Research Methodology in Political Science

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
M A [Political Science]
902 C
Third Semester
[ENGLISH EDITION]
Directorate of Distance Education
TRIPURA UNIVERSITY

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SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Research Methodology
Unit I
Basics of Research: MeaningandAims, Steps in Research
Process, Research Design, Methods andTypes of Research
Survey and Research: Kinds of Survey, Stages in Survey
Method
Hypothesis:Meaning, Criteria for Hypothesis Construction,
Nature of Hypothesis, Difference between Proposition,
A Hypothesis and a Theory
Unit - II
Sampling: ProbabilityandNon-ProbabilitySampling,Their
Applications
Data Collection: Types of Data-Primary and Secondary
Data, Qualitative and Quantitative Data, Talcott Parsons
(on Social System and PatternVariables)
Unit - III
Measures of Central Tendency, Measures of Dispersion,
Correlation
Unit - IV
Regression and Prediction, Testing Hypothesis, Basic
Concepts ofComputer
Syllabi Mapping in Book
Unit-1: Research:An Overview
(Pages 3-46)
Unit-2: Sampling and Data
Collection
(Pages 47-69)
Unit-3: Data Processing,
Representation and Analysis
(Pages 71-122)
Unit-4: Measurement and Scaling
Techniques, Regression and
Forecasting
(Pages 123-173)

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1-2
UNIT 1 RESEARCH: AN OVERVIEW 3-46
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit Objectives
1.2 Basics of Research
1.2.1 Meaning and Aims of Research
1.2.2 Types of Research
1.2.3 Steps in the Research Process
1.2.4 Research Design
1.3 Survey and Research
1.3.1 Types of Survey
1.3.2 Stages in Survey Method
1.3.3 Research Methods
1.4 Hypothesis: Meaning, Need and Nature
1.4.1 Need and Nature of Hypothesis
1.4.2 Criteria for Hypothesis Construction
1.4.3 Difference between Proposition, Hypothesis and Theory
1.5 Summary
1.6 Key Terms
1.7 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
1.8 Questions and Exercises
1.9 Further Reading
UNIT 2 SAMPLINGAND DATA COLLECTION 47-69
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Unit Objectives
2.2 Sampling and Sampling Design
2.2.1 Probability or Random Sampling
2.2.2 Non-Probability or Non-Random Sampling
2.2.3 Purposive (or Judgment) Sampling
2.2.4 Quota Sampling
2.2.5 Snow-ball Sampling
2.3 Sources of Data
2.3.1 Primary and Secondary Data
2.3.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Data
2.3.3 Talcott Parsons (on Social System and Pattern Variables)
2.4 Summary
2.5 Key Terms
2.8 Further Reading
UNIT 3 DATA PROCESSING, REPRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 71-122
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Unit Objectives

3.2 Data Processing
3.2.1 Checking for Analysis
3.2.2 Editing
3.2.3 Coding
3.2.4 Classification
3.2.5 Transcription of Data
3.3 Data Representation
3.3.1 Tabulation
3.3.2 Construction of Frequency Table
3.3.3 Components of a Table
3.3.4 Principles of Table Construction
3.3.5 Frequency Distribution and Class Intervals
3.3.6 Graphs, Charts and Diagrams
3.3.7 Line Graphs
3.4 DataAnalysis: Quantitative and Qualitative
3.4.1 Measures of Central Tendency
3.4.2 Measures of Dispersion
3.4.3 Correlation Analysis
3.4.4 Coefficient of Determination
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Terms
3.9 Further Reading
UNIT 4 MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUES,
REGRESSION AND FORECASTING 123-173
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Unit Objectives
4.2 Measurement in Research
4.2.1 Measurement Scales
4.2.2 Test of Sound Measurement
4.2.3 Scaling
4.2.4 Important Scaling Techniques
4.2.5 Regression and Prediction
4.2.6 Hypothesis Testing
4.3 Basic Concepts of Computers
4.3.1 History of Computer
4.3.2 Computer Generations
4.3.3 Types of Computers
4.3.4 Various Input Devices of a Computer
4.3.5 Computers in Research
4.4 Interpretation and Report Writing
4.4.1 Significance of Report Writing
4.4.2 Steps in Report Writing
4.4.3 Format of a Research Report
4.4.4 Final Presentation of Research Report
4.5 Summary
4.6 Key Terms
4.9 Further Reading

Introduction
NOTES
Self-Instructional Material
INTRODUCTION
Research is the quest for knowledge or a systematic investigation in order to
establish facts.It helps tosolveproblems andincreaseknowledge.Thebasicaim
of researchis to discover, interpret and developmethods andsystems to advance
human knowledge on diverse scientific matters. Thus, research is a process of
enquiry and investigation. It helps to solve problems and increase knowledge.
One of the main purposes of research is to review the existing knowledge and
provide solutions to problems. There are different types of research, such as
exploratory,descriptive,experimentalandanalytical.Exploratoryresearchisdone
whenfewornoprevious studies ofthesubject exist.Descriptiveresearchis used
to classifyand identify the characteristics of a subject. Experimental research
suggestsorexplainswhyorhowsomethinghappens.Analyticalresearchsuggests
or explains whyor how something happens. Thus, one of the primary aims of
research is toexplain new phenomena and generatenew knowledge.
Before conducting anyresearch, a specific approach should be decided
upon, called research methodology. Research methodology refers to the way
research can be conducted. It is also known as the process of collecting data for
various research projects. It helps to understandboth the products as well as the
processofscientificenquiry.Aresearchprocessinvolvesselectionandformulation
ofaresearchproblem,researchdesign,samplestrategyorsampledesign,as well
as the interpretation and preparation ofthe research report.
Research methodology is a very important function in today’s business
environment.Therearemanynewtrendsinresearchmethodologythroughwhich
an organization can function in this dynamic environment. There are two basic
types of research approaches, namely quantitative and qualitative. The main
emphasisofquantitativeresearchisoncollectingnumericaldata.Italsoconcentrates
onmeasuringthescale,rangeandfrequencyofaphenomenon.Qualitativeresearch
is more subjective in nature than quantitative research and involves analysis of
data. Quantitative research involves examiningthe tangibleaspects of research,
such as values,attitudes and perceptions.
Aresearcher,beforebeginningtheresearch,mustfirstformulateaneffective
research design.Researchdesign is asystematic plan for collectingand utilizing
data so that the desired information can be obtained with sufficient accuracy.
Therefore, research design is the means of obtaining reliable, objective and
generalized data.Afew important factors in research methodologyinclude the
validityand reliabilityofresearch dataandthe level ofethics.Ajobis considered
halfdoneifthedataanalysisisconductedimproperly.Formulationofappropriate
researchquestions andsamplingprobable or non-probable factors are followed
bymeasurementusingsurveyandscalingtechniques.Thisisfollowedbyresearch
designthatmaybeexperimental.Aresearchdesignisasystematicplanforcollecting

