Emotions and biases can both hinder critical thinking in certain situations. While emotions are an important part of human experience, being in a strong emotional state can cloud judgement and make it difficult to view issues objectively. Similarly, we all have unconscious biases that stem from our personal experiences and cultural backgrounds. These biases can subtly influence how we evaluate arguments and make decisions. It is important to recognize when emotions or biases may be affecting critical thinking and to make an effort to consider issues from different perspectives.

1. Emotions and Biases
Myth: emotions are the opposite of reason. This is a popular
belief, but nowadays most people acknowledge that emotions
are an inescapable part of being human and often a reliable
guide to what is right and true, helping us form our values and
discover our passions.
Here are a few examples of times when emotions lead to critical
thinking:
The anger Bryce feels over the injustice of a decrease in
community funding for programs to help the homeless prompts
Bryce to research this issue and get involved.
The excitement Ta’kiya feels about a future career as a nurse
gives her the motivation to learn about how she can go back to
school and get registered.
Krista has a gut feeling that there’s something wrong with her
relationship with her fiancé. She analyzes this feeling and
realizes that the differences between her fiancé’s temperament
and values and her own are too much, and she decides to call
off the wedding.
Emotions can (and probably should) play a role in big life
decisions like getting married, quitting a job, or getting a tattoo,
but critical thinking should also be a component.
So when do emotions become barriers to critical thinking?
Strong emotions like stress, anger, depression, or passion can
cloud our thinking and lead us to say, do, or believe things we
otherwise wouldn’t. We are more likely to act rashly, misjudge
the situation, rationalize illogical actions, and fail to see
options when we’re under emotional duress. The key is to
recognize when you are in such a state and to avoid making
decisions at these times.
Emotions can also affect how we respond to arguments.
Travis is at his cousin’s wedding, and while he’s waiting in line
at the buffet, another guest named Nathaniel suddenly starts a
conversation with him. Somehow the topic of affirmative action

2. comes up, and Nathaniel voices his opinions forcefully. This is
a subject that Travis feels passionately about, and he finds that
he disagrees strongly with Nathaniel. Whenever Travis tries to
bring up a counter-point, Nathaniel interrupts him to call him
“naïve” and his viewpoints “ignorant.” Nathaniel is quick to
rattle off statistics that support his point, while Travis cannot
always think of a counter-point on the spot. The conversation
ends with Nathaniel picking up his plate of shrimp scampi with
smug assurance of his complete correctness on the subject,
while Travis feels that he looked foolish.
Even though Travis knows he’ll never see Nathaniel again, he
finds himself continually irritated whenever his thoughts drift
back to that conversation. Driving home later that night, he
finds himself coming up with things he could have and should
have said to Nathaniel but didn’t. Afterward, whenever Travis
reads or watches anything that has to do with affirmative action,
he gets angrier than usual thinking about it, and he starts
subconsciously attributing the rude behaviors he associates with
Nathaniel to anyone else who opposes his viewpoint.
In the example above, Travis has a flood of emotions regarding
the topic of affirmative action that compromises his ability to
look at arguments on either side objectively, even though the
experience that prompted those emotions (an encounter with a
rude guest at a wedding) only tangentially has to do with the
topic at hand.
Most of us have some personal beliefs that are very important to
us. Much of your identity, your conception of who you are and
your place in the world, is defined by your personal beliefs.
This is completely normal and essentially inescapable.
However, you want to be aware of such emotional commitments
in order to mitigate the risk of shutting down when challenged
with new evidence. After all, you hold your beliefs to be true
because they are true to the best of your knowledge. And if it
turned out that your understanding of a situation could be
improved, you’d want to know more, right?
When we are deeply committed to a belief, critiques of that

