammonium
glufosinate (Ribas et al, 2006).
In the 18th century the first attempts to apply a scientific
method to the cultivation of food was inspired by the work on
heredity by Gregor Mendel. Early genetic scientists such as
Charles Darwin did pioneering work on crosses leading to the
creation of commercial seed banks of improved strains, the
foundations of modern commercial genetics (Coe, 2001).
Market for the Process, Product and Economics
Figures 5 and 6 indicate the top 10 maize and coffee producing countries and are the target countries for this process, as many of the them listed are prone to droughts. The
United States for example, is the largest producer of maize worldwide but its severe drought crisis has led to mass volumes of crop loss in the past decade. The U.S. is not
alone, as severe drought conditions are plaguing, China, some parts of the EU, Mexico and South Africa, causing losses of billions of euros. In South and Central America, such
as, North-eastern Brazil and Guatemala in particular have also been hit by severe drought wreaking havoc among coffee growers and hiked coffee prices around the world and
will cause an serious adverse effect on the economy as coffee is the second most traded commodity worldwide.
Figure 7 below represents the general utilization of maize, which in return, translates to the target markets for this product. The biggest industries for maize utilization are the
biofuel ethanol industry for vehicles and the animal agricultural industry as animal feed, causing a competitive demand between these two industries and the human food
industry. It is predicted that the biofuel ethanol industry will have an annual growth rate of 6% to 10%.
Figure 6: Major coffee producing countries. Columns coloured in blue represent
countries with GM crop approval. Columns coloured in red represent countries
that have not yet support GM crop process.
Maize
Abscisic acid (ABA) is a very common and essential plant hormone that has different roles
within the plant such as abscission and changes in plants response due to environmental
stress. One important function is to alter osmotic pressure and reduce transpiration. Once
produced in the roots, it travels to the leaves, causing the stoma to close, decreasing water
loss in times of low water availability.
An experiment was carried out to overexpress the molybdenum cofactor sulfurase gene
(LOS5) which induces subsequent molecules leading to the synthesis of ABA. LOS5 is a
crucial gene involved in the regulation of the final steps of ABA biosynthesis. Plasmid
pCAMBIA1300-LOS5 containing the gene of interest was transformed into maize. Two
main lines that were selected for analysis namely M6 and M8. Both lines were tested
under various drought conditions. The results table below shows the significant effects
that the increase in ABA during abiotic stress has on maize production (Lu et al. 2013).
An example of the optimization of Coffea arabica production
can be seen in the improvement seeding method. The
traditional method involved placing 20 seeds in a hole which
resulted in only 50% of seeds sprouting. The more effective
Brazilian method which involves a preliminary nursery stage
before transferring the plants to the soil of the plantation.
Figure 1: Development of Maize from Teosinte Credit: Nicolle Rager Fuller, National Science Foundation
Figure 4: Graph of results from experiment comparing wildtype maize plants with two transgenic maize lines (M6, M8)
under various drought conditions. The graph shows the accumulation of ABA in each plant. (WW= well-watered, D1=
Moderate Drought Stress (60% water) for 5 d, D2=Severe Drought Stress (40% water) for 5 d, RW=Re-watered for two
days) (Lu et al. 2013).
Figure 2: This illustration shows a simplified stepwise process of using CRISPR/Cas9 to edit plant genomes, followed by a screening step to identify plants that have the new desired genotype.
Figure 5: Major maize producing countries. Columns coloured in blue
represent countries with GM crop approval. Columns coloured in red
represent countries that have not yet support GM crop process.
Conclusion
● Traditional approaches for optimisation of crops involved work by Mendel and Darwin on heredity in plants and genetic crosses.
● Many examples show how the Biotechnology Industry assists in the alteration of crops to increase global food production as mentioned above. Work is
ongoing in this sector.
● Gene editing biotechnologies are allowing us to alter plant genomes in order to increase crop yield and increase drought, pest and herbicide resistance.
● Negative consumer perception of genetically modified organisms (GMO’s) may be overcome as plant genomes that are edited using the CRISPR/Cas9
system are not currently defined as GMOs by the USDA.
● The field of Biotechnology has proven successful in competing with the emerging issues of climate change, food production and global population
explosion.
References
1. Coe, E. H. The origins of maize genetics. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2, 898–905 (2001).
2. Belhaj, K., Chaparro-Garcia, A., Kamoun, S., Patron, N. J. & Nekrasov, V. Editing plant genomes with CRISPR/Cas9. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 32, 76–
84 (2015).
3. Ribas, A. F., Pereira, L. F. P. & Vieira, L. G. E. Genetic transformation of coffee. Braz. J. Plant Physiol. 18, 83–94 (2006).