Self-Instructional Material
Introduction
NOTES
and utilizingdata so that thedesired information can beobtained with sufficient
accuracy.Therefore,researchdesign is themeans ofobtainingreliable, objective
andgeneralizeddata.Researchmethodologyisaveryimportantfunctionintoday’s
businessenvironment.Therearemanynewtrendsinresearchmethodologythrough
whichanorganizationcanfunctioninthisdynamicenvironment.
In research, formulating a research report is very important for an
organization.Engineers,scientistsandmanagerswriteresearchreportsinorderto
communicate theresults of research, fieldwork or other activities. Most often, a
research report is the onlyconcrete evidence of your research and the qualityof
the research maybe judged directlybythe qualityof writing and how well you
conveythe importance of your findings to the management of an organization.
Mostresearchreports containthesamemajorsections,althoughthenames ofthe
sections varywidelyand sometimes it is appropriate to omit certain sections or
add others. If you are submitting a research report to an organization, check for
specificrequirements andguidelinesbeforebeginningtowriteyourreport.
This book, Research Methodology, is dividedinto fourunitsand has been
written in a simple and easy-to-understandmanner. In accordance withthe self-
instructional modeor SIM format, each unit begins with an‘Introduction’ to the
topicandisfollowedbyanoutlineofthe‘Unit Objective’.Thedetailedcontent is
then presented in a simple and structured form, interspersed with ‘CheckYour
Progress’questionstotestthestudent’sunderstanding.A‘Summary’ofthecontent,
alongwithalist of‘KeyTerms’andasetof‘QuestionsandExercises’isprovided
at theendofeach unit for effectiverecapitulation.

Research: An Overview
NOTES
Self-Instructional Material 3
UNIT 1 RESEARCH: AN
OVERVIEW
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit Objectives
1.2 Basics of Research
1.3 Survey and Research
1.4 Hypothesis: Meaning, Need and Nature
1.5 Summary
1.6 Key Terms
1.9 Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Human knowledge,as it exists today,broadlyconsists offactsand theories.New
facts,newconceptsandnewwaysofdoingthingsincreasetheirquantumwiththe
passage oftime.This knowledgeenablesus tounderstand,comprehend,explain,
control,predict,orcopewithagivensituation.Thesourcesfromwhichweobtain
knowledge range from those that are highlyreliable to those that are either less
reliableorcompletelyunreliable.Theknowledgeobtainedfromthelessreliableor
completely unreliable sources is based on assumptions, beliefs, and untested
generalizations. Such generalizations are usuallyaccepted onfaith, tradition, or
authorityandnoeffortismadetoverifytheirvalidity.Incontrast,reliableknowledge
isbased onobjectiveverificationof generalizations.
The acquisitionand expansion of knowledgeis not an automatic andself-
perpetuating process. Onthe contrary, it requires constant and planned effort by
intelligentandhighlytrainedpeopleorresearchers.Thepresentlevelofknowledge
is an outcomeof the various methods,such as research methodadoptedbyman
over a periodof several centuries. Researchmaybe defined as the application of

4 Self-Instructional Material
NOTES
thescientificmethodinthestudyofproblems.Inthisunit,youwillgetacquainted
withthemeaning,nature,types andscopeofresearch; thekinds ofsurveyandthe
stages inthesurveymethod; andthemeaning, criteriaandnatureofhypothesis.
1.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES
Aftergoingthroughthis chapter,youwillbeableto:
• Discuss themeaning, aims,types andmethods ofresearch
• Describe the steps in the research process and the concept of a research
design
• Identifythe types ofsurveyand the stages inthe surveymethod
• Discuss themeaningandnatureofhypothesis,andthecriteriaofhypothesis
construction
• Differentiatebetween proposition,hypothesisand theory
1.2 BASICS OF RESEARCH
Thissectionwilldealwiththemeaning,aimsandstepsinresearch;researchdesign;
and the methods and types of research.
Researchis a systematic approach to a purposeful investigation. In the words of
renowned researcher CliffordWoody, research involves definingand redefining
problems; formulatingsuggestedsolutions or hypotheses;collecting,evaluating
and organizingdata,reachingconclusions and makingdeductions and carefully
testingtheconclusionstofindoutiftheyfittheformulatinghypothesisornot.
Research means a systematic and objective studyto find facts which can
beanswerstoquestionsandsolutionstoproblems.Researchexplainsunexplained
phenomenon to clarify all doubts and correct misconceived facts. Research
unfolds many facts to society and business organizations, which contribute to
their progress.
The facts canbesearchedwiththehelpofthefollowingmethods:
• Arbitrary(orunscientific)method:Thismethodisveryusefulforgetting
answerstoquestionrelatedtoimagination,opinion,blindfaithorimpression.
Thismethodisusefulfortheissuesforwhichdataorfactsarenot available.
It is also very useful when analysing the reasons for which no logic is
established.
• Scientificmethod:Thismethodisasystematic,logicalapproachforgetting
facts. It overcomes the weaknesses ofthe arbitrarymethod. It is objective
andbringsresult onthebasisofverifiableevidences.Underthis methodall

NOTES
availabledataforthepurposeofresearchisevaluatedtocheckits reliability
andefficiency.
Therefore,scientificmethodis morereliablethanthearbitrarymethod.
Research and Scientific Method
Researchisscientificbynatureasitinvolvesmanyscientificmethods.Themeaning
ofscientificmethodis‘gainingknowledgewhichisacceptableuniversally’.Itdoes
not referto anyparticular bodyof knowledge.
The scientific method is, thus based on certain basic postulates. These are as
follows:
• Reliance on empirical evidence: Truthis based onevidence. Confusion
is drawnonlywhen there is no evidence. The solution to a problem is not
decided byimagination.
• Use of relevant concepts:Alot of facts are experienced byus with the
help of our senses. Concepts with specific meanings are used in order to
dealwithfacts.
• Commitment of objectivity: It is committed to only objective
considerations. These considerations are based on facts andare unbiased.
• Ethicalneutrality:Sciencecannotbemanipulatedtofavourtheresearcher’s
interest.AccordingtoSchrödinger,‘scienceneverimposesanything,science
states.’ Science focusses on truth based on the facts and makes logical
statements about its objects.
• Generalization: Science can be generalized as it can be applied to any
phenomenon and the results will be the same irrespective of the given
conditions.
• Verifiability:The conclusiondrawnbya researcherorscientist shouldbe
verifiable. Heshould explain the process of arrivingat theconclusion for
criticalexaminationorscrutiny.
• Logical reasoning: It focuses on formulatingthe most general axioms or
what can betermedas scientifictheories.
Characteristics and Purpose of Research
Thefollowingarethe characteristics ofresearch:
• Itisasystematicandcritical investigationintoaphenomenon.
• Itusesscientificmethods.
• It is objectiveandlogical.
• Itrequiresempirical evidence.
• It focusses onfinding facts toquestions andsolutionto problems.