3. belief can feel like personal attacks. This often makes us
defensive, if not outright hostile. At this point we’re more
likely to be looking for things to throw at the critic
(metaphorically or literally) than we are to be listening with an
open mind, willing to acknowledge validity in the criticism.
Bias
Bias is a tendency toward thinking a certain way. It’s a kind of
prejudice, a lean in a particular direction that leads you to favor
one party as being right whenever possible. We all have life
experiences that prevent us from viewing situations completely
objectively, or preexisting viewpoints that affect how we take in
new information.
Ella judges political scandals more harshly when they happen to
members of a party she doesn’t support.
Vincent is more willing to believe nutritional advice when it
corresponds with eating habits he already keeps.
Social psychologists have documented all sorts of ways that
people’s biases creep into their judgment, whether they realize
it or not:
A study showed that emails asking professors about research
opportunities were more likely to receive replies if the emails
came from students with stereotypically white names.1
Another study demonstrated that men married to women who
were not employed tend to disfavor women in the workplace.2
One of the most pervasive types of bias is confirmation bias, or
the tendency to look for confirming evidence. When you want
something to be true, you tend to look for evidence that fits
with what you want to believe and ignore evidence that doesn’t.
Confirmation bias can prevent you from reaching the truth—or
at least fairly evaluating the claim at stake—even when you
think you’re objectively seeking out evidence.
Willis and Niva get into an argument about whether it’s better
to buy American cars or foreign cars. When Willis looks online
for evidence, he types “why it’s better to buy American cars”
into the search engine, rather than something more general like
“American vs. foreign cars.” Consequently, Willis ends up only

4. reading sources that support his position that American cars are
better.
This hostility toward opposing views is one reason many people
have a tendency to only listen to people with similar
viewpoints. And, in a related fashion, some people habitually
listen to opposing viewpoints but only to confirm how wrong
“the other side” is.
Under Attack
Because of our biases, it’s hard to stand back and try to look at
an issue objectively. But listen generously, and try to
comprehend your opponent’s perspective. Play out “what if”
scenarios. These strategies will help you to obtain a little
distance, to see where others are coming from, and to better
understand why you believe what you believe and why others
think differently. That’s good critical thinking.
Which of the following BEST summarizes the relationship
between emotions and critical thinking?
· Emotions are an important component of the human
experience, but some emotional states can hinder critical
thinking.
· Strong emotions must be resisted at all times if one wants to
be a good critical thinker.
· Emotional moments are usually the best times to objectively
scrutinize beliefs and situations.
· Strong emotions always make it easier to view a situation
objectively.
Evan, who views himself as a political conservative, could be
accused of confirmation bias in which of the following
situations? Choose the BEST answer.
· Evan has discussions with his more liberal brother to
understand the other side.
· Evan advocates for causes he believes in on his personal blog.
· Evan only reads news sources or watches networks that have a
conservative leaning.
· Evan always switches his voter registration to the city in
which he is currently living.

5. Give an example of a time when you encountered bias, or
overcame your own?
Practice: Emotions and Biases
Hidden Biases
Nowadays, few people in the United States think of themselves
as being prejudiced, yet wide disparities across race and gender
lines remain. In their book, Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good
People, social psychologists Mahzarin Banaji and Anthony
Greenwald reveal how unconscious biases can affect how we
judge people and what types of decisions we make in certain
situations.
Together with their colleague, Brian Nosek, they developed the
Implicit Association Test to uncover hidden biases by
measuring how quickly people associate members of certain
groups with different qualities. While the test has its critics, it
has undeniably sparked discussions on what unconscious biases
we all have and what implications these biases have on society.
In the NPR interview below, Mahzarin Banaji discusses the
impact that our biases have on how we treat people.
According to the authors of Blindspot, what might be the
problem with giving special treatment to people in your in-
groups?
· Special favors to people in our in-groups often mean that
we’re not helping people outside of our groups.
· More people report feeling racial prejudice when they
habitually give special treatment to people in their in-groups.
· Special favors to people in our in-groups often lead to overt
racism, such as ethnic slurs or hate crimes.
· People tend to feel very icky and uncomfortable when they do
a favor for a neighbor or friend.
When Dr. Banaji’s friend Carla Kaplan was rushed to the
emergency room for a hand injury, at what point did the doctor
bring in the best-known hand specialist in New England?
· right after the doctor found out that she was a Yale professor
· right after the doctor found out she was a quilter who relied on

