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2. CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this
Biology Investigatory Project
on the topic “Blood
Grouping” has been
successfully completed by
Rishi Soni of class XII- ‘B’
under the guidance of Ms.
MAMTA SHARMA
particular fulfilment
of the curriculum of Central
Board
of Secondary Education
(CBSE) leading the award of
annual examination of the
year 2022-23
3. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I HAVE TAKEN EFFORTS IN THIS
PROJECT HOWEVER IT WOULD
NOT HAVE BEEN POSSIBLE
WITHOUT THE KIND HELP AND
SUPPORT OF MANY
INDIVIDUALS. I WOULD LIKE TO
THANK MY PRINCIPAL MRS.
USHA KIRAN TOMAR FOR
PROVIDING ME WITH FACILITIES
REQUIRED TO DO MY PROJECT .
I AM HIGHLY INDEBTED TO MY
TEACHER MRS MAMTA SHARMA
FOR HER INVALUABLE
GUIDANCE WHICH HAS
SUSTAINED MY EFFORTS IN ALL
STAGES OF THIS PROJECT
WORK. I ALSO LIKE TO THANK
MY PARENTS FOR THEIR
CONTINUOUS A SUPPORT AND
4. Serial
number
Topic Page
no
1 Certificate 2
2 Acknowledg
ment
3
3 Blood grouping
-introduction 6
4 Different
blood group
7
5 ABO blood
group
system
9
6 Inheritance
in ABO
13
7 Clinical
application
16
8 Blood
Typing
18
9 Blood
Transfusio
m
24
10 precaution 25
11 Hazards of
blood
26
INDEX
6. INTRODUCTION
THE TERM “BLOOD GROUP” REFERS TO THE
ENTIRE BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM
COMPRISING RED BLOOD CELL (RBC)
ANTIGENS WHOSE SPECIFICITY IS
CONTROLLED BY A SERIES OF GENES
WHICH CAN BE ALLELIC OR LINKED VERY
CLOSELY ON THE SAME CHROMOSOME.
“BLOOD TYPE” REFERS TO A SPECIFIC
PATTERN OF REACTION TO TESTING
ANTISERA WITHIN A GIVEN SYSTEM. OVER
A PERIOD OF TIME, OUR UNDERSTANDING
ON BLOOD GROUPS HAS EVOLVED TO
ENCOMPASS NOT ONLY TRANSFUSION-
RELATED PROBLEMS BUT ALSO SPECIFIC
DISEASE ASSOCIATION WITH RBC SURFACE
ANTIGENS. KARL LANDSTEINER HAS BEEN
CREDITED FOR THE DISCOVERY OF ABO
BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM IN 1900.HIS
EXTENSIVE RESEARCH ON SEROLOGY
BASED ON SIMPLE BUT STRONG SCIENTIFIC
REASONING LED TO IDENTIFICATION OF
MAJOR BLOOD GROUPS SUCH AS O, A, AND
B TYPES, COMPATIBILITY TESTING, AND
SUBSEQUENT TRANSFUSION PRACTISE.
7. WHAT ARE
DIFFERENT BLOOD
GROUP?
• THE DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN
BLOOD ARE DUE TO THE
PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF
CERTAIN PROTEIN MOLECULES
CALLED ANTIGENS AND
ANTIBODIES.
• THE ANTIGENS ARE LOCATED
ON THE SURFACE OF THE RBCS
AND THE ANTIBODIES ARE IN
THE BLOOD PLASMA.
• INDIVIDUALS HAVE DIFFERENT
TYPES AND COMBINATIONS OF
THESE MOLECULES.
• THE BLOOD GROUP YOU
BELONG TO DEPENDS ON WHAT
YOU HAVE INHERITED FROM
8. • THERE ARE MORE THAN 20
GENETICALLY DETERMINED
BLOOD GROUP SYSTEMS
KNOWN TODAY
• THE ABO AND RHESUS (RH)
SYSTEMS ARE THE MOST
IMPORTANT ONES USED FOR
BLOOD TRANSFUSIONS.
• NOT ALL BLOOD GROUPS
ARE COMPATIBLE WITH EACH
OTHER. MIXING
INCOMPATIBLE BLOOD
GROUPS LEADS TO BLOOD
CLUMPING OR
AGGLUTINATION, WHICH IS
DANGEROUS FOR
10. BLOOD GROUP A
IF YOU BELONG TO THE
BLOOD GROUP A, YOU
HAVE A ANTIGENS ON
THE SURFACE OF OUR
RBCS AND B
ANTIBODIES IN YOUR
BLOOD PLASMA
Blood Group B
If you belong to
the blood group B
antigens on the
surface of our
RBCs and A
antibodies in your
blood plasma
BLOOD GROUP
AB
IF YOU BELONG TO THE
BLOOD GROUP AB, YOU
HAVE BOTH A AND B
ANTIGENS AN THE
SURFACE OF OUR RBCS
AND NO A OR B
ANTIBODIES AT ALL IN
OUR PLASMA
BLOOD GROUB
O
IF ONE BELONG TO THE
BLOOD GROUP O, ONE
HAVE NEITHER A OR B
ANTIGEN ON THE
SURFACE OF OUR RBC BUT
11.