NOTES
Thefollowingpointswillhelpinunderstandingthepurposeofresearch:
• Researchhelpsinextendingtheknowledgeofhumanbeings,theenvironment
and naturalphenomenon toothers.
• Itbringstheinformationwhichisnotdevelopedfullyduringordinarycourse
oflife.
• Itverifiestheexistingfactsandidentifiesthechangesintheseexistingfacts.
• Ithelpsindevelopingfactsforcriticalevaluation.
• It analyses the interrelationship between variables and derives causal
explanations.
• It develops new tools and techniques for those who study unknown
phenomenon.
• Ithelps inplanninganddevelopment.
Althoughresearchisavastsubjectandisdifficulttocategorize,itcanbeclassified
accordingto its intent or as per the methods of study.
On the basis of intent, research can beclassifiedasfollows:
• Pure research:Itis done onlyforthe sakeof knowledge.The intention is
not to apply it in regular practice. Pure research is also called basic or
fundamentalresearch.Itisnotfocussedon specificproblems,butinsteadit
focusses on the extension ofknowledge.New theoryor refinements of an
existing theoryare developed with the help of pure research. It lays the
foundation forapplied research. It helps in finding the critical factors in a
problem. It helpsin generatingalternativesolutions andchoosing thebest
oneamongstthem.
• Applied research: When real-life problems require some solution and
decision-making, applied research is carried out. This means that applied
research is problem oriented and action directed. It brings immediate and
practicalresults;forexample,marketingresearchcarriedonforidentifying
customerhabits topurchasesomething.Thoughit isproblem orientedand
actiondirecteditcancontributetothedevelopmentoftheoreticalknowledge
byleadingto the discoveryofnew facts.
• Exploratory research: It is also called formulative research. When a
researcher has no knowledge or little knowledge about an unfamiliar
problem, theydo a preliminarystudy.The objective of this research is to
generate new ideas,gather new facts, precise formulationof problem and
increasing familiarity of the researcher to the unfamiliar problem. Katz
conceptualizes two levels of exploratoryresearch.At the first level is the
discoveryofsignificantvariablesin particularsituations;atthesecond,the
discoveryofrelationshipbetweenvariables.

NOTES
• Descriptive research: In this research, facts are analysed in detail for
clearunderstanding.Thisresearchis simpleinnatureandinitsapplication.
It is more specific than exploratoryresearch. It focusses on the problem
under study and also aims at a classification of the range of elements
comprisingthe subject matterof study.Empirical observationsareusedto
conceptualizetheproblemsandfacts.Ithighlightsmethodsofdatacollection
andinterpretation.
• Diagnosticresearch: It isjust likedescriptiveresearchbutwithadifferent
focus. It is aimed towards in depth approaches to reach the basic causal
relations ofaproblem andpossiblesolutions forit.Priorknowledgeof the
problem isrequiredforthistypeofresearch.Problemformulation,defining
the population correctlyfor studypurposes, propermethods forcollecting
accurateinformation,correct measurementofvariables,statisticalanalysis
and testsofsignificanceareessentialindiagnostic research.
Theclassificationofresearchcanbedoneaspermethodsofstudyinthefollowing
manner:
• Fundamental:This typeofresearch is mainlyconcernedwithidentifying
certainimportantprinciplesinaspecificfield.Itintendstofindoutinformation
that has abroadbaseofapplication. Examples offundamentalresearchare
JohnRobinson’simperfectcompetitiontheoryinEconomicsandMaslow’s
hierarchyofneedstheoryof motivation, etc.
• Applied: This type of research aims at findinga solutiontoanimmediate
problem, facedbya societyoran industrial organization. Itis supposed to
discover a solution to some basic practical problems.Applied research
suggests correctivemethodstominimizeasocialorbusiness problem.
• Historical: Historical research studies the social effects of the past that
may have given rise to current situations, i.e., past incidents are used to
analysethepresentas wellas thefutureconditions.Thestudyofthecurrent
stateofIndian labour basedonpast labour unionmovementsin the Indian
economytoformulatetheIndianLabourPolicyisanexampleofthistypeof
research.
• Formulative or exploratory: It helps examine a problem with suitable
hypothesis.Thisresearch,onsocialscience,ismainlysignificantforclarifying
conceptsandinnovationsforfurtherresearches.Theresearchersaremainly
concerned with the principles of developing hypothesis and testing with
statisticaltools.
• Experimental: The experimental type of research enables a person to
calculatethefindings,employthestatisticalandmathematical devicesand
measuretheresultsthusquantified.
• Ex post facto:This typeof research is thesameas experimental research,
which is conducted to deal with the situations that occur in or around an

NOTES
organization. Examples of such a research are market failure of an
organization’s product beingresearched later and researchintothe causes
foralandslideinthecountry.
• Case study: This method undertakes intensive research that requires
thorough studyofaparticular chapter.
Research approaches
Quantitativeapproachandqualitativeapproach are the twomain approaches for
data collection.When datais quantifiedforanalysis, thequantitativeapproachis
the best approach which includes collection of data for quantitative analysis.
Subjectiveassessmentofattitudes,behaviourand opinionrelatedstudyrequiresa
qualitativeapproach.Theresearcher’simpressions areveryimportantforstudyin
this approach. Theresults achieved inqualitativeresearcharein theform ofnon-
quantitativemeasures.Itcanalsobeinaformwhichcannotbeusedforquantitative
analysis.Techniques likedepthinterviews,focusgroupinterviews andprojective
techniques are usedfor data collection.
Researchisasystematic,objectiveandscientificstudydonetocollecttheresearch
data related to current problems. Research enables a company to exploit the
opportunities available in the environment. Ifthe research has not been planned
systematically,itisdifficultforafirmtoachievethedesiredobjectives.Theresearch
process can be described as follows:
1. Defining the Problem and Objectives
Thedefinedobjectives should be SMART.
S – Specific
M – Measurable
A–Attainable
R–Realistic
T–Time bound
Thefirst stepinresearchis definitionofaproblem. Selection ofa problem
is itself adifficult decision. Thesuccessof researchdepends onright selectionof
the problem. If the problem has not been identified in right manner, it is very
difficult fortheresearchertofindthe right solution totheissue.
Thefollowingsourcescanhelpa researcheridentifytheresearch problems:
• Brainstorming:Aresearcher can learn new dimensions of a problem by
discussing ideas, thoughts, facts and data with other people who have
knowledge of the subject.
• Consultations: By consulting others, the researcher identifies new
dimensions ofaproblem.

NOTES
• Daily experience:Dailyexperience develops the evaluativethinkingin a
researcher.
• Academicexperience:Academicexperiencehelpstheresearcherdevelop
critical thinkingtowardsthehappenings.
• Field situations:Researchisdonebecauseeveryfield todayisdeveloping
andhencechangingconstantly.
Objectives of formulating the problem
‘A well-definedproblem is halfsolved.’This statement reveals thefact that how
importantitistoformulateordefineaproblem.Theprimaryobjectiveofaresearch
is to collect relevant data and analyse this data to get answers to the research
problem. This means that the success of research depends upon accuracyof data
andinformationrequiredforinvestigation.Rightformulationsolvesthispurpose.
Properdefinitionoftheproblem,itsanalysis,identifyingquestionsfordatacollection,
formulation of hypothesis to be tested are key steps which are required for
formulation of the problem. Once the exact and accurate data is known to the
researcher, he can plan the othersteps without wastage of resources.Thus, right
formulationoftheproblemgivestherightdirectiontotheentireresearchandlimits
theapproachtowards pertinent facts outof thelargevarietyoffacts.It helpsus in
determiningstatisticalmethods to beusedfor research.
Criteria for formulation of the problem
Criteria forformulating one problem out of identified problems can be grouped
into:
(i) Internal criteria
Internalcriteriaconsistofthefollowing:
• Interest of the researcher: The problem should be from the subject of
interest oftheresearcherandcanbe challengingtohim.Without interestin
theproblem,itbecomesverydifficultfortheresearchertosustaincontinuity
in the research. A researcher’s interest depends on his experience,
educationalbackground,sensitivity, etc.
• Own resources of the researcher: Research requires a lot of money. If
the researcher does not have enough money and he is unable to manage
external finance, the researcher should not go in for research. Moreover,
timeresourceismore important than money.Researchrequires moretime
andhence, itshouldbeutilizedproperly.
• Competenceof theresearcher:Amere interestinresearchisnot enough.
The researcher must becompetent enoughtoplan and carryouta studyof
the problem. He should have sufficient knowledge of the subject matter,
relevant methodologyandstatistical procedures.

