Civil Engineering Report on Composite Materials

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Dept. Of Civil Engineering. STJIT, Ranebennur. Page 1
VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
JNANA SANGAMA, BELAGAVI -590018
A Technical Seminar Report
On
“COMPOSITE MATERIALS”
Submitted to Visvesvaraya Technological University in partial
fulfillment of requirement for the award of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Submitted by
S.N.VEERESH KUMAR
2SR15CV430
Under the Guidance of
HANUMESH B M M Tech
Assistant professor
Department Of Civil Engineering
S.T.J.I.T Ranebennur
SRI TARALABALU JAGADGURU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
RANEBENNUR-581115
2017-18

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION 01
1.1 COMPOSITE MATERIALS 01
2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES MATERIALS 03
2.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MATRIX 04
2.1.1 ORGANIC MATRIX COMPOSITES 04
2.1.2 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMC) 07
2.1.3 CERAMIC MATRIX MATERIALS (CMM) 08
2.2 FUNCTIONS OF A MATRIX 09
2.3 DESIRED PROPERTIES OF A MATRIX 10
2.4 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON REINFORCEMENTS 10
2.4.1 FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMER (FRP) COMPOSITES 11
2.4.2 LAMINAR COMPOSITES 14
2.4.3 PARTICULATE REINFORCED COMPOSITES (PRC) 16
2.4.4 FLAKE COMPOSITES 17
2.4.5 FILLED COMPOSITES 17
2.4.6 MICROSPHERES 19
3.0 FACTORS AFFECTING PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES 21
4.0 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF COMPOSITES MATERIALS 22
4.1 ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES 22
4.2 LIMITATIONS OF COMPOSITES 23
5.0 DIFFARENCE BETWEEN SMART AND COMPOSITE MATERIAL 23
6.0 COMPOSITE STRUCTURES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 24
7.0 FAILURE MODES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS 31
CONCLUSION 32
REFERENCES 34

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
1.1 COMPOSITE MATERIALS
A composite material can be defined as a combination of two or
more materials that results in better properties than those of the individual components
used alone. In contrast to metallic alloys, each material retains its separate chemical,
physical, and mechanical properties. The two constituents are reinforcement and a matrix.
The main advantages of composite materials are their high strength and stiffness,
combined with low density, when compared with bulk materials, allowing for a weight
reduction in the finished part.
The reinforcing phase provides the strength and stiffness. In most
cases, the reinforcement is harder, stronger, and stiffer than the matrix. The reinforcement
is usually a fiber or a particulate. Particulate composites have dimensions that are
approximately equal in all directions. They may be spherical, platelets, or any other
regular or irregular geometry.
Particulate composites tend to be much weaker and less stiff than
continuous fiber composites, but they are usually much less expensive. Particulate
reinforced composites usually contain less reinforcement (up to 40 to 50 volume percent)
due to processing difficulties and brittleness
A fiber has a length that is much greater than its diameter. The length-
to-diameter (l/d) ratio is known as the aspect ratio and can vary greatly. Continuous fibers
have long aspect ratios, while discontinuous fibers have short aspect ratios. Continuous-
fiber composites normally have a preferred orientation, while discontinuous fibers
generally have a random orientation. Examples of continuous reinforcements include
unidirectional, woven cloth, and helical winding while examples of discontinuous
reinforcements are chopped fibers and random mat. Continuous-fiber composites are
often made into laminates by stacking single sheets of continuous fibers in different
orientations to obtain the desired strength and stiffness properties with fiber volumes as
high as 60 to 70 percent. Fibers produce high-strength composites because of their small
diameter; they contain far fewer defects (normally surface defects) compared to the
material produced in bulk. As a general rule, the smaller the diameter of the fiber, the
higher its strength, but often the cost increases as the diameter becomes smaller.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
In addition, smaller-diameter high-strength fibers have greater
flexibility and are more amenable to fabrication processes such as weaving or forming
over radii. Typical fibers include glass, aramid, and carbon, which may be continuous or
discontinuous
The continuous phase is the matrix, which is a polymer, metal, or
ceramic. Polymers have low strength and stiffness, metals have intermediate strength and
stiffness but high ductility, and ceramics have high strength and stiffness but are brittle.
The matrix (continuous phase) performs several critical functions, including maintaining
the fibers in the proper orientation and spacing and protecting them from abrasion and the
environment. In polymer and metal matrix composites that form a strong bond between
the fiber and the matrix, the matrix transmits loads from the matrix to the fibers through
shear loading at the interface. In ceramic matrix composites, the objective is often to
increase the toughness rather than the strength and stiffness; therefore, a low interfacial
strength bond is desirable

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES MATERIALS
Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:
1. The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix
constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites
(OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites
(CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two
classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon
matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites.
2. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fiber
reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fiber
Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing
discontinuous or continuous fibers.
3. Fiber Reinforced Composites are composed of fibers embedded in matrix
material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fiber or short fiber
composite if its properties vary with fiber length. On the other hand, when the
length of the fiber is such that any further increase in length does not further
increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be
continuous fiber reinforced. Fibers are small in diameter and when pushed axially,
they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibers
must be supported to keep individual fibers from bending and buckling.
4. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix.
Sandwich structures fall under this category.
5. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a
matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood
particle boards are examples of this category.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
2.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MATRIX
Fig. 2.1 classification of composite materials with respect to matrices
2.1.1 ORGANIC MATRIX COMPOSITES
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or
Carbon-graphite Composites
Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess
lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high
temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications.
Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics.
Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure
after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic
composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and
determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too
over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most
suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets
find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a
premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens
to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Thermoplastics have one- or two-dimensional molecular structure and
they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another
advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain
its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress
techniques to mould the compounds.
Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group
of composites. The theme of most experiments in this area to improve the base properties
of the resins and extract the greatest functional advantages from them in new avenues,
including attempts to replace metals in die-casting processes.
In crystalline thermoplastics, the reinforcement affects the morphology to
a considerable extent, prompting the reinforcement to empower nucleation.
Whenever crystalline or amorphous, these resins possess the facility to
alter their creep over an extensive range of temperature. But this range includes the point
at which the usage of resins is constrained, and the reinforcement in such systems can
increase the failure load as well as creep resistance.
Fig. 2.2 Classification of thermoplastics
A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its
original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition
too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no
chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat.
Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the
structures.
Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement
is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be
almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned
directionally.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
There are a few options to increase heat resistance in thermoplastics.
Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all thermoplastic composites tend loose
their strength at elevated temperatures. However, their redeeming qualities like rigidity,
toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite
materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products
encasement etc.
Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of
thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only
require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes.
This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with
the more cumbersome moulding compounds.
Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without
which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated.
Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this
type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and
similar areas.
Fig. 2.3 Classification of thermosets
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions
to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins.
Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free
composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms
of strength and dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two
important classes of thermoset resins.
Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are
suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are
excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile
gases.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive.
Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140ºC. Their use in high
technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.
Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and
find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for
months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix
material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications.
The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and
transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against
chemicals.
Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of
application, they can be used up to about 75ºC or higher. Other advantages of polyesters
include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced
plastic accouter.
Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices
of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration
exposure for continuous service at around 200-250ºC
2.1.2 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMC)
Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide
interest in research fraternity, are not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High
strength, fracture toughness and stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered
by their polymer counterparts. They can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive
environment than polymer composites. Most metals and alloys could be used as matrices
and they require reinforcement materials
which need to be stable over a range of temperature and non-reactive
too. However the guiding aspect for the choice depends essentially on the matrix material.
Light metals form the matrix for temperature application and the reinforcements in
addition to the aforementioned reasons are characterized by high moduli.
Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the
choices for low temperature applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive,
with their low density proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminium and magnesium are
the popular matrix metals currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft
applications.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
If metallic matrix materials have to offer high strength, they require high
modulus reinforcements. The strength-to-weight ratios of resulting composites can be
higher than most alloys. The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the
composite at various temperatures determine the service temperature of composites. Most
metals, ceramics and compounds can be used with matrices of low melting point alloys.
The choice of reinforcements
2.1.3 CERAMIC MATRIX MATERIALS (CMM)
Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong
ionic bonding in general and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good
corrosion resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive strength,
render ceramic-based matrix materials a favorite for applications requiring a structural
material that doesn’t give way at temperatures above 1500ºC. Naturally, ceramic matrices
are the obvious choice for high temperature applications.
High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics
posses, have combined to cause the failure of attempts to add reinforcements to obtain
strength improvement. This is because at the stress levels at which ceramics rupture, there
is insufficient elongation of the matrix which keeps composite from transferring an
effective quantum of load to the reinforcement and the composite may fail unless the
percentage of fiber volume is high enough. A material is reinforcement to utilize the
higher tensile strength of the fiber, to produce an increase in load bearing capacity of the
matrix. Addition of high-strength fiber to a weaker ceramic has not always been
successful and often the resultant composite has proved to be weaker.
The use of reinforcement with high modulus of elasticity may take
care of the problem to some extent and presents pre-stressing of the fiber in the ceramic
matrix is being increasingly resorted to as an option.
When ceramics have a higher thermal expansion coefficient than
reinforcement materials, the resultant composite is unlikely to have a superior level of
strength. In that case, the composite will develop strength within ceramic at the time of
cooling resulting in microcracks extending from fiber to fiber within the matrix.
Microcracking can result in a composite with tensile strength lower than that of the
matrix.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Fig. 2.4 operating temperature ranges of different types of matrix
2.2 FUNCTIONS OF A MATRIX
In a composite material, the matrix material serves the following functions:
1. Holds the fibers together.
2. Protects the fibers from environment.
3. Distributes the loads evenly between fibers so that all fibers are subjected to the
same amount of strain.
4. Enhances transverse properties of a laminate.
5. Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component.
6. Carry inter laminar shear.
7. Helps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibers by providing
alternate failure path along the interface between the fibers and the matrix.
The matrix plays a minor role in the tensile load-carrying capacity
of a composite structure. However, selection of a matrix has a major influence on the
inter laminar shear as well as in-plane shear properties of the composite material. The
inter laminar shear strength is an important design consideration for structures under
bending loads, whereas the in-plane shear strength is important under torsion loads. The
matrix provides lateral support against the possibility of fiber buckling under compression
loading, thus influencing to some extent the compressive strength of the composite
material. The interaction between fibers and matrix is also important in designing damage
tolerant structures. Finally, the process ability and defects in a composite material depend
strongly on the physical and thermal characteristics, such as viscosity, melting point, and
curing temperature of the matrix.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
2.3 DESIRED PROPERTIES OF A MATRIX
The following are the desired properties of matrix composite materials
1. Reduced moisture absorption.
2. Low shrinkage.
3. Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
4. Good flow characteristics so that it penetrates the fiber bundles completely and
eliminates voids during the compacting/curing process.
5. Reasonable strength, modulus and elongation (elongation should be greater than
fiber).
6. Must be elastic to transfer load to fibers.
7. Strength at elevated temperature (depending on application).
8. Low temperature capability (depending on application).
9. Excellent chemical resistance (depending on application).
10. Should be easily processable into the final composite shape.
11. Dimensional stability (maintains its shape).
2.4CLASSIFICATION BASED ON REINFORCEMENTS
Fig. 2.5 classification of composite materials with respect to reinforcement

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or
whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes
either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does
their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as
compared to fibers.