6. the use of her hands
· after all other attempts to save her hand failed
· as soon as she was admitted to the hospital
What point about bias does the story about Carla Kaplan’s
hospital visit illustrate?
· Hospitals often give male patients high-quality treatment
much faster than female patients.
· Doctors tend to give better care to patients who have the same
alma mater or hobbies as them.
· People tend to assume that Yale professors rely on their hands
more than quilters.
· People have tendencies to help certain groups over others,
even when the reasoning isn’t logical.
The article cites sociologist Nancy DiTomaso’s argument that
“Discrimination today is less about treating people from other
groups badly, and more about giving preferential treatment to
people who are part of our ‘in-groups.’” Provide an example
that either supports or refutes this claim?
Give an example where a bias in favor of a particular group
could result in poor critical thinking?
Culture and Stereotypes
Where do the beliefs we hold come from? From what one should
eat for breakfast to how a company handles customer
complaints, many of our notions and norms are learned from our
experiences within a culture. According to the Center for
Advance Research on Language Acquisition, culture is defined
as “the shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive
constructs, and affective understanding that are learned through
a process of socialization.”3 Essentially, culture is the
collection of beliefs, values, and behaviors acquired as a result
of being part of a particular group.
Everyone is part of a variety of cultures, ranging from the very
broad to the very specific. A single individual might
simultaneously identify with American culture, West Coast

7. culture, African American culture, Republican culture, Catholic
culture, military culture, urban singles culture, sports fan
culture, and board game geek culture.
Enculturation (the process of learning the habits of a particular
culture) is inevitable and often a positive thing. But
enculturation can also cause the types of biases that inhibit your
thinking. Here are two main ways that culture can get in the
way of critical thinking:
1. When you acquire a habit of unquestioningly assuming that
your culture’s beliefs and behaviors are the “right” behaviors
and beliefs
2. When you develop prejudiced views or leap to conclusions
about other cultures just because they’re different from yours
Learning about the differences between your cultures and other
cultures is important, but it’s sometimes all too easy to slip
from noticing a trend about another group of people to
stereotyping them.
Stereotypes and Generalizations
· All British people have bad teeth.
· All French people hate Americans.
· All blondes are stupid.
· All guys are slobs.
· All women take forever to get ready.
· All lawyers are sleazy.
· All authors are alcoholics.
· All young people are always texting.
· All old people are obsessed with the weather.
A stereotype is an overly simple and unwarranted assumption
about another person or a group of people. Most people have
heard of at least some of the above statements, and at the same
time, many people have also had a negative experience with
being stereotyped in some way at some point in their lives.
“Whenever I tell people that I’m Muslim, they usually have a
look of bewilderment about them. ‘But… you don’t cover your
hair’ is a common response, as is ‘You’re so modern though,’
and my personal favorite: ‘Well, what exactly are you?'"

8. - Nida Khan4
“No matter how hard I try, I can never escape stereotyping. I
can’t even count how many times I have been told that I should
be smart “because I’m Asian.” I know I’m intelligent but I get
very annoyed when people just assume I should be a certain way
just because of my race.”
- Emily Champion5
“I am a Hispanic college student, and naturally that means that I
must have lived a difficult life to get here… I’m Hispanic, so I
must be an illegal immigrant from Cuba or Mexico… I’m
Hispanic, so when there’s an increase in poverty, crime, and
teen pregnancies, I must have something to do with it… Right?
Wrong. And yet, as a person of Hispanic heritage, all of the
above are stereotypes that I have to deal with on a daily basis.”
- Analda Muy6
Some people assume that only bigots stereotype people, but
actually it’s something we all do, whether we realize it or not.
Because it’s human nature to identify patterns and organize
people in groups, so when we notice a particular characteristic
of another person, it’s natural to want to put them into a group.
But unchecked stereotypes often lead to prejudiced beliefs and
narrow-minded perspectives, which is why recognizing and
questioning your stereotypes is important.
An important first step is recognizing the difference between
stereotypes and generalizations. A generalization is a broad
statement describing a trend about a group. Generalizations,
when accurate, are often fair statements. In contrast, a
stereotype goes a step further and makes an assumption about an
individual on the basis of that generalization.
Generalization: Many people from Hispanic cultures cook with
strong spices.
Stereotype: Maritza is Mexican, so she must love hot sauce.
Are Stereotypes Always Bad?
There are times when stereotyping a person or a situation could
make you more sensitive. If you’re going on a business trip to
Hong Kong and have read that the people there value