NOTES
(ii) External criteria
Externalcriteriaconsistofthefollowing:
• Potential forresearch:Verynarroworextremelyvagueproblems should
be avoided. In order to be researched, a problem must be one for which
observation orother data collection inreal world can providethe answer.
• Importanceand urgency:Issues thatrequire investigationare unlimited
butavailableresearcheffortsareverylimited.Therefore,relativeimportance
and significance of the problem is required. Important and urgent issues
should begivenpriorityoveranunimportantone.
• Novelty of the problem:Aproblem on which a lot of research work has
beendoneshouldnot beconsideredforresearchas therearefewerchances
ofthrowinglightonanynewfactor.
• Feasibility: Noveltyofthe problem is not sufficient if it is not feasible to
conduct the study on problem in real world, i.e., it should contain facts
which can be analysed. Even if the problem is novel we should make a
smallfeasibilitystudyfirstandproceedonlyafterthisifstudyallows.
• Facilities:Awell-equippedlibrary, properguidance in data analysis, etc.,
are basic facilities which are required to carryon anyresearch.
• Research personnel: Availability of adequate research personnel like
investigators and research officers is veryimportant for data collection,
whichis amajorissue in manydevelopingcountries likeIndia.
Techniques involved in formulating the problem
Defininga researchproblem properlyand clearlyis a crucial part of the research
study and must, in no case, be done hurriedly. The technique for this purpose
involvesundertakingthefollowingsteps,generallyoneaftertheother:
• Statement of the problem in a general way: The problem should be
carefully worded. The problem statement should indicate nature of the
problem andintention ofresearcher.
• Understanding the natureof the problem: The best wayto understand
thenatureoftheproblemistodiscusswiththosewhohavepriorexperience
inthesamekindofresearch.Thiswillensurethattheoriginationofproblem
andtheobjectivesinviewarecorrect.Ifthemarketerhasstatedtheproblem
himself,heshouldconsiderall thefactsthatinducedhimtomake ageneral
statementconcerningtheproblem.
• Developing ideas through discussions: Manynew ideas are developed
bydiscussingthemwithothers.Thisdiscussionprovidesusefulinformation
for research. Discussion is done with those people who have enough
experienceintheconcernedfield.
• Rephrasing the research problem: After goingthrough the given four
steps, the researcher gets a clear idea about the environment in which the

NOTES
problem is to be studied. Now rephrasing the problem into analytical or
operationaltermsisnot adifficulttask.Throughrephrasing,theresearcher
puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may
become operationallyviableand mayhelpin thedevelopment of working
hypothesis.
2. Developing Data Source
Finding the answers to questions for a research studyis called data collection.
Data is the collection of facts and other relevant materials, from which we can
draw conclusions.Data source is developedfor ensuringthe availabilityof data
fordecision-making.
3. Data Collection
Thefollowingarethevarious methodsofdatacollection:
(a) Interviewing
Interviewsaregenerallyclassifiedintothefollowingtwocategories:
(i) Structured or directive interview
In this type of interview, the investigator goes to the respondent with a detailed
schedule.Somequestionsareaskedfromalltherespondentsinthesamesequence.
The styleofaskingeveryquestionis thesameinall the interviews asit generates
morereliability.It is usedforlargesamplesize.
Merits
Thefollowingaretheadvantages ofstructuredordirectiveinterviews:
• Data canbe easilycompared.
• Recording and coding of data is done easily.
• Thereis nowastage oftime.
Demerits
Thefollowingarethelimitationsofstructuredordirectiveinterviews:
• Thereisnonatural conversation.
• Researcher’s bias maybe reflected in the answers.
• There is no scope for exploringthe data.
(ii) Unstructured or non-directive interview
Therespondentisencouragedtogivehishonestopiniononthegiventopicwithout
orwithminimum helpfrom others.Inthis interview,thepre-planned schedule is
notused.Theinvestigatorusesonlymajorguidelinesfortheinterview.Noparticular
sequenceofquestions is followedintheinterview.Whenthepathofinvestigation
inexploratoryresearchisnotclearlydefined,unstructuredinterviewisveryuseful
to get thedirection of research study.

NOTES
Merits
Thefollowingaretheadvantagesofunstructuredornon-directiveinterviews:
• Thereisnatural conversation.
• Researcher’s biasness is not reflected inthe answers.
• There is a lot of scope forexploring the data.
Demerits
Thefollowingarethelimitationsofunstructuredornon-directiveinterviews:
• It is not easy to compare the data.
• The suitabilityof the data for research studyneeds to be checked.
• Thereis excessiveunproductiveconversation.
• Thereexcessiveoftimeconsumption.
(b) Observation
Observationmaybedefinedas specificviewingwiththepurposeofgatheringthe
data for a specific research study.Observation is a classical method of scientific
study. Ithas highimportanceinanyresearchstudyasit is aneffectivemethodfor
data collection. Following are the characteristics of the observation method of
datacollection:
• Physicalandmentalactivity:Eyesobservemanythingsinoursurroundings
but our focus or attention is onlyon data which is relevant to the research
study.
• Observation is selective: It is verydifficult for a researcher to observe
everythinginthesurroundings.Heonlyobservesthedatawhichisusefulfor
his researchstudyand meets thescopeofthestudy.Theresearcherignores
all the datawhich is not relevant tothe study.
• Observation is purposive and not casual: Observation is purposive as
it is relevant to a particular study.The purpose of observationis to collect
datafortheresearchstudy.Itfocuses onhumanbehaviour,whichoccursin
asocialsetup.Itanalysestherelationshipofdifferent variablesinaspecific
context.
• Accuracyand standardization: Observationofpertinent datashould be
accurateandstandardizedfor its applications.
Differentconceptsdefinetheclassificationofobservations.
Withrespect totheinvestigator’s role,observation maybeclassified as:
• Participantobservation
• Non-participant observation

NOTES
With respect toobservation, it canbeclassifiedinto:
• Direct observation
• Indirect observation
Withreferencetotherigourofsystem adopted,observationcanbeclassifiedinto:
• Controlledobservation
• Uncontrolledobservation
Prerequisites of observation
Thefollowingaresomeoftheprerequisites ofobservation:
• Conditionsofobservationmustprovideaccurateresults.Theobservershould
be in a position to observe the object clearly.
• The right number of respondents as sample size is essential to ensure that
observation produces the desired results.
• There should beaccurate and completed recordingof an event.
• Ifit ispossible,twoseparateobserversandsets of instrumentscanbeused
in all or some observations. Then result can be compared to measure
accuracyand completeness.
Advantages of observation
Thefollowingarethe advantagesof observation:
• It ensures that behaviour is studied in accordance with the occurrence of
events. The observerdoes not ask anything from the representatives. He
just watches what the sample does and says.
• The data collected by observation defines the observed phenomenon as
theyoccurintheirnaturalsettings.
• When object itself is not able to define the meaning of its behaviour,
observationisbestmethodforanalysis;forinstance,animals,birds,children,
etc.
• Observation coversthe entire happenings ofanevent.
• Observationis lessbiasedthanquestioning.
• Itiseasytoconductdisguisedobservationstudiesthandisguisedquestioning.
• Useofmechanicaldevices cangeneratemoreaccuracyandcompleteness.
Demerits of observation
Thefollowingarethelimitationsofobservation:
• Past studies and events are of no use to observation as the researcher has
to personallygothrough narrations, people andthe relateddocuments.
• Difficult tounderstandattitudeswith thehelpofobservation.