Reinforcing constituents in composites, as the word indicates, provide
the strength that makes the composite what it is. But they also serve certain additional
purposes of heat resistance or conduction, resistance to corrosion and provide rigidity.
Reinforcement can be made to perform all or one of these functions as per the
requirements. A reinforcement that embellishes the matrix strength must be stronger and
stiffer than the matrix and capable of changing failure mechanism to the advantage of the
composite. This means that the ductility should be minimal or even nil the composite
must behave as brittle as possible.
2.4.1 FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES/FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMER
(FRP) COMPOSITES
Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the
desired conditions and transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and
enhancing their properties as desired.
Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce materials.
Ceramic and metal fibers were subsequently found out and put to extensive use, to render
composites stiffer more resistant to heat.
Fibers fall short of ideal performance due to several factors. The
performance of a fiber composite is judged by its length, shape, orientation, and
composition of the fibers and the mechanical properties of the matrix.
Fig.2.6 Random fiber (short fiber) reinforced composites

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Fig.2.7 Continuous fiber (long fiber) reinforced composites
The orientation of the fiber in the matrix is an indication of the strength of
the composite and the strength is greatest along the longitudinal directional of fiber. This
doesn’t mean the longitudinal fibers can take the same quantum of load irrespective of the
direction in which it is applied. Optimum performance from longitudinal fibers can be
obtained if the load is applied along its direction. The slightest shift in the angle of
loading may drastically reduce the strength of the composite. Unidirectional loading is
found in few structures and hence it is prudent to give a mix of orientations for fibers in
composites particularly where the load is expected to be the heaviest.
Monolayer tapes consisting of continuous or discontinuous fibers can be
oriented unidirectional stacked into plies containing layers of filaments also oriented in
the same direction.
More complicated orientations are possible too and nowadays, computers
are used to make projections of such variations to suit specific needs. In short, in planar
composites, strength can be changed from unidirectional fiber oriented composites that
result in composites with nearly isotropic properties.
Properties of angle-plied composites which are not quasi-isotropic may
vary with the number of plies and their orientations. Composite variables in such
composites are assumed to have a constant ratio and the matrices are considered relatively
weaker than the fibers. The strength of the fiber in any one of the three axes would,
therefore be one-third the unidirectional fiber composite, assuming that the volume
percentage is equal in all three axes.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
However, orientation of short fibers by different methods is also possible
like random orientations by sprinkling on to given plane or addition of matrix in liquid or
solid state before or after the fiber deposition. Even three-dimensional orientations can
achieve in this way.
There are several methods of random fiber orientations, which in a two-
dimensional one, yield composites with one-third the strength of a unidirectional fiber-
stressed composite, in the direction of fibers. In a 3-dimension, it would result in a
composite with a comparable ratio, about less than one-fifth.
In very strong matrices, moduli and strengths have not been observed.
Application of the strength of the composites with such matrices and several orientations
is also possible. The longitudinal strength can be calculated on the basis of the
assumption that fibers have been reduced to their effective strength on approximation
value in composites with strong matrices and non-longitudinally orientated fibers.
It goes without saying that fiber composites may be constructed with
either continuous or short fibers. Experience has shown that continuous fibers (or
filaments) exhibit better orientation, although it does not reflect in their performance.
Fibers have a high aspect ratio, i.e., their lengths being several times greater than their
effective diameters. This is the reason why filaments are manufactured using continuous
process. This finished filaments.
Mass production of filaments is well known and they match with several
matrices in different ways like winding, twisting, weaving and knitting, which exhibit the
characteristics of a fabric.
Since they have low densities and high strengths, the fiber lengths in
filaments or other fibers yield considerable influence on the mechanical properties as well
as the response of composites to processing and procedures. Shorter fibers with proper
orientation composites that use glass, ceramic or multi-purpose fibers can be endowed
with considerably higher strength than those that use continuous fibers. Short fibers are
also known to their theoretical strength. The continuous fiber constituent of a composite
is often joined by the filament winding process in which the matrix impregnated fiber
wrapped around a mandrel shaped like the part over which the composite is to be placed,
and equitable load distribution and favorable orientation of the fiber is possible in the
finished product. However, winding is mostly confined to fabrication of bodies of
revolution and the occasional irregular, flat surface.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Short-length fibers incorporated by the open- or close-mould process are
found to be less efficient, although the input costs are considerably lower than filament
winding. Most fibers in use currently are solids which are easy to produce and handle,
having a circular cross-section, although a few non-conventional shaped and hollow
fibers show signs of capabilities that can improve the mechanical qualities of the
composites.
Given the fact that the vast difference in length and effective diameter of
the fiber are assets to a fiber composite, it follows that greater strength in the fiber can be
achieved by smaller diameters due to minimization or total elimination of surface of
surface defects.
After flat-thin filaments came into vogue, fibers rectangular cross sections
have provided new options for applications in high strength structures. Owing to their
shapes, these fibers provide perfect packing, while hollow fibers show better structural
efficiency in composites that are desired for their stiffness and compressive strengths.
In hollow fibers, the transverse compressive strength is lower than that of
a solid fiber composite whenever the hollow portion is more than half the total fiber
diameter. However, they are not easy to handle and fabricate.
2.4.2 LAMINAR COMPOSITES
Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the
number of materials. They can be described as materials comprising of layers of materials
bonded together. These may be of several layers of two or more metal materials occurring
alternately or in a determined order more than once, and in as many numbers as required
for a specific purpose.
Fig.2.8 Laminar composite

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Clad and sandwich laminates have many areas as it ought to be,
although they are known to follow the rule of mixtures from the modulus and strength
point of view. Other intrinsic values pertaining to metal-matrix, metal-reinforced
composites are also fairly well known.