9. punctuality, it would probably be a good idea to make sure you
don’t show up to a meeting late. If you know that teenage girls
are often insecure about their appearances, you might be extra
cautious when your fourteen-year-old niece asks you, “How
does my hair look?”
It’s one thing to be aware of a generalization and its potential to
apply to a specific situation. But when stereotypes turn into
fixed and unyielding truths, that’s when the problems start.
If you start internalizing the belief that “Cheerleaders are all
ditzes,” the argument “Sasha wouldn’t make a good upper-level
manager, because she was a cheerleader in high school” might
start to look like a persuasive argument, even if there’s
absolutely no evidence that Sasha has any of the negative
characteristics popularly associated with cheerleaders.
How can you tell if a stereotype you hold is harmful to your
critical thinking? One quick test is to ask yourself how ready
you are to modify your assumption in light of new information.
This is the difference between thinking, “Roxanne is from
Texas, so she might be a gun owner” and “Roxanne is from
Texas, so she must be a gun owner.”
People often see what they want to see, and the worst
stereotypes are the ones that stay permanent even in light of
overwhelming counter-evidence. If you have a fixed belief that
all bass players are lazy and Jonas is a bass player, it doesn’t
matter if Jonas remodels his car, builds a house, and founds a
non-profit charity all before 10 a.m. on a Tuesday, you’ll still
see him as lazy.
Which of the following is an accurate statement about culture?
· You can accurately guess exactly what someone believes if
you know what culture they’re part of.
· It’s easy to decide which cultures are better than others.
· You have to resist all cultural beliefs if you want to be a good
critical thinker.
· Everyone acquires certain beliefs and habits as a result of
being part of particular cultures.
Give an example of a culture you identify with, and of a habit

10. or belief that you have acquired as a result of that culture.?
Arziel, an American, holds a stereotype that Islamic countries
are violent places. Consequently, she turns down the
opportunity to go on vacation to a safe part of Indonesia solely
because she reads that Indonesia is a primarily Islamic country,
and she assumes that she will be attacked if she travels to the
country. Explain how Arziel’s cultural perspective is affecting
her critical thinking in this instance?
Has anyone ever made an assumption about you based on a
stereotype? If so, explain what happened?
In what way might a seemingly positive stereotype about a
group of people (e.g. “African Americans have great rhythm,”
or “Gay men are well-groomed”) have a negative consequence?
Practice: Culture and Stereotypes
One People, One Story?
When you hear the word “Eskimo,” what springs to mind? How
about the phrase “Southern belle”? Or “Goth teen”? No matter
how open-minded we consider ourselves, it’s hard to completely
escape the influence of stereotypes on our perception of other
groups. But is there any harm in hanging onto a stereotype that
isn’t necessarily inaccurate? In the following TED talk from
2009, Nigerian novelist Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie explores
how these “single stories” develop in all of us, and presents a
compelling argument for the danger of having a single story.
Watch the video:
TED video.
https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_adichie_the_danger_of_
a_single_story. Filmed July 2009 at TEDGlobal 2009. To
activate subtitles, first click the play button and then open the
dropdown menu in the embedded player and choose a language.
For a text transcript, follow the link below.
When Adichie tells the anecdote about visiting Fide’s family,