NOTES
• Observations cannot be performed by the choice of observer. He has to
wait for an event to occur.
• It is difficult to predict whenandwhere the event will occur.Thus, it may
not be possible for the observer to reach everyevent.
• Observation requires moretime and more money.
(c) Sampling procedure
Different types of sampling are also used to collect data. The term ‘universe’
refers to the complete population that is to bestudied or measured. Apart of the
population is calledsample. Selectinga part of the universe with aview to draw
conclusionsaboutthe‘universe’or‘population’forastudyisknownassampling.
Researchersusesamplingforsavingtimeandcost,astheselectedsamplerepresents
thewholepopulation.Thefollowingarethedifferent typesofsamplingused:
• Probabilityorrandom sampling
• Simplerandomsampling
• Stratifiedrandomsampling
• Systematicrandomsampling
• Non-probabilityornon-random sampling
• Purposiveor(judgment)sampling
4. Data Analysis
Processing of data refers to the preparation of data for researchanalysis. On the
basisoftheresultsofthisdataprocessing,furtherselectionofthetoolsforanalysis
would be done. Data processing is an intermediarystage of work between data
collectionanddatainterpretation.Thedatagatheredintheformofquestionnaires,
interview, schedules, field notes and data sheets, is mostly in the form of large
volume ofresearchvariables.
Thefollowingaresomeofthemethodsfordataanalysis:
Spearman’s Rank Correlation Method
CharlesEdwardSpearman,aBritishpsychologist,devisedamethodformeasuring
the correlationbetween two variables based on ranks given to the observations.
This method is adopted when the variables are not capable of quantitative
measurements likeintelligence,beauty,etc.,andin suchcases,theyarevariables.
It is insuchcases that rankcorrelationis useful.
Concurrent Deviation Method
In this method, correlation is calculated between the direction ofdeviations and
nottheirmagnitudes.Assuch,onlythedirectionofdeviationsistakenintoaccount
inthecalculationofthiscoefficientandtheirmagnitudeisignored.

NOTES
5. Presenting the Findings
Format of the research report
Every reader who is reading a research report should be made aware of the
research studysothat theycan obtainthescientific knowledge andcanjudgethe
adequacyofits methods and thus candevelopanopinionof howthefindings are
to be taken. For this purpose we need a proper format of the report. Format of a
report refers to the contents of a research report.Aformat of the research report
shouldcompriseofthefollowing:
• Preliminarypages:Thepreliminarypagesofareportcontainthefollowing:
o Thetitle
o Date
o Acknowledgement inthe form of ‘preface’or‘foreword’
o Table ofcontents
o List of tables and illustrations to help the readers find the information
theyrequirein the report
• Main text:Abroadoutline ofthe maincontent ofthereport is given inthe
maintext.Themaintextoftheresearchreportcontainsthefollowingsections:
o Introduction
o Statementoffindingsandrecommendation
o Theresults
o Implicationdrawnfromtheresults
o Summary
Final presentation of research report
Certain specific considerations must be kept in mind while making a written
presentation. Theseareas follows:
• Sizeand physical design:Theresearchreportmust bewrittenonunruled
paper of 8.5"× 11"size. Blackor blueink should be used ifthereport is to
bewrittenbyhand.At leasta1½"marginontheleftand1"ontherightside
of thepapershould be given.Thepageshouldalso have1"margins on the
top and the bottom. In case the research report needs to be typed, then all
typingshouldbedoublespacedononesideofthe pageonly,exceptforthe
insertionofthelongquotations.
• Procedure: The following are the steps in the preparation of a research
report:
o Format/layout:Accordingtothe nature andobjectiveoftheresearch,
the layout of the report should be decided and followed in a proper
manner.
o Quotations: Quotations should be punctuated with quotation marks
and doublespaces. However, if aquotation is too lengthy,it should be

NOTES
single-spacedandindentedatleasthalfaninchtotherightofthenormal
textmargin.
o Footnotes: Footnotes are meant for cross-references.Theyare placed
at the bottom of the page, separated from the textual material by a
spaceof1/2"andalinethatis around11/2"long.Footnotes arealways
typed in single space, though they are divided from one another by
double space.
o Documentation style: While writing the first footnote reference for
any given work, we should make sure that it is complete in its
documentation, and contains all the necessaryfacts about the edition
used.Itisnotcompulsorytogivethedetailsofthereferencesthatfollow.
Iftheworkis citedagainwithoutanyotherworkintervening,it maybe
indicated as ibid, followedbya comma and the page number.
o Punctuationandabbreviationsinfootnotes:Aresearchermustensure
that correct punctuation is used while writing the footnotes, to make
surethat the text is understoodclearly.To remove orreducerepetition,
certain English andLatin abbreviations are usedin bibliographies and
footnotes.
o Use of statistics, charts and graphs: The use of statistics is very
common in research study, as it provides the scientific learning and
understanding to both the researcher and the reader. Use of statistics
simplifiesthecomplexissuesinresearchandgiveslogictorelationships
of variables. Generally, statistics are represented as pictograms, line
graphs, bars, charts and different types of tables.
• Final draft:Whilewritingthefinal draftoftheresearchreport,weshould
make surethat the language is simple and easytounderstand.Also, usage
of jargons should be avoided.
• Bibliography:Abibliographyisalist ofwritingswiththetimeandplaceof
publication. It is a list of the resources used bythe author which a reader
can refer tofor further reading.
• Index: An index acts as a good guide to the reader. It can be prepared
both as a subject index and author index giving names of subjects and
namesofauthors,respectively.Thenamesarefollowedbythepagenumbers
of the report, where they have appeared or been discussed.
It is not possible for anyresearcher to remember all the decisions he has taken.
Even if he does remember these,he would have difficultyin understandinghow
these areinterrelated.Therefore, he records his all decision on a paper or record
disc byusingrelevant concepts or symbols. Such symbolic construction can be
calledtheresearchdesign.Aresearchdesignisasystematic,objectiveandscientific
plandevelopedfordirectingaresearchstudy. It constitutes theoverview fordata