Fig.2.9 Sandwich composite
Powder metallurgical processes like roll bonding, hot pressing,
diffusion bonding, brazing and so on can be employed for the fabrication of different
alloys of sheet, foil, powder or sprayed materials.
It is not possible to achieve high strength materials unlike the fiber version.
But sheets and foils can be made isotropic in two dimensions more easily than fibers.
Foils and sheets are also made to exhibit high percentages of which they are
put. For instance, a strong sheet may use over 92% in laminar structure, while it is
difficult to make fibers of such compositions. Fiber laminates cannot over 75% strong
fibers. The main functional types of metal-metal laminates that do not posses high
strength or stiffness are single layered ones that endow the composites with special
properties, apart from being cost-effective. They are usually made by pre-coating or
cladding methods.
Pre-coated metals are formed by forming by forming a layer on a substrate,
in the form of a thin continuous film. This is achieved by hot dipping and occasionally by
chemical plating and electroplating. Clad metals are found to be suitable for more
intensive environments where denser faces are required.
There are many combinations of sheet and foil which function as adhesives
at low temperatures. Such materials, plastics or metals, may be clubbed together with a
third constituent. Pre-painted or pre-finished metal whose primary advantage is
elimination of final finishing by the user is the best known metal-organic laminate.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Several combinations of metal-plastic, vinyl-metal laminates, organic
films and metals, account for up to 95% of metal-plastic laminates known. They are made
by adhesive bonding processes.
2.4.3 PARTICULATE REINFORCED COMPOSITES (PRC)
Microstructures of metal and ceramics composites, which show
particles of one phase strewn in the other, are known as particle reinforced composites.
Square, triangular and round shapes of reinforcement are known, but the dimensions of
all their sides are observed to be more or less equal. The size and volume concentration of
the dispersed distinguishes it from dispersion hardened materials.
The dispersed size in particulate composites is of the order of a few
microns and volume concentration is greater than 28%. The difference between
particulate composite and dispersion strengthened ones is, thus, oblivious. The
mechanism used to strengthen each of them is also different. The dispersed in the
dispersion-strengthen materials reinforces the matrix alloy by arresting motion of
dislocations and needs large forces to fracture the restriction created by dispersion.
Fig.2.10 Particulate composite
In particulate composites, the particles strengthen the system by the
hydrostatic coercion of fillers in matrices and by their hardness relative to the matrix.
Three-dimensional reinforcement in composites offers isotropic
properties, because of the three systematical orthogonal planes. Since it is not
homogeneous, the material properties acquire sensitivity to the constituent properties, as
well as the interfacial properties and geometric shapes of the array. The composite’s
strength usually depends on the diameter of the particles, the inter-particle spacing, and
the volume fraction of the reinforcement. The matrix properties influence the behaviour
of particulate composite too.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
2.4.4 FLAKE COMPOSITES
Flakes are often used in place of fibers as can be densely packed. Metal
flakes that are in close contact with each other in polymer matrices can conduct electricity
or heat, while mica flakes and glass can resist both. Flakes are not expensive to produce
and usually cost less than fibers.
But they fall short of expectations in aspects like control of size, shape
and show defects in the end product. Glass flakes tend to have notches or cracks around
the edges, which weaken the final product. They are also resistant to be lined up parallel
to each other in a matrix, causing uneven strength. They are usually set in matrices, or
more simply, held together by a matrix with a glue-type binder. Depending on the end-use
of the product, flakes are present in small quantities or occupy the whole composite.
Fig.2.11 Flake composite
Flakes have various advantages over fibers in structural applications.
Parallel flakes filled composites provide uniform mechanical properties in the same plane
as the flakes. While angle-plying is difficult in continuous fibers which need to approach
isotropic properties, it is not so in flakes. Flake composites have a higher theoretical
modulus of elasticity than fiber reinforced composites. They are relatively cheaper to
produce and be handled in small quantities.
2.4.5 FILLED COMPOSITES
Filled composites result from addition of filer materials to plastic
matrices to replace a portion of the matrix, enhance or change the properties of the
composites. The fillers also enhance strength and reduce weight.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Another type of filled composite is the product of structure infiltrated
with a second-phase filler material. The skeleton could be a group of cells, honeycomb
structures, like a network of open pores.
The infiltrate could also be independent of the matrix and yet bind the
components like powders or fibers, or they could just be used to fill voids. Fill In the open
matrices of a porous or spongy composite, the formation is the natural result of
processing and such matrices can be strengthened with different materials. Metal
impregnates are used to improve strength or tolerance of the matrix. Metal casting,
graphite, powder metallurgy parts and ceramics belong to this class of filled composites.
Fig.2.12 Filled composites
In the honeycomb structure, the matrix is not naturally formed, but
specifically designed to a pre-determined shape. Sheet materials in the hexagonal shapes
are impregnated with resin or foam and are used as a core material in sandwich
composites.
Fillers may be the main ingredient or an additional one in a composite.
The filler particles may be irregular structures, or have precise geometrical shapes like
polyhedrons, short fibers or spheres.
While their purpose is far from adding visual embellishment to the
composites, they occasionally impart colour or opacity to the composite which they fill.
As inert additives, fillers can change almost any basic resin characteristic in all directions
required, to tide over the many limitations of basic resins as far as composites are
concerned. The final composite properties can be affected by the shape, surface treatment,
blend of particle types, size of the particle in the filler material and the size distribution.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Filled plastics tend to behave like two different constituents. They do not
alloy and accept the bonding. They are meant to develop mutually; they desist from
interacting chemically with each other. It is vital that the constituents remain in co-
ordination and do not destroy each others desired properties.