12. INDIVIDUAL
PRODUCE
ANTIBODIES TO
ANTIGENS THEY DO
NOT HAVE
• THE A AND B ANTIGENS ARE
ALSO PRODUCED BY SOME
OTHER PLANTS AND
MICROORGANISMS.THUS,
INDIVIDUAL WHO DO NOT
RECOGNISE ONE OR MORE
ANTIGENS AS SELF WILL
PRODUCE ANTIBODIES
AGAINST THE PLANT OR
MICROBIAL ANTIGENS
• THESE ANTIBODIES WILL ALSO
REACT WITH HUMAN
ANTIGENS OF THE SAME
KIND WETHER INTRODUCED
VIA TRANSFUSION OR A
13. GENETICS &
INHERITANCE OF
ABO SYSTEM
• THE ABO GENE LOCUS IS
LOCATED ON THE
CHROMOSOME 9
• A AND B BLOOD GROUPED
ARE DOMINANT OVER THE
O BLOOD GROUP
• A AND B GROUP GENES
ARE CO-DOMINAT
• EACH PERSON HAS TWO
COPIES OF GENES CODING
FOR THEIR ABO BLOOD
GROUP (ONE MATERNAL
AND PATERNAL IN ORIGIN )
14. AUTOSOMAL
CHROMOSOME
The alleles
for Blood
group are in
the same
place on the
chromosom
e 9.
However the
genes have
a different
code giving
the different
blood group
ONE ALLELE FROM MOTHER AND
ONE FROM FATHER
Mothe
r
Father
A B
16. CLINICAL
APPLICATION OF
BLOOD GROUPING
• IN BLOOD TRANSFUSION
• IN PREVENTING FROM
HEMOLYTIC DISEASE
• IN PATERNITY DISPUTES
• IN MEDICOLEGAL CLASSES
• IN KNOWING SUCEPTION OF
DISEASE
GROUP O - DUDENAL CANCER
GROUP A - CARINOMA OF
STOMAC
18. BLOOD TYPING
• BLOOD TYPING IS A METHOD
TO TELL WHAT TYPE OF BLOOD
YOU HAVE. BLOOD TYPING IS
DONE SO YOU CAN SAFELY
DONATE YOUR BLOOD OR
RECEIVE A BLOOD
TRANSFUSION. IT IS ALSO
DONE TO SEE IF YOU HAVE A
SUBSTANCE CALLED RH
FACTOR ON THE SURFACE OF
YOUR RED BLOOD CELLS.
• YOUR BLOOD TYPE IS BASED
ON WHETHER OR NOT CERTAIN
PROTEINS ARE ON YOUR RED
BLOOD CELLS. THESE PROTEINS
ARE CALLED ANTIGENS.
19. HOW THE TEST IS
PERFORMED?
A BLOOD SAMPLE IS NEEDED. THE TEST
TO DETERMINE YOUR BLOOD GROUP IS CALLED
ABO TYPING. YOUR BLOOD SAMPLE IS MIXED
WITH ANTIBODIES AGAINST TYPE A AND B
BLOOD. THEN, THE SAMPLE IS CHECKED TO SEE
WHETHER OR NOT THE BLOOD CELLS STICK
TOGETHER. IF BLOOD CELLS STICK TOGETHER,
IT MEANS THE BLOOD REACTED WITH ONE OF
THE ANTIBODIES.
THE SECOND STEP IS CALLED BACK TYPING. THE
LIQUID PART OF YOUR BLOOD WITHOUT CELLS
(SERUM) IS MIXED WITH BLOOD THAT IS KNOWN
TO BE TYPE A AND TYPE B. PEOPLE WITH TYPE A
BLOOD HAVE ANTI-B ANTIBODIES. PEOPLE WITH
TYPE B BLOOD HAVE ANTI-A ANTIBODIES. TYPE
O BLOOD CONTAINS BOTH TYPES OF
ANTIBODIES.
THE 2 STEPS ABOVE CAN ACCURATELY
DETERMINE YOUR BLOOD TYPE.
RH TYPING USES A METHOD SIMILAR TO ABO
TYPING. WHEN BLOOD TYPING IS DONE TO SEE
IF YOU HAVE RH FACTOR ON THE SURFACE OF
YOUR RED BLOOD CELLS, THE RESULTS WILL BE
ONE OF THESE:
RH+ (POSITIVE), IF YOU HAVE THIS CELL
SURFACE PROTEIN
21. THE RISK OF BLOOD
TYPING
• YOU WILL NEED TO HAVE YOUR
BLOOD DRAWN IN ORDER TO
HAVE IT TYPED. HAVING YOUR
BLOOD DRAWN CARRIES VERY
MINIMAL RISKS, INCLUDING:
• BLEEDING UNDER THE SKIN
(HEMATOMA)
• FAINTING OR FEELING
LIGHTHEADED
• INFECTION AT THE PUNCTURE
SITE
• EXCESSIVE BLEEDING
25. PRECAUTIONS
• RH+ BLOOD SHOULD NEVER
BE GIVEN TO RH- PERSON
• DONOR'S BLOOD SHOULD
ALWAYS BE SCREENED
• BLOOD BOTTLE SHOULD BE
CHECKED
• SHOULD BE GIVEN AT SLOW
RATE
• PROPER ASEPTIC MEASURES
SHOULD BE FOLLOWED
• CAREFUL WATCH ON
RECIPIENT'S CONDITION