NOTES
collection,measurementandanalysisofdata.Researchdesignis theroadmapfor
thefunctioningofaresearcher.
Need for research design
There is a need for researchdesign as it ensures a smooth flow ofmanyresearch
operations,therebymakingresearchasefficientaspossible,producingmaximum
informationwithminimumeffort,timeandcost.Theidealdesignisconcernedwith
specifying the optimum research procedure that could be followed where there
arenopracticalrestrictions.Tomanagewiththefuturechanges,aresearchermust
haveaflexibleresearchdesign.Thisflexibilityensuresthedesiredachievementsin
aresearch.Aresearchdesigntellstheresearcheraboutthemethodologiesadopted
for research work.
Features of a good research design
Thefollowingarethe features of agood researchdesign:
• Ensuringresearchprogressintherightdirection
• Minimizingtimeandcostofresearch
• Encouragingcoordinationandeffectiveorganization
• Minimizing bias and maximizing the reliabilityof the data collected and
analysed
Types of Research Designs
Researchdesigns canbe categorized as:
• Researchdesignin case of exploratoryresearch studies
• Research design incaseofdescriptive anddiagnostic research studies
• Researchdesignincase ofhypothesis-testingresearch studies
1. Research Design in Case of Exploratory Research Design
Formulative research is another term used for exploratoryresearch. The main
objective ofsuch studies is problem formation with more precision for research
and developing research hypothesis to get the results for operations. The key
concern in suchtype of studies isto generate ideas andfindingtheinsights.Thus
relevant research designs for this type of studies must be flexible to provide an
opportunityforvarious dimensions oftheissues underthestudy. Insuchstudies:
• Thesamplesizeissmall.
• Non-probabilitysamplingdesigns areused.
• Datarequirementsare vague.
• Theobjectiveisgeneral ratherthan specific.
• No definiterecommendationsare made as a resultofthe analysis.

NOTES
Thefollowingarethe methods of researchdesignforsuchstudies:
• Survey concerningliterature:Thisis oneofthemostuncomplicatedand
easymethods to formulate the problem with more precision for research
and developing research hypothesis to get the results for operations.
Hypothesis formulated by previous researchers can be assessed and an
evaluation of their importance is done for further research. Manya times
theworkofintellectualresearchersprovidestheframeworkforformulating
hypothesis foroperations.
• Experiencesurvey:Itreferstoasurveyoftherespondentswhoarefamiliar
withtheresearchproblem(tobestudied).Thismeansthattheyhavealready
experiencedsimilarproblems inpast.Themain objectiveofsuchasurvey
is to know the relationship between the variable and new ideas related to
researchproblems.Inthissurvey,itisimportantto selectcompetentpeople
to share their new ideas about the same problem with the researcher.
• Researcher’s interpretation: Thesearefruitful methodsforselectingthe
hypothesis for research. This method is suitable in areas where small
experienceservesas aguidetoresearchstudy.The detailedstudyofchoice
phenomenon in which the researcher wants to research is required.
Investigator’sattitude,theconcentrationofthestudyandtheavailabilityof
the investigator to draw together diverse information into a united
interpretationarethemainfeatures ofthis method.
2. Research Design in Case of Descriptive and Diagnostic Research
Studies
Studies describing the individuality of a particular person or group are called
descriptive research, whereas research studies defining the occurrence of any
happening or association of one happening with others are called diagnostic
research.Insuchstudies:
• Thestudydescribes thephenomenon understudy.
• Thecollecteddatamayrelatetothedemographicorthebehaviourvariables
of therespondents under study.
• The researchhas got a veryspecific objective, clear cut datarequirements
and uses a large sample which is drawn through a probability sampling
designs.
• Therecommendation/findingsindescriptiveresearcharedefinite.
3. Research Design in Case of Hypothesis Testing Research Studies
Hypothesis testingresearchstudies (alsoknown as experimental studies)arethe
research studies where the hypothesis is tested to define the causal relationship
betweenvariablesin an operation.

NOTES
Principles of Experimental Design
The three principles enumerated byProf. Fisher for experimental design are as
follows:
(i) Principle of replication
According tothe principle of replication, the same experiment is repeated more
than once. Everytime thesameexperiment is repeatedindifferent experimental
units instead of one. Bydoing so, the numerical precision of the experiments is
improved.Forinstance,letus considerthatwehavetoexaminethetworanges of
pulse. Forthisrationalewedividetheentirefieldintotwoparts andcultivateone
range in one part and theother range in the other part. Bycomparingthe yield of
two parts, wecan get results for comparative analysis.To applythe principle of
replicationtothistrial, firstlywedividetheentirefieldintoseveralparts;cultivate
one range inhalf of these parts and other range in remainingparts. Bycollecting
thestatisticsyieldoftworanges,wecandrawconclusionbycomparingthesame.
Therefore,resultsaremorereliablewhenweareapplyingtheprincipleofreplication
incomparisontotheresultsattainedwithout applyingtheprinciple.Themorewe
repeat the experiment, the better the results that we get.
(ii) Principle of randomization
Theprincipleofrandomizationprovidesprotectionagainsttheeffectsofextraneous
factors by randomization when we conduct an experiment. The principle of
randomization indicates the need for a design or plans the experiment in such a
waythatvariationscausedbyextraneousfactorscanbeunitedundertheuniversal
course of chance.
(iii) Principle of local control
Under this principle, the extraneous factors,the identified basis ofvariability, is
made to varyintentionallyover as widea range as necessaryandthis needs to be
done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence
eliminatedfromtheexperimentalerror.Thismeansthatweshouldplanthetrialin
a manner that we can perform a two-wayanalysis of variance in which the total
variabilityof data is divided into three components attributed to treatments, the
extraneous factors andexperimental error.
Formal Experimental Designs
Thefollowingarethevariouskindsofformalexperimentaldesigns:
• Completely Randomized Design (CR design): It involves only two
principles,viz.,theprincipleofreplicationandrandomization.TheCRdesign
is used whenthe experimental areas arehomogenous forstudy.
• Randomized Block Design (RB design): It is an improvisation of the
CRdesign.Alongwiththeothertwoprinciples,localcontrolcanbeapplied
intheRBdesign.

NOTES
• Latin Square Design (LS design): For agriculture-related researches,
theLSdesignis used.TheLatinsquaredesignisusedwheretheresearcher
desires to control the variation in an experiment that is relatedto rows and
columnsinthefield.
• Factorial Design:Factorial designis used forstudies wheremore factors
show morethan one effect.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. List the two methods used to search facts.
2. What is the first step in the research process?
3. List three methods of data collection.
4. List the three types of research designs.
5. ListthethreeprinciplesofexperimentaldesignsenumeratedbyProf.Fisher.
6. List anytwo formal experimental designs.
1.3 SURVEY AND RESEARCH
Surveyis an important tool in research. No research can be performed without
them.Surveycanbedefinedinvariousways.Someofthecommondefinitions of
surveyareas follows:
• Toviewwithascrutinizingeye;toexamine.
• Toinspect,ortakeaviewof;toviewwithattention,asfromahighplace;to
overlook; as,to standon ahill, and surveythesurroundingcountry.
• To determine theform, extent, position, etc., of, as a tract of land, a coast,
harbour,orthelike,bymeansoflinearandangularmeasurements,andthe
application of the principles of geometryand trigonometry; as, to survey
land or a coast.
• Aparticularview;anexamination,especiallyanofficialexamination,ofall
the parts orparticulars of a thing, with a design toascertain the condition,
quantity, or quality; as, a surveyof the stores of a ship; a surveyof roads
andbridges; asurveyofbuildings.
• To examine withreference to condition, situation, value, etc.; to examine
and ascertain thestate of; as, tosurveya buildingin order to determine its
value and exposure to loss byfire.
Thereare basicallytwo types of surveys:
(i) Descriptive:These surveys generallycollect informationon what people
thinkand do.