11. why was she so startled by the sight of a beautifully patterned
basket Fide’s brother had made?
· Adichie had never seen a homemade basket before.
· The gender roles Adichie had been taught did not permit her to
imagine that a boy could excel at a traditionally female craft.
· Until that point, Adichie had only thought of Fide’s family in
the context of their poverty and didn’t consider that they might
have other facets to their lives.
· The basket was clearly expensive to make, and Adichie
realized that she had been mistakenly informed that Fide’s
family was poor.
According to Adichie, what is the problem with stereotypes?
· They are untrue.
· They are racist.
· They are convenient.
· They are incomplete.
Adichie summarizes the main argument of her talk by stating,
“The consequence of the single story is this: it robs people of
dignity. It makes our recognition of our equal humanity
difficult. It emphasizes how we are different rather than how we
are similar.” Explain what you think she means by this, and
describe whether you agree or disagree and why.
Adichie provides a number of examples of seldom-told stories
about Nigerians and their achievements. What is she trying to
illustrate with these anecdotes?
· The media stereotypes of Nigeria as a country plagued with
problems of poverty, disease, and corruption are not true at all.
· Nigeria deserves aid from wealthier countries like the United
States because its people are hard-working, ambitious, and
destined to achieve great things.
· Reducing Nigeria to a stereotype overlooks its complexity and
ignores the stories of individuals.
· Nigerians are smarter and more successful than Americans are.
Adichie gives a number of examples of times when both herself
and people she knows have fallen into the trap of seeing a
“single story” for a group of people. Give an example of a time

12. from your life when you have inadvertently stereotyped a group
outside your own.
Thinking Independently
Have you ever met anyone who introduced himself by saying,
“My name is Corey, and I would describe myself as a mindless
follower”? Everyone likes to think of him or herself as an
individual, someone who thinks independently rather than being
a sheep following the crowd.
But the truth is, we all conform on some level. Some degree of
conformity is necessary for a society to function. Imagine what
it would be like if there weren’t a cultural consensus that
everyone should obey traffic lights or form lines in stores.
Conformity can also be a positive force when it comes to
following social cues in new situations—for instance, it’s
probably a good idea to stand and sit along with everyone else
when you’re attending an unfamiliar religious service, or to
mimic the professional behaviors of those around you at a new
job.
Tendencies to conform are common when:
· You’re in a situation where you’re not sure what to do.
· You feel social pressure to fit in, or you fear negative
consequences if you think or act differently.
· You’re in a group. The phenomenon of how groups naturally
drift toward consensus when discussing an issue is called
groupthink.
This natural tendency to conform happens all the time, even if
there isn’t a completely sensible reason for it. You might start
watching a television show, not because you were especially
intrigued by the premise, but because your friends were all
watching it and kept talking about it. Or maybe you saw a play
with your family, and you thought it was terrible, but in the car
afterward, everyone else was talking about how much they
loved it, so you started chiming in that you liked it, too, and
maybe you even convinced yourself that you liked it more than
you did.
You might develop a strong view about a specific political

13. issue, make friends with people who also hold the same view,
and then gradually adopt other viewpoints held by your friends.
This is perhaps partly because it seems natural if you spend a
lot of time engaging in conversations with people with the same
strong stances, and perhaps also partly because you fear
rejection from your friends if you disagree with the group.
Even worse, you might make serious life decisions because of
other people’s expectations, like going to college to get a
degree in business and moving back home because that’s what
everyone around you is doing, when all you really want to do is
teach English in Korea.
If all of your beliefs are received from other people, and all of
your actions are done to fit in, you run a risk of losing your
sense of self and living someone else’s life. In the end, there’s
absolutely nothing wrong with having the same life goals as
your friends, or the same religious beliefs as your family, but to
be an independent thinker, you’ll want your beliefs to be your
own, not just something someone handed to you, especially
when the stakes are high.
Recognizing Barriers
As this chapter has discussed, emotions, biases, enculturation,
stereotypes, and conformity are all inevitable parts of life, and,
in some situations, not necessarily a bad thing. But all of these
impulses have the potential to inhibit our critical thinking,
which is why taking the time to reflect on your thinking is so
important.
The first step to overcoming your critical thinking barriers is to
recognize what they are, so try this experiment: Think of a few
beliefs you hold, then take a few moments to ask yourself the
questions below about them. These questions are especially
important whenever you have a strong belief about an issue
before you have any evidence for it, which is often a red flag
that at least one of the barriers to critical thinking might be at
work.Questions to Help Expose Barriers to Critical Thinking
· Do you have strong emotions surrounding this belief? Do you