Matrix in a few filled composites provides the main framework while the
filler furnishes almost all desired properties. Although the matrix forms the bulk of the
composite, the filler material is used in such great quantities relatively that it becomes the
rudimentary constituent.
The benefits offered by fillers include increase stiffness, thermal
resistance, stability, strength and abrasion resistance, porosity and a favorable coefficient
of thermal expansion.
However, the methods of fabrication are very limited and the curing of
some resins is greatly inhibited. They also shorten the life span of some resins and are
known to weaken a few composites.rs produced from powders are also considered as
particulate composite.
2.4.6 MICROSPHERES
Microspheres are considered to be some of the most useful fillers. Their
specific gravity, stable particle size, strength and controlled density to modify products
without compromising on profitability or physical properties are it’s their most-sought
after assets.
Solid glass Microspheres, manufactured from glass are most suitable for
plastics. Solid glass Microspheres are coated with a binding agent which bonds itself as
well as the sphere’s surface to the resin. This increases the bonding strength and basically
removes absorption of liquids into the separations around the spheres.
Solid Microspheres have relatively low density, and therefore, influence
the commercial value and weight of the finished product. Studies have indicated that their
inherent strength is carried over to the finished moulded part of which they form a
constituent.
Hollow microspheres are essentially silicate based, made at controlled
specific gravity. They are larger than solid glass spheres used in polymers and
commercially supplied in a wider range of particle sizes.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Commercially, silicate-based hollow microspheres with different
compositions using organic compounds are also available. Due to the modification, the
microspheres are rendered less sensitive to moisture, thus reducing attraction between
particles. This is very vital in highly filled liquid polymer composites where viscosity
enhancement constraints the quantum of filler loading.
Formerly, hollow spheres were mostly used for thermosetting resin
systems. Now, several new strong spheres are available and they are at least five times
stronger than hollow microspheres in static crush strength and four times long lasting in
shear.
Recently, ceramic alumino silicate microspheres have been introduced in
thermoplastic systems. Greater strength and higher density of this system in relation to
siliceous microspheres and their resistance to abrasions and considerable strength make
then suitable for application in high pressure conditions.
Hollow microspheres have a lower specific gravity than the pure resin.
This makes it possible to use them for lightning resin dominant compounds. They find
wide applications in aerospace and automotive industries where weight reduction for
energy conservation is one of the main considerations.
But their use in systems requiring high shear mixing or high-pressure
moulding is restricted as their crush resistance is in no way comparable to that of solid
spheres. Fortunately, judicious applications of hollow spheres eliminate crazing at the
bends in the poly-vinyl chloride plastisol applications, where the end component is
subjected to bending stresses.
Microspheres, whether solid or hollow, show properties that are directly
related to their spherical shape let them behave like minute ball bearing, and hence, they
give better flow properties. They also distribute stress uniformly throughout resin
matrices.
In spherical particles, the ratio of surface area to volume is minimal
(smallest). In resin-rich surfaces of reinforced systems, the Microspheres which are free
of orientation and sharp edges are capable of producing smooth surfaces.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
3.0 FACTORS AFFECTING PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES
The type, distribution, size, shape, orientation and arrangement of the
reinforcement will affect the properties of the composites material and its anisotropy
1. 2.
3. 4.
5.
Distribution of fiber/reinforcement Concentration of reinforcement
Orientation of reinforcement Shape of reinforcement
Size of reinforcement

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
4.0 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF COMPOSITES MATERIALS
4.1 ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES
Summary of the advantages exhibited by composite materials, which are of significant
use in engineering are as follows:
1. Light in weight and Lower density
2. High creep resistance
3. Strength-to-weight and Stiffness-to-weight are greater than steel or aluminum
4. Fatigue properties are better than common engineering metals
5. Composites cannot corrode like steel
6. Possible to achieve combinations of properties not attainable with metals,
ceramics, or polymers alone
7. Ease of fabrication of large complex structural shapes or modules-Modular
construction
8. Ability to incorporate sensors in the material to monitor and correct its
performance-Smart composites
9. High resistance to impact damage.
10. Improved corrosion resistance
11. Fiber-Reinforced Plastic (FRP) shapes: panels, rods, tubes, beams, columns,
cellular panels (highway bridge decks), etc.:
12. Cables and Tendons as tension elements (pre- and posttensioning of structures)
13. Beams, girders and cellular panels to support large loads (vehicular and pedestrian
bridges)
14. Trusses in a wide variety of structures (bridges, transmission towers, and
industrial plants)
15. Columns, posts and pilings to carry vertical loads (bridge columns, marine
pilings, and utility poles):
16. Composite rebar’s and grids to reinforce concrete in bridge decks and highway
barriers
17. Composite cables and tendons to pre stress/post-tension concrete structures
(bridges and building)
18. Like metals, thermoplastics have indefinite shelf life..
19. Excellent heat sink properties of composites, especially Carbon-Carbon, combined
with their lightweight have extended their use for aircraft brakes.
20. Improved friction and wear properties.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
4.2 LIMITATIONS OF COMPOSITES
Some of the associated disadvantages of advanced composites are as follows:
1. High cost of raw materials and fabrication.
2. Composites are more brittle than wrought metals and thus are more easily
damaged.
3. Transverse properties may be weak.
4. Matrix is weak, therefore, low toughness.
5. Reuse and disposal may be difficult.
6. Difficult to attach.
7. Repair introduces new problems, for the following reasons:
 Materials require refrigerated transport and storage and have limited
shelf life.
 Hot curing is necessary in many cases requiring special tooling.
 Hot or cold curing takes time.