NOTES
(ii) Analytic: These surveys are generallyused to either test hypotheses or to
answer particularresearchquestions.
While the most common method of collecting survey data is the
‘questionnaire’,themeansbywhich yougathertheinformationthatgoes intothe
surveyresponsesmayvary.Ifthesurveymakesuseofaquestionnaire,themeasuring
instrumentsmusthavedemonstrablereliabilityandvalidity,especiallywithregard
tosampling,questioningandmodeofquestioning.
Someexamplesofcollectingsurveydataincludeself-administeredposted
questionnaires, web-basedforms, telephone question and answer interviews or
face-to-faceinterviews.Thereareadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeachapproach,
primarily to do with sample size and open versus closed questions. In order to
makeajudgement,thekeyareasforconsiderationincludethecost,co-ordination,
size of the sample, rate of return, nature and qualityof the data obtained and the
ability to clarify questions or responses. The success of using surveys depends
strongly on the design of appropriate body of questions and the skill of the
interviewer.
OtherimportantmethodsofcollectingsurveydataareInterview,Observation
and Case Study.All these methods have beendiscussed indetail later.
Surveysgothroughthefollowingsevenstages:
(i) Planning and designing the survey
In this stage,youmust definethegoals andobjectives ofyoursurvey.Youshould
writedowntheoutlineofyourresearchandalsoestablishabudgetfortheproject.
You are also required to plan your schedule, define the population and estimate
the required sample size. The method of data collection and the method for
determinationoftheresults shouldalsobedecided atthis stage.Finally,youmust
write down thequestions anddesign andpretest the questionnaire.
(ii) Collecting data
In this stage, first you have to decide on the survey method that will suit your
researchneeds.Thereis nobest methodofcollectionofdataandyoumustgather
the required data keeping your resources in mind. You must also decide what
steps to take in case sufficient data is not collectedfrom the respondents.
(iii) Accessing data
Theonlypurposeofthisstageistotransferthedataintotheanalyticalsoftwarefor
processingitfurther.
(iv) Preparing and managing data
Themainaimofthisstageistoget thedatareadyforanalysis.In thisstep,youare
requiredtoformulatea‘codebook’. This codebookmustinclude variablenames,

NOTES
variable formats and descriptive variable labels.You shouldalso setup multiple
item indicesandscales,i.e.,multiplevariables that haveexactlythesameanswer
set. Inthis step,you shouldtransform yourdata,whichwill help togetthedata in
theform andstructure requiredforanalysis.Also, themissingdatavalues should
be replaced withestimates so that better summarystatistics are obtained.
(v) Analysing data
Inthisstage,youtake outall theuseful informationthat yourequirefromthedata
that you havecollected.This helps youmakeinformed decisions.
(vi) Reporting
Afteranalysingthedata,theresultsneedtobereported.Themainaimofreporting
is to produce results from the data analysis which can be easily understood by
others,whocanusethisinformation.
(vii) Deployment
Youmusttailoryourresultsaccordingtotheneeds ofthetargetaudience.Thiswill
ensuretheeffectivenessoftheresults.
This sectiondiscussesthevarious researchmethods suchas interview,schedule,
questionnaire, and casestudy.
1. Interview
Interviewing is a veryeffective method of data collection. It is a systematic and
objective conversation between an investigator and respondent for collecting
relevantdataforaspecificresearchstudy.Alongwithconversation,learningabout
thegestures,facialexpressions andenvironmental conditions ofa respondentare
alsoveryimportant.Generally,interviewcollectsawiderangeofdatafromfactual
demographicdatatohighlypersonalandintimateinformationrelatingtoaperson’s
opinions,attitudes, valuesandbeliefs,past experienceandfutureintentions.The
interview methodis veryimportant inthecollectionof datafrom the respondent
who is less educated or illiterate. Personal interview is more feasible when the
areacoveredforsurveyiscompact.Probingisaveryimportantpartofaninterview.
Types of Interview
Thefollowingarethevarioustypesofinterviews:
(i) Structured or directive interview
In this type of interview, the investigator goes to the respondent with a detailed
schedule. Some questions in same sequence are askedfrom all respondents.
(ii) Unstructured or non-directive interview
In this typeof interview, the respondentis encouraged to givehis honest opinion
onagiventopicwithoutorwithminimumhelpfromothers.

NOTES
(iii) Focused interview
This is a semi-structuredinterview where the respondent shares the effect of the
experiencetothegivenconditionswiththeresearcherorinvestigator.Itisconducted
withthoserespondentsonlywhohavepriorexperienceofconditionsgivenbythe
investigator.Analysis ofthe attitude, emotional feelings forthe situations under
studyis mainpurpose behindconductingthese interviews.Aset offix questions
may not be required in this interview but a relevant topic is required which is
known to the respondent.
(iv) Clinical interview
Whileafocussedinterviewisconcernedwitheffectsofspecificexperience,clinical
interviews are concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or the
course ofthe individual’s life experiences with referencetotheresearch study. It
encourages theintervieweetoshare his experiencefreely.
(v) Depth interview
To analyse or studythe respondent’s emotions, opinions, etc., depth interviews
areconducted. Thiskindofinterviewaimstocollectintensivedataaboutindividuals,
especially their opinions. It is a lengthy process to get unbiased data from the
respondent.Interviewersshouldavoidadvisingorshowingthisagreement.Instead,
theinvestigator has to motivate the respondent toanswer the questions.
Features of Interviews
Thefollowingaresomeofthefeaturesofinterviews:
• The interviewer and the respondent are the participants in anyinterview.
Theybothareunknowntoeachotherandsoitisimportantforaninterviewer
tointroducehimselffirst totherespondent.
• An interview has a beginning and a termination point in the relationship
betweentheparticipants.
• Interview is not a mere casual conversational exchange. It has a specific
purpose ofcollectingdata whichis relevant tothe study.
• Interview is a mode of obtaining a verbal response to questions to put
verbally. It is not always faceto face.
• Success of interview depends onthe interviewer andrespondent and how
theyperceive each other.
• It is not a standardized process.
Essentials for an Effective Interview
Thefollowingaretherequirementsforasuccessfulinterview:
• Data availability: The respondent should have complete knowledge of
theinformationrequiredforspecificstudy.

NOTES
• Role perception:The interviewerand the respondent shouldbe aware of
their roles in the interview process. The respondent should beclear about
thetopicorquestions whichhavetobeansweredbyhim.Similarly,itisthe
responsibilityof the interviewer to make the respondent comfortable by
introducinghimself first.The investigator should not affect the interview
situationthroughsubjectiveattitudeandargumentation.
• Respondent’s motivation: The respondent can hesitate to answer the
questions. In this case, the approach and skills of the interviewerare very
importantashehastomotivatetherespondenttoanswerorexpresshimself.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Interviews
Thefollowingaretheadvantagesoftheinterviewmethod:
• In-depthanddetailedinformationis collected.
• Theinterviewertries toimprovetheresponsesandqualityofdatareceived.
He can controlthe conditions in favour ofthe research study.
• Interviewshelpingatheringsupplementaryinformationwhichcanbehelpful
to the study.
• Interviewsusespecialscoringdevices,visualsandmaterialstoimprovethe
qualityofdataorinformationcollected.
• Interviewsuseobservationandprobingbytheinterviewertoseetheaccuracy
and dependabilityof given data bythe respondent.
• Interviewsareflexibleinnature.
Thefollowingarethedisadvantages ofinterviews:
• Interviews consumemoretime and cost.
• The respondent’s responses can be affected by the way the interviewer
asks the questions.
• The respondent mayrefuse to answer some personal questions which are
relevant tothestudy.
• Recordingandcodingofdataduringtheinterviewprocessmaysometimes
bedifficultfortheinterviewer.
• Theinterviewermaynothavegoodcommunicationorinteractiveskills.
Interview Process
Thefollowingarethe stages inaninterviewprocess:
(i) Preparation
Theinterviewerneedstomakecertainpreparationstomakeaninterviewsuccessful.
The interviewer should keep all the copies of the schedule or guide ready. They
needtopreparethelists ofrespondents with their addresses,contact numberand
meetingtime.Theyshould prepare themselveswithall theapproaches and skills