14. get knots in your stomach every time you hear the phrase “gun
control” ever since you had a heated debate with a coworker
over gun laws?
· Do you have any personal experiences that might have led you
to this belief? Is your opinion on the public school system in the
United States colored by your own mediocre high school
experience? Has a bad run-in with a cop strongly affected your
views on the role of law enforcement in society?
· Did you acquire this belief because you’re part of a particular
culture? Are your feelings about the current political situation
in Greece influenced by your childhood growing up around
Greek immigrants?
· Does this belief stem from a stereotype you might hold about a
particular group? Does your stance on immigration heavily rely
on your impressions about what “all Mexicans” are like? Do you
shut out what your conservative friend has to say about this
issue because you already know what “all Republicans” are
like?
· Do all of your family members, friends, coworkers, and/or
community members also share this belief? Do you always buy
Apple products because that’s what everyone you work with
does?
Answering “yes” to any of these questions doesn’t necessarily
mean that your belief is wrong, but it might mean that you
should investigate your belief a little deeper to make sure that
you’re thinking independently.
What is the name for the phenomenon that occurs when groups
discussing an issue move toward consensus?
· groupthink
· bias
· stereotypes
· enculturation
Which of the following situations is an example of conformity
that detracts from critical thinking?
· altering your political beliefs to line up with those of the party
favored by most of your friends

15. · raising your hand before speaking in class because that’s what
everyone else does
· going to a fancy wedding and watching other people for cues
about which fork to use first
· adopting a similar level of business casual dress as your
coworkers when you start a new job
After three of his friends invest in real estate in the same year,
Jonah also invests in real estate. Jonah’s critical thinking is
MOST likely affected by which barrier?
· emotions
· conformity
· bias
· stereotypes
Jonah’s thinking was affected by a critical thinking barrier, but
that doesn’t necessarily mean his decision was a poor one.
Explain why.
Consider your attitude toward the value of getting a college
degree and explain what influences from your culture and
background you think led you to that belief.
Practice: Thinking Independently
The Two Sides of Social Media
As discussed in the previous chapter, critical thinking isn’t just
about criticizing other people’s opinions and arguments—it’s
about being open-minded to new ideas, and then evaluating
them all thoughtfully in order to find the best possible answer.
Unfortunately, as this chapter has demonstrated, we all have bad
habits that keep us from considering all new information fairly.
We sometimes struggle to think objectively when under the
influence of strong emotions. We belong to groups and cultures
that instill habits and views. And we all occasionally fall prey
to biases that prevent us from rationally considering
information. As you investigate different issues, it’s important
to combat confirmation bias, the tendency to pay more attention
to information that supports your original view.
In his article, “The Believing Game,” Peter Elbow explains how
in order to contemplate conflicting views, you can practice what

16. he calls “the doubting game,” where you find fault with the
ideas you agree with, and then practice “the believing game,”
where you pay attention to what’s good about the ideas you
disagree with.
Essentially, you do a mental exercise where you honestly try to
believe the argument presented to you, even if it feels foreign to
you or opposes your viewpoint. This is followed up with a more
critical evaluation of the argument that agrees with your
position. The purpose of this exercise is to understand the
reasons for opposing arguments and to strengthen the reasons
for your own arguments.
Good questions to ask when playing the believing game include:
· What’s interesting or helpful about the view?
· In what sense or under what conditions might this idea be
true?
· What personal examples have I witnessed that might support
this?
ProCon.org provides pro/con lists for a number of controversial
issues. You’ll notice on the pro side a list of premises, or
reasons, supporting each issue, while the con side contains a list
of reasons opposing each issue. In this activity, we will focus
on the pro/con list about the influence of social media in
society.
In general, do you think social networking sites such as
Facebook or Tumblr are good for society?
Top of Form
· Yes
· No
Bottom of Form
Under what conditions might it be true that social networking
sites benefit society?
Top of Form
Under what conditions might it be true that social networking
sites harm society?
From the ProCon.org website, list what you believe to be the

17. three most compelling premises, or reasons, supporting the
conclusion that social networking sites benefit society.
From the ProCon.org website, list what you believe to be the
three most compelling premises, or reasons, supporting the
conclusion that social networking sites harm society.
One of the points on the pro side is that “social networking sites
facilitate face-to-face interaction.” Extend this premise by
providing a supporting example either from your life or about
someone you know.
One of the points on the con side is that “social networking
sites entice people to waste time.” Extend this premise by
providing a supporting example either from your life or about
someone you know.
Bottom of Form
ESSAY TITLE ALL CAPS SHORT TITLE 50 CHARACTERS
OR LESS
ESSAY TITLE ALL CAPS SHORT TITLE 50 CHARACTERS
OR LESS 6

18. Essay Title
Author’s Name
H. Wayne Huizenga School of Business and Entrepreneurship
LOG 5010 - International Transport & Logistics
Term
Essay Title
This is the introduction section. Note that it has no heading.
Here is where the writer establishes a thesis. This thesis
summarizes the main learning from the Case Study in question
and any other supplemental reading. It should be generic in
nature. The introduction section should also give the reader, in
a few sentences, an idea of the content of the essay.Case Study
Summary
This section should contain a summary of the case study. It
should describe the scenario, and identify the characters and the
organizations involved. Ensure sources are cited according to
APA guidelines, as per example (David, 2013).
Other heading levels may be used, if necessary.
Heading Level 2
Heading level 3. (Note the indent and period and the
capitalization).Heading level 4.Heading level 5.Answers to Case
Study Questions (when applicable)
For case studies containing explicit questions, transcribe every
question in italics and write the corresponding answer in one or

19. more paragraphs, as needed.
After answering all the questions, proceed directly to the
Conclusion section.Analysis (when applicable)
This section can have a different header and contain other
heading levels, as determined by the writer. It only applies to
case studies that do not have explicit questions to answer.
The objective of this section is to identify issues raised in the
case study and describe their impact and possible causes.
Other heading levels may be used, if necessary.
Heading Level 2
Heading level 3. Heading level 4.Heading level 5.
Actions and/or Recommendations (when applicable)
This section can have a different header and contain other
heading levels, as determined by the writer. It only applies to
case studies that do not have explicit questions to answer.
The objective of this section is to offer the reader
recommendation to address the issues identified in the previous
section.
Other heading levels can be used, if necessary.
Heading Level 2
Heading level 3. Heading level 4.Heading level 5.
Conclusion
This section is reserved to recap the content of the essay and
close with the confirmation of the thesis formulated in the
introduction. The conclusion section should not introduce new
information to the reader.
References
David, P. (2013). International logistics: The management of
international trade operations (4th ed.). Berea, OH: Cicero
Books.
Exhibit 1
Correlations Among and Descriptive Statistics For Key Study

20. Variables
M (SD)
Sex
Age
Income
Educ.
Relig.
Dist. Intol.
Sex
1.53 (.50)
.07
-.09
.02
.14
.06
Age
31.88 (10.29)
.08
.19*
.20*
.01
Income
2.60 (1.57)

21. .04
-.14
-.09
Educ.
3.44 (1.06)
-.29*
-.06
Relig.
1.21 (.30)
-.19*
Dist. Intol.
3.75 (1.19)
Notes. N’s range from 107 to 109 due to occasional missing
data. For sex, 0 = male, 1 = female. Educ. = education. Dist.
Intol. = distress intolerance. Relig. = religiosity.
* p < .05.
Alcohol Consumption
Frugality
Amount that Gets Spent on Alcohol

22. Exhibit 2. This simple path model, adapted from results in a
Journal of Consumer Behaviour paper, is an example of a
figure.