4. Lu, Y. et al. Overexpression of Arabidopsis Molybdenum Cofactor Sulfurase Gene Confers Drought Tolerance in Maize (Zea mays L.). PLoS ONE 8,
(2013).
5. GM Approval Database’, International Service For the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAA). Available at:
http://www.isaaa.org/gmapprovaldatabase/ [Accessed 18 February 2016]
Figure 7: Utilization of maize by various industries
![Biotechnological Approaches to Food Production
Caroline Bannon, Sai Cheung, Shane Doyle, Conor Keegan and Gráinne Madden
Emerging Issues in Biotechnology 2016 - UCD School of Biomolecular & Biomedical Science
Introduction The twin pressures of climate change and an ever-expanding population set to reach 9 billion by 2050 combine to pose an enormous challenge to food production. We have examined the application of historical, current and future approaches to biotechnological food production. We examine two major crops, maize
(Zea mays) and the Coffee plant (Coffea arabica) as examples of a staple food and a cash crop vital to the economy of developing nations. Climate change is set to have a severe adverse effect on agriculture. Combined with a population estimated to reach 9 billion by the year 2050, there will be major challenges involved in ensuring an
adequate food supply. We have examined the traditional, current and emerging ways by which people are applying genetics and biotechnology to the improvement of crops as well as the economics behind their cultivation. Two examples, Zea mays and the major coffee plants Coffea arabica andcanephora are presented as examples of a
staple food and a cash crop vital to the economy of developing nations.
New Biotechnology Approaches: CRISPR/Cas9
CRISPR/Cas9 is a newly developed gene editing technology that is being adapted and trialled for medical purposes but also for use in
agrobiotechnology. To date CRISPR/Cas9 has been used to create more drought resistant crops, crops that are resistant to herbicides and pests.
All of these traits can help us to ensure that the crops that we grow are less likely to be lost during the cultivation period and guarantee a more
promising yield.
CRISPR/Cas9 has been used to alter the genome of Zea mays as well as many other staple food crops in order to aid in increasing yield and making
the farming of the crop more sustainable. Figure 2 below illustrates how guide RNA (sgRNA) and Cas9, a DNA endonuclease, are cloned into a
plasmid for delivery to the desired plant. The plants can then be screened to see if the required gene has been incorporated into the plant
genome (Belhaj et al. 2015). Compared to other gene editing techniques that have been used previously (Zinc finger nucleases, Transcription
activator-like effector nucleases) the CRISPR/Cas9 system is cheaper and easier to use. It is also more accurate at targeting specific sequences with
a lower rate of off target mutations compared to ZFN’s and TALENS. Plants currently edited with CRISPR/Cas9 are not classified as GMO’s by the
USDA, making crops that have their genome edited in this way more publically accepted.
Traditional approaches to food production and improvement
A traditional approach to food production focusses on subsistence farming. Originally, wild-type plants are cultivated and over many generations of
selective breeding. A dramatic example of this type of crop improvement can be seen in the development of maize from teosinte using gradual
selection, as seen in figure 1 below.
Food Biotechnology Examples
Coffee
The control of weeds on coffee cultivation farms is often done through
herbicide applications, as these weeds can cause yield losses of up to 20%. High
density planting is becoming increasingly popular and as a result weed control
without herbicides is difficult. The non-selective herbicide ammonium
glufosinate is generally the most widely used herbicide in coffee growing
regions. Traditional plant breeding has not been successful in producing strains
of coffee that are resistant to certain herbicides. Using transformation
techniques, the BAR and PAT gene, isolated from Streptomyces hygroscopicus
and Streptomyces viridochromogenes were introduced to both Coffea arabica
and Coffea canephora. The gene was incorporated successfully as confirmed by
PCR techniques. Upon application of ammonium glufosinate to a transformant
and a non-transformant plant, the former showed resistance to the herbicide
while the latter did not (Ribas et al, 2006). A similar approach has been used to
confer pest resistance to the C. arabica were the coffee leaf miner can cause
approximately 20% loss of yield.
Figure 3: Picture A is the herbicide tolerant coffee plant with the resistance genes incorporated. Picture B
is a non-transformed plant. This is the results after one week of applying the herbicide ammonium
glufosinate (Ribas et al, 2006).
In the 18th century the first attempts to apply a scientific
method to the cultivation of food was inspired by the work on
heredity by Gregor Mendel. Early genetic scientists such as
Charles Darwin did pioneering work on crosses leading to the
creation of commercial seed banks of improved strains, the
foundations of modern commercial genetics (Coe, 2001).
Market for the Process, Product and Economics
Figures 5 and 6 indicate the top 10 maize and coffee producing countries and are the target countries for this process, as many of the them listed are prone to droughts. The
United States for example, is the largest producer of maize worldwide but its severe drought crisis has led to mass volumes of crop loss in the past decade. The U.S. is not
alone, as severe drought conditions are plaguing, China, some parts of the EU, Mexico and South Africa, causing losses of billions of euros. In South and Central America, such
as, North-eastern Brazil and Guatemala in particular have also been hit by severe drought wreaking havoc among coffee growers and hiked coffee prices around the world and
will cause an serious adverse effect on the economy as coffee is the second most traded commodity worldwide.
Figure 7 below represents the general utilization of maize, which in return, translates to the target markets for this product. The biggest industries for maize utilization are the
biofuel ethanol industry for vehicles and the animal agricultural industry as animal feed, causing a competitive demand between these two industries and the human food
industry. It is predicted that the biofuel ethanol industry will have an annual growth rate of 6% to 10%.
Figure 6: Major coffee producing countries. Columns coloured in blue represent
countries with GM crop approval. Columns coloured in red represent countries
that have not yet support GM crop process.
Maize
Abscisic acid (ABA) is a very common and essential plant hormone that has different roles
within the plant such as abscission and changes in plants response due to environmental
stress. One important function is to alter osmotic pressure and reduce transpiration. Once
produced in the roots, it travels to the leaves, causing the stoma to close, decreasing water
loss in times of low water availability.
An experiment was carried out to overexpress the molybdenum cofactor sulfurase gene
(LOS5) which induces subsequent molecules leading to the synthesis of ABA. LOS5 is a
crucial gene involved in the regulation of the final steps of ABA biosynthesis. Plasmid
pCAMBIA1300-LOS5 containing the gene of interest was transformed into maize. Two
main lines that were selected for analysis namely M6 and M8. Both lines were tested
under various drought conditions. The results table below shows the significant effects
that the increase in ABA during abiotic stress has on maize production (Lu et al. 2013).
An example of the optimization of Coffea arabica production
can be seen in the improvement seeding method. The
traditional method involved placing 20 seeds in a hole which
resulted in only 50% of seeds sprouting. The more effective
Brazilian method which involves a preliminary nursery stage
before transferring the plants to the soil of the plantation.
Figure 1: Development of Maize from Teosinte Credit: Nicolle Rager Fuller, National Science Foundation
Figure 4: Graph of results from experiment comparing wildtype maize plants with two transgenic maize lines (M6, M8)
under various drought conditions. The graph shows the accumulation of ABA in each plant. (WW= well-watered, D1=
Moderate Drought Stress (60% water) for 5 d, D2=Severe Drought Stress (40% water) for 5 d, RW=Re-watered for two
days) (Lu et al. 2013).
Figure 2: This illustration shows a simplified stepwise process of using CRISPR/Cas9 to edit plant genomes, followed by a screening step to identify plants that have the new desired genotype.
Figure 5: Major maize producing countries. Columns coloured in blue
represent countries with GM crop approval. Columns coloured in red
represent countries that have not yet support GM crop process.
Conclusion
● Traditional approaches for optimisation of crops involved work by Mendel and Darwin on heredity in plants and genetic crosses.
● Many examples show how the Biotechnology Industry assists in the alteration of crops to increase global food production as mentioned above. Work is
ongoing in this sector.
● Gene editing biotechnologies are allowing us to alter plant genomes in order to increase crop yield and increase drought, pest and herbicide resistance.
● Negative consumer perception of genetically modified organisms (GMO’s) may be overcome as plant genomes that are edited using the CRISPR/Cas9
system are not currently defined as GMOs by the USDA.
● The field of Biotechnology has proven successful in competing with the emerging issues of climate change, food production and global population
explosion.
References
1. Coe, E. H. The origins of maize genetics. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2, 898–905 (2001).
2. Belhaj, K., Chaparro-Garcia, A., Kamoun, S., Patron, N. J. & Nekrasov, V. Editing plant genomes with CRISPR/Cas9. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 32, 76–
84 (2015).
3. Ribas, A. F., Pereira, L. F. P. & Vieira, L. G. E. Genetic transformation of coffee. Braz. J. Plant Physiol. 18, 83–94 (2006).
4. Lu, Y. et al. Overexpression of Arabidopsis Molybdenum Cofactor Sulfurase Gene Confers Drought Tolerance in Maize (Zea mays L.). PLoS ONE 8,
(2013).
5. GM Approval Database’, International Service For the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAA). Available at:
http://www.isaaa.org/gmapprovaldatabase/ [Accessed 18 February 2016]
Figure 7: Utilization of maize by various industries](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/3072cd30-d1ff-4bc6-9dd6-6d8187ef70e2-161016131949/85/Biotechnological-Approaches-to-Food-Production-1-320.jpg)