5.0 DIFFARENCE BETWEEN SMART AND COMPOSITE MATERIAL
In short, smart materials are at least dual function, composites are
materials composed of dissimilar phases or components (sometimes they’re called hybrid
materials now),
Smart materials have multiple functions, which generally include
sensor/actuator ability in addition to having form, or being able to support at least some
structural weight. The classic example is Nitinol, which is a Nikcle-Titanium allow. After
mechanical deformation (for example, bending), it can be heated up and will return to the
pre-deformed structural shape. Lead- Zirconate-Titanate (PZT) is a ceramic, which
responds to mechanical deformation by generating an electrical potential. In the reverse,
an applied electrical potential leads to a geometric expansion of the material (actuator
function).
Composites are materials that are combinations of at least two different
materials, which allow the engineering of desired properties (like tailoring mechanical
stiffness, conductivity, etc). Classic examples are glass fiber composites, where glass
fibers are embedded in an epoxy matrix. As long as the base materials retain their
characteristics and physical morphology, it would be considered a composite.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
6.0 COMPOSITE STRUCTURES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
Although the use of structural fiber composites in critical load-
bearing applications is relatively rare one of its most common uses in the construction
industry is repair of existing structures. The material is also used as a replacement for
steel in reinforced and stressed concrete and in very rare cases to produce new civil
structures almost entirely out of fiber composites.
Generally, any conventional structural system is designed under
pre-selected design loads and forces for any required purpose, which cannot successfully
develop its ability against unexpected loads and forces unless a large safety factor is
provided for safety limit states to take into account various uncertainties in load and force
amplitudes and structural response to seismic design. Therefore, for more safety purposes,
smart structures play a vital role as far as the safety requirements are concerned in the
design of various civil engineering infrastructures. For example, smart devices help in
monitoring of the current and long term behavior of any civil engineering structure, which
would lead to enhanced safety during its life.
Thus, this would influence the life costs of such structures by reducing
upfront construction costs due to reduced safety factors in initial design and by extending
the safe life of the structure by using smart and composite materials
1. SMART CONCRETE
Unlike conventional concrete, the smart concrete has higher potential and
enhanced strength. Smart concrete can be prepared by adding carbon fibers for use in
electromagnetic shielding and for enhanced electrical conductivity of concrete.
Smart concrete under loading and unloading process will loose and regain
its conductivity, thus serving as a structural material as well as a sensor. Smart concrete
plays a vital role in the construction of road pavements as a traffic-sensing recorder, and
also melts ice on highways and airfields during snowfall in winter season by passing low
voltage current through it.
2. REHABILITATION AND RETROFIT
The widespread deterioration of infrastructure in Canada, the USA and
Europe is well documented. The estimated cost to rehabilitate and retrofit existing
infrastructure worldwide is around (Canadian) $900B. In Australia it is estimated that
$500M per annum is required to repair and upgrade concrete structures.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Some traditional rehabilitation and retrofit methods use concrete or external
steel sheets to re-introduce or improve structure properties such as strength and ductility.
The ability of concrete to form complex shapes and its suitability to submerged
installation has seen it used for encapsulation of elements such as bridge piers.
Steel can be bonded or bolted to deteriorated concrete structures to
provide strength and stiffness improvements with relatively little additional weight. In the
last decade the number of instances of fiber composites used as a surface layer that either
protects and/or improves on the response of the encapsulated element has been
increasing. In these cases the materials are usually bonded externally to the structure in
the form of tows (fiber bundles), fabrics, plates, strips and jackets. The advantages
offered by composites in these forms include their ability to bond well to many substrate
materials and to follow complex shapes.
3. NEW FIBRE COMPOSITE CIVIL STRUCTURES
A small number of new load-bearing civil engineering structures have
been made predominantly from FRP materials over the last three decades. These include
compound curved roofs pedestrian and vehicle bridges and bridge decks, energy
absorbing roadside guardrails, building systems, modular rooftop cooling towers, access
platforms for industrial, chemical and offshore, electricity transmission towers,
Power poles, power pole cross-arms and light poles and marine structures
such as seawalls and fenders.
The potential benefits offered by fiber composites include high specific
strength and specific stiffness, durability, good fatigue performance and the potential to
reduce long-term costs. However, in many cases these potential benefits are difficult to
realize and are sometimes based on specious fact and irrelevant data. In addition to this,
the lack of bona-fide applications has caused many constructors to be skeptical of the
material’s ability to provide a viable alternative to traditional materials.
Many of the existing applications are experimental in nature and are aimed
at demonstrating the ability of fiber composite materials to perform in certain
applications. To this end they may be successful in terms of structural performance, but
offer little by way of meaningful financial performance data.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
4. ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES
(HEADINGLEY BRIDGE)
Due to the severe environmental conditions and the use of salt for
de-icing of roads in several parts of North America, the use of fiber reinforced polymer
(FRP) reinforcement for bridge girders, deck slabs and barrier walls is considered by ISIS
Canada to be a promising solution for the deterioration of bridges due to corrosion. Due
to the lack of code standards for the use of FRP for structures and bridges, ISIS Manitoba
has undertaken the challenge of testing several structural models, in some cases, full-scale
models of bridge girders and slabs to examine their behavior and provide safe design
guidelines for the use of this material for field application.
i. Use of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) straight and draped tendons for
prestressing four, 31.2 meter span girders.
ii. Use of CFRP stirrups for shear reinforcements of two main girders. Use of CFRP
for the deck slab.
iii. Use of glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) reinforcements for the bridge curbs.
iv. Use of 64 fiber optic sensors and 16 conventional electric resistance strain gauges
to monitor the bridge from a central monitoring station remote from the bridge.
Fig.6.1 Headingley Bridge girder totally reinforced and pre stressed by CFRP.