NOTES
requiredtoconductaninterview.Theyshouldpreparethemselvestofacealladverse
situations duringtheinterview.Iftheintervieweris not doingsuchplanning,they
can fail tocollect therightinformationfrom respondent.
(ii) Introduction
Theintervieweris not known tothe respondent.Therefore,theinterviewermust
introduce himself first to everyrespondent. In the introduction, the interviewer
shouldtellabouthimself,hisorganizationdetailsandthepurposeofhisvisit.Ifthe
interviewerknowssomeonewho therespondentis familiarwith,thenhecanuse
that person’s referencetomaketherespondent morecomfortable.Thefollowing
aresomesteps which help inmotivatingtherespondent:
• The interviewer should introduce himself with a smilingface and always
greet the respondent.
• He shouldidentifyand call therespondent byname.
• He must describe how the respondent is selected.
• He shouldexplainthe purposeandusefulnessofthestudy.
• He should focus on the value ofthe respondent’s cooperation.
(iii) Developing report
It is importantforan interviewerto develop arapport withthe respondent before
startingtheinterview. Bydoingthis,acordial relationshipisestablishedbetween
them. It helps the interviewer understand the inherent nature of the respondent
which helps in building a rapport and the discussion can be started with some
general topic or with the help of a person who is commonly known to both of
them.
(iv) Carrying the interview forward
Afterestablishingarapport, theskills ofthe interviewer are requiredto carrythe
interviewforward.Thefollowingaresomeguidelineswhichshouldbefollowed:
• Start theinterviewinaninformalandnaturalmanner.
• Ask all the questions inthesame sequence as inthe schedule.
• Do not take an answer for granted. It is not necessarythat an interviewee
willknowallanswers orwillgiveallanswers.Theinterviewerhastocreate
interest foransweringquestions.
• Theobjectiveofthequestionshouldbeknowntotheinterviewertoensure
that the correct information is collectedfor researchstudy.
• Explainthequestionifithasnotbeenunderstoodproperlybytherespondent.
• Listentotherespondentcarefullywithpatience.
• Never argue with the respondent.
• Showyourconcernandinterestintheinformationgivenbytherespondent.

NOTES
• Donotexpressyourownopinionforanswersofanyquestionintheschedule.
• Continuetomotivate therespondent.
• Iftherespondentisunabletoframetherightanswer,theinterviewershould
helphim byprovidingalternatequestions.
• Ensure that the conversation does not go offtrack.
• If the respondent is unable to answer a particular question due to some
reasons, drop the question at that moment. This question can be asked
indirectlylateron.
(v) Recording the interview
Responses should be recorded in the same sequence as they are given by the
respondent. The responseshould be recorded at the same time as it is generated.
It maybe verydifficult to remember all the responses later for recording them.
Recordingcan bedone in writingbut there maybe some problems if the writing
skills of an interviewer are not good. Hence, use of electronic devices like tape
recorders can help in this purpose. The interviewer should also record all his
probes and other comments on the schedule, but theyshould be in brackets to
ensure that theyare set off from response.
(vi) Closing the interview
After the interview is over, the interviewer must thank the respondent for his
cooperation.Hemust collect all the papers before leaving the respondent. If the
respondent wants to know the result of the survey, the interviewer must ensure
that the results are mailed to him whentheyare ready.
(vii) Editing
At the end,the interviewer must edit the schedule to check that all the questions
havebeenaskedandrecorded.Also,abbreviationsinrecordingshouldbereplaced
byfull words.
Problems Faced in an Interview
Thefollowingaresomeofthemainproblemsfacedinaninterview:
(i) Inadequate response
Kahn and Cannel laid down five principal symptoms of inadequate response.
Theyaregivenasfollows:
• Partial response in whichtherespondent gives arelevant but incomplete
answer.
• Non-responseinwhichtherespondentremains silent orrefusestoanswer
thequestions.
• Irrelevant response in which the respondent’s answer is not relevant to
the question asked.

NOTES
• Inaccurate response in which the replyis biased.
• Verbalized response problem which arises because of the respondent’s
failuretounderstandthequestion.
(ii) Interviewer’s biasness, refusal, incapability to understand
questions, etc.
Aninterviewercanaffecttheperformanceofaninterviewwithhisownresponses
andsuggestions.Suchbiasingfactorscanneverbeovercomefully,buttheireffect
canbereducedbytraininganddevelopment techniques.
(iii) Non response
Some respondents out of the total respondents fail to respond to the schedule.
The reasons for this non responsecan be non availability,refusal, incapabilityto
understandquestions,etc.
(iv) Non availability
Some respondents are not available at theirplaces at the time ofcall. This could
be becauseof odd timings or workinghours.
(v) Refusal
Somerespondentsrefusetoanswer thequestions. Therecanbemanyreasons for
this, such as language, odd hours,sickness, no interest insuch studies, etc.
(vi) Inaccessibility
Somerespondentscanbeinaccessiblebecauseofvariousreasonssuchasmigration,
touring job, etc.
Methods and aims of controlling non response
Kish suggests the following methods to reduce either the percentage of non-
response orits effects:
1. Improved procedure for collecting data is the most obvious remedy for
non-response. The improvementsadvocatedareas follows:
• Guaranteeofanonymity
• Motivation of therespondent to cooperate
• Arousing the respondent’s interest by clever opening remarks and
questions
• Advancenotice to the respondent
2. Call backs arethe most effective wayof reducing not-at-home responses
inpersonalinterviews,asarerepeatedmailingsinno-returnsinmailsurvey.
3. Substitutionfornon-responseisoftensuggestedasaremedy.Usuallythisis
a mistake because the substitutes resemble the responses rather than the
non-responses.Nevertheless,beneficialsubstitutionmethodscansometimes
bedesignedwithreferences to important characteristics ofpopulation.

NOTES
Attempts to reduce the percentage or effect of non-response is aimed at
reducing the bias caused byvast differences non respondents and respondents.
Theresponsebiasshouldnotbeconfusedwiththereductionofsamplesizedueto
non-response. Thelatter effect canbeeasilyovercome either byanticipatingthe
sizeofnon-responseindesigningthesamplesizeorbycompensatingforit witha
supplement.Theseadjustmentsincreasethesizeoftheresponseandthesampling
precision, but theydo not reduce the non-response percentage or bias.
1. Telephonic Interview
Telephonicinterviewis anon-personal methodof datacollection. Itmaybe used
as a majormethod or supplementarymethodofdatacollection. It isuseful in the
followingconditions:
• Whenthepopulationiscomposedofthosepeoