2. Basal Ganglia and pathways
Structures included –
1. Caudate nucleus
2. Putamen
3. Globus pallidus – interna and externa (GPi and GPe)
4. Subthalamic nucleus
5. Substantia Nigra – pars compacta (SNc) and pars reticulata(SNr)
Caudate and putamen – striatum
Putamen and globus pallidum – lentiform nucleus
Striatum is main region for receiving information from cortex and SN
3.
4. Direct pathway
Direct pathway helps in
initiating and
maintaining movements
Substantia nigra
stimulates the direct
pathway
5. Indirect pathway plays a
role in suppression of
unwanted actions.
Substantia Nigra inhibits
this indirect pathway
In normal states direct and
indirect pathways act
together for causing
smooth movements and
avoiding involuntary
actions.
6. Dystonia
Sustained muscle contractions causing twisting and repetitive movements or
abnormal postures.
Due to co-contraction of agonists and antagonist muscles
4 consistent features of all dystonia –
1. Relatively long contractions (compared to myoclonus and chorea)
2. Simultaneous contraction of agonist and antagonist
3. Twisting of affected body parts(except in facial muscles – patterned movement)
4. Continual contraction of same muscle groups
7. Classification
By age of onset
1. Early onset ≤ 26 years
2. Late onset > 26 years
Useful for prognosis
Younger the age of onset more likely the dystonia will become severe and spread
to multiple body parts
Older age – more likely to remain focal
8. By distribution –
1. Focal – single area of body affected – e.g. blepharospasm, writers cramp, torticollis
2. Segmental – 2 or more contiguous parts affected – e.g meigs syndrome –
oromandibular and blepharospasm
3. Generalised - combination of crural (both legs or leg plus trunk) and involvement
of any other body parts
4. Hemidystonia - one half of body affected – this is usually secondary due to
stroke, perinatal injury, trauma
5. Multifocal – dystonia which doesnot fit into the above category.
9. Blepharospasm
Older individuals affected
Women> men
Begins as excessive blinking followed by longer closing of eyes
Muscle involved is orbicularis oculi – 7th nerve
Symmetrical in both eyes
Sensory trick – touching corner of eye, talking
Bright light aggravates
Spread of blepharospasm is more common than other focal dystonia
10. Cervical dystonia
Age – 20-50years
Head can either turn to one side( rotational torticollis), bend forward (antecollis)
or backwards (retrocollis) or a combination
Muscles involved are supplied by 11th cranial nerve and upper cervical roots
Sensory trick – touching the face or back of head
Pain in neck muscle is common
11.
12. Oromandibular dystonia
Muscles involved are supplied by 5th cranial nerve
Usually associated with lingual dystonia (CN 12)
Jaw opening dystonia – jaw is pulled down by pterygoids
Jaw clenching dystonia – jaw shut by masseter and temporalis
Can cause difficulty in chewing and swallowing
Sensory trick – placing of object or biting down on an object like a pencil
13. Task specific dystonia
Writers cramp – only action of writing will bring out tightening of fingers, forearm
and arm muscles
In 15% - spreads to other arm
Sensory tricks – placing pen inbetween other fingers, placing non-writing hand on
top of writing hand
Musicians cramp – involves fingers in instrumentalists like pianists, guitarists.
17. By etiology
1. Primary
2. Dystonia plus
3. Secondary dystonia
4. Heredodegenerative dystonia
18. Primary dystonia
Only dystonia with/without tremor
No other neurological abnormality
Eg – DYT 1,2,4,6,7
Dystonia Plus
Associated with parkinsonism or
myoclonus without degeneration or loss
of neurons.
Eg – DYT 3,5,8,9,10
21. Heredodegenerative
As a part of a disease involving other neurological structures other than dystonia.
Wilsons disease
NBIA
Niemann – Pick C
Associated with PSP, MSA
22. Treatment
Non pharmacological
Physiotherapy –
Helps in preventing muscle shortening
Increases range of motion and flexibility
Gait and balance training
Examples include – Kinesiotherapy for cervical stretching, active and passive neck
movements, functional electrical stimulation of non dystonic muscles with
opposite action for cervical dystonia
23. Pharmacological –
1. Dopaminergic drugs – helps in DRD
2. Antidopaminergic therapy – tetrabenazine
3. Anticholinergic – trihexyphenidyl
4. Muscle relaxants like baclofen
5. Benzodiazepine
6. Botulinum toxin
Surgical -
Deep Brain stimulation of Globus
Pallidus internus may help in certain
dystonia
26. Definitions
Chorea – involuntary, irregular, purposeless, non rhythmic, abrupt, unsustained
movements that appear to flow from 1 body part to another.
2 additional features
1. patients with chorea often blend or incorporate the chorea into their normal
movements, as if they are attempting to hide it. This phenomenon is called
parakinesia. For example, when chorea is present in the arm, a patient may try to
blend chorea by lifting or moving the arm to a target in the same direction as the
choreic movements.
2. Motor impersistence – inability to maintain a sustained contraction – milkmaid
grip, inability to keep tongue protruded
27. Athetosis - slow, writhing, continuous, involuntary movements. Usually present in
distal limbs.
Ballismus – involuntary, large amplitude, flinging and flailing limb movements of
proximal limbs
29. Can be acquired or sporadic
Acquired causes
Structural Strokes, tumors, demyelination
Metabolic Non-ketotic hyperglycemia
Hypoglycemia
Hypo/hypernatremia
Liver/kidney disease
Hypo/hyperparathyroidism
Infectious Toxoplasma, HIV, Prion disease
Autoimmune Sydenhams chorea
SLE,APLA, SS
Paraneoplastic
Drugs Levodopa
Cocaine, amphetamine
Neuroleptic
Others Chorea gravidarum, OC pill use
Polycythemia vera
30. Genetic causes
HUNTINGTONS DISEASE
Clinical features-
Chorea – most common feature – present in forehead with elevation of eyebrows
followed by generalised chorea
Gait difficulty – dance like gait
Bradykinesia and parkinsonism
Dystonia, tics, myoclonus – later stages
Apart from movement disorder , it has behavioural changes like depression, apathy,
agitation
Dementia
Autosomal dominant
CAG repeats ≥ 36
31. Other genetic causes of chorea –
1. Huntington like disorders 1-4
2. Chorea acanthocytosis
3. Benign hereditary chorea
4. SCA 2, 17
5. Neurodegeneration with Brain Iron accumulation
6. Mc Leods disease
32. Principles of Chorea Treatment
Step 1: Does chorea need to be treated? When it is mild and nonbothersome, treatment is not
required.
Step 2: Is specific treatment available?
Step 3: If chorea is not controlled by specific treatment or specific treatment is not available,
what symptomatic therapies should be selected?
Step 4: Are there any other symptoms than chorea that require treatment or surveillance?
Patients can benefit from multidisciplinary approach.
Step 5: Does any family member need further evaluation or genetic counseling?