5. ROAD BRIDGES
The Fiber-line Bridge, Kolding, Denmark was designed by the Danish
engineering Company, Ramboll using the pultruded profiles. The 40-m (131-ft.) long, 3-
m (9.8-ft.) wide crossing carries pedestrians, bicycles and motorbikes over a previously
dangerous set of railroad tracks.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
As the bridge was designed to support a 500 kg/m2 (102 lb. /ft.2) load, the
structure can also Composite Bridge Decks accommodate snow removal vehicles
weighing up to 5 MT. This impressive strength is provided by a composite deck that
weighs only 12 MT. In steel and concrete, a bridge deck of comparable strength would
weigh 28 MT and 90 MT respectively.
Fig.6.2 The Fiber-line Bridge
The bridge is suspended from a high support tower (18.5-m (61-ft.)) that
is bolted to a concrete foundation. The composite tower weighs only 3 MT. Fiber-line
Composites used its pultruded profiles to pre-fabricate the tower and three bridge sections
for final assembly at the bridge site. The lightweight composite allowed the bridge to be
easily erected in only 18 night-time hours, thus minimizing disruption to rail traffic.
6. FRP DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES
Fig. 6.3 FRP doors and frames
With the scarcity of wood for building products, the alternative, which merits
attention, is to promote the manufacturing of low cost FRP building materials to meet the
demands of the housing and building sectors. The doors made of FRP skins, sandwiched
with core materials such as rigid polyurethane foam, expanded polystyrene, paper
honeycomb; jute/coir felt etc. can have potential usage in residential buildings, offices,
schools, hospitals, laboratories etc.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
As structural sandwich construction has attained broad acceptance and usage
for primary load bearing structures, the FRP doors can be manufactured in various sizes
and designs using this technology.
7. THE TRAIN MADE UP OF FRP COMPOSITES
Composite materials are increasingly being used in the Railway industry
where the resulting performance improvements are significant. Weight saving of up to
50% for structural and 75% for non-structural applications bring in associated benefits of
high-speed, reduced power consumption, lower inertial, less track wear and the ability to
carry greater pay-loads. A modular construction (interchangeable components) of
composites is easy to handle & install and offers rapid fitting. By impating fire resistant
characteristics to composites, it can ensure full safety to the entire system. Composites
find major applications in passenger coaches worldwide for excellent structural properties
and improved aesthetics. For mass transit systems, lighter bodied coaches are
instrumental for achieving higher speed. Now, more and more parts are made of GFRP,
which also resists corrosion and has excellent workability. The train made up of
composites
Fig.6.4 The train made up of FRP composites
A fast paced indigenous development and induction of composites is
required urgently for Indian Railways for various potential applications. In view of the
crucial need for developing indigenous capability in composite technology,
the Advanced Composites Programme of Technology Information,
Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC) has launched quite a few projects focusing
on development of composites for application in Indian Railways.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
8. MODULAR FRP TOILETS FOR RAILWAY COACHES
The project was launched in partnership with M/s. Hindustan Fibre Glass
Works, Vadodara and technology support from IIT-Bombay. The FRP toilet unit
developed consists of four parts: the flooring trough, one L-shaped side-wall, another C-
shaped side wall and roof. All the four parts could be assembled inside the coach. The
FRP toilet is lightweight, corrosion resistant, and fire retardant and it has longer life with
easy maintainability.
Fig.6.5 modular frp toilets for railway coaches
FRP toilets have been inducted on large scale by Indian Railways. The
project bagged the Certificate of Merit under the prestigious National Award for
Excellence in Consultancy Services-2001 given by the Consultancy Development Centre
of the Department of Scientific & Industrial Research, Govt. of India.
9. ABERFELDY FOOTBRIDGE-UK
Fig.6.6 Aberfeldy footbridge-uk
Built on a Golf Course
World’s first cable-stayed footbridge
Constructed in 1992
113m long with 63m main span
All composite materials used for construction of this bridge

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
10. OBERRIET RHEIN BRIDGE RHEIN RIVER SWITZERLAND-AUSTRIA
Fig. 6.7 CFRP Laminate strips used in Rehabilitation of oberriet rhein bridge
Rehabilitation & LL capacity upgrade & bottom soffit strengthening
Construction 1996
3-Span Steel Girder Bridge (35ft-45ft-35ft)
CFRP Laminate strips bonded to bottom of deck between main girders in positive
moment region
11. SCHIESSBERGSTRASSE BRIDGE –GERMANY
Fig.6.8 HLV-Polyester composite tendons used in schiessbergstrasse bridge
174 ft. Long by 32 ft. Wide with 3.7 ft. Depth
Post-tensioned with 27 continuous parabolic HLV-polyester tendons
Comprised of 19 E-glass rods
Continuously monitored-Optical Fiber Sensors

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
7.0 FAILURE MODES OF COMPOSITEMATERIALS
The following are the some of the failure modes of composite materials or
composite structures
Delamination is one type of failure mode; composite materials made of different plies
stacked together tend to delaminate. The bending stiffness of delaminated panels can be
significantly reduced, even when no visual defect is visible on the surface or the free
edges.
Matrix tensile failure is another mode results in fracture surface resulting from this
failure mode is typically normal to the loading direction. Some fiber splitting at the
fracture surface can usually be observed.
Matrix compression failure is actually shear matrix failure. Indeed, the failure occurs at
an angle with the loading direction, which is evidence of the shear nature of the failure
process.
Fiber tensile failure mode is explosive. It releases large amounts of energy, and, in
structures that cannot redistribute the load, it typically causes catastrophic failure.
Fiber compression failure mode is largely affected by the resin shear behavior and
imperfections such as the initial fiber misalignment angle and voids. Typically, kinking
bands can be observed at a smaller scale, and are the result of fiber micro-buckling,
matrix shear failure or fiber failure.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
CONCLUSION
1. Several innovative FRP systems have been presented showing the different
advantages that each of them can provide to designers and contractors involved in
these types of upgrade. Three case studies, among the many realized using innovative
materials have been described showing how these advanced materials can be used for
strengthening and retrofitting reinforced concrete as well as masonry historical
structures providing a surely more effective technical as well as economic
effectiveness of the overall work.
2. Currently, about 40,000 composite products are in use for an array of applications in
diverse sectors of the industry all over the world. While China and India started
making use of composites almost simultaneously about 30 years ago, the progress
made by China is rather astounding with a consumption level of about 2,00,000 MT,
as compared to about 30,000 MT in India.
3. Fiber reinforced composite plate bonding offers significant advantages over steel plate
bonding for the vast majority of strengthening applications.
4. The most important feature governing the choice of material and form of construction
for any component is its structural integrity. Whereas high specific strength and
lightweight were often the dominant criteria to be achieved, particularly for aerospace
applications, there is today an increasing emphasis on other criteria such as
environmental durability, embedded energy, fire resistance. The materials previously
regarded as being synonymous with high performance FRP, such as carbon fibre, are
more affordable today and hence not always used to the limit of their capabilities.
5. Innovative thermoset composite products as well as thermoplastic composites would
go a long way in developing new application areas thus enhancing its market reach.
India with an excellent knowledge-base in various resins, catalysts and curing systems
coupled with an adequate availability of various raw materials can certainly carve out
a niche in the upcoming technology of composite fabrication.
6. The potential future benefits of smart materials, structures and systems would prove
amazing in their scope.
7. Smart technology and smart materials gives promise of optimum responses to highly
complex problems.
8. Smart materials provide enhanced preventative maintenance of systems and thus
better performance of their functions.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
9. The smart structure techniques in conjunction with use of smart materials
revolutionize in monitoring the safety and serviceability of engineering structure,
structural health monitoring of vital civil engineering structures like bridges,
buildings, pavements etc.
10. Sensors are playing a vital role in all sorts of sciences. Hence, instead of placing
various sensors at variable places in various application areas, it may be better to
embed these sensors in humanoids and it could be effectively used in detecting,
monitoring, message conveying, repairing etc., Thus the mobility of humanoids may
be used effectively.
11. A smart structure has the capacity to respond to a changing external environment such
as loads, temperatures and shape change, as well as to varying internal environment
i.e., failure of a structure. This technology has numerous applications much as
vibration and buckling control, ape control, damage assessment and active noise
control.
12. Smart structure techniques are being increasingly applied to civil engineering
structures for health monitoring of buildings with strain and corrosion sensors. Smart
materials are just starting to emerge from the laboratory, but soon you can expect to
find in everything from laptop computers to concrete bridges.
13. The technologies using smart materials are useful for both new and existing
constructions. Of the many emerging technologies available the few described here
need further research to evolve the design guidelines of systems. Codes, standards and
practices are of crucial importance for the further development.
14. Today, the most promising technologies for lifetime efficiency and improve reliability
include the use of small material and structures. Understanding and controlling the
composition and microstructure of any new material are the ultimate objectives of
research in these fields, and is crucial to the production of good smart materials. New
and advanced material will definitely enhanced our quality of our life.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
REFERENCES
1. Bashir Ahmed Mir- August 8, 2017- Smart Materials and Their Applications in
Civil Engineering: An Overview- International Journal of Civil Engineering and
Construction Science
2. Dr. Srikari S.- Composites and Applications- M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced
Studies – Bangalore
3. E.Agneloni1, P.Casadei2, and G.Celestini3-10 FEB 2011- Innovation on
advanced composite materials for civil engineering and architectural applications:
case studies-SMAR
4. Engineering and Design composite materials for civil engineering structures-
Washington- 31 March 1997
5. Fidanboylu, K.- fiber optic sensors and their applications
6. Harvinder Singh, Ramandeep Singh- 15 December 2015- Smart Materials: New
Trend in Structural Engineering- International Journal of Advance Research and
Innovation
7. J.Gopi Krishna, J.R.Thirumal - July 2015- Application of Smart Materials in
Smart Structures- International Journal of Innovative Research in Science,
Engineering and Technology
8. Laurent Warnet & Remko Akkerman.-2009- Classical lamination theory
9. Nachiketa Tiwari- Introduction to Composite Materials and Structures- Indian
Institute of Technology Kanpur
10. Ning Hu-August, 2012- composites and their properties-Published by InTech
11. Pizhong Qiao (Chiao), Ph.D., P.E., SECB- Composite Materials in Civil
Infrastructure (Structural Composites)- Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering Washington State University
12. Prof. Parihar A.A.1 , Ms. Kajal D. khandagale2 , Ms. Pallavi P. Jivrag3- Sep. -
Oct. 2016),- Smart Materials- IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering
13. S. Eswar Prasad- Smart Materials
14. Sherif Mohamed Sabry Elattar- 18 August, 2013- Smart structures and material
technologies in architecture applications- Scientific Research and Essays
15. Susmita Kamila- 2013-07-18- introduction, classification and applications of
smart materials: An Overview- American Journal of Applied Sciences

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
16. Uttam. S. Koruche1, Subhas. F. Patil2,- May-2015- Application of Classical
Lamination Theory and Analytical Modeling of Laminates- International Research
Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET)
17. V. L. Sateesh- Smart Materials and Structures
18. Vistasp M. Karbhari- August 1998- Use of Composite Materials in Civil
Infrastructure in Japan- International Technology Research Institute
THANK YOU
PRESENTEDBY:
S.N.VEERESH KUMAR
EMAIL: snveereshkumar75@gmail.com
snveeresh75@outlook.com

Civil Engineering Report on Composite Materials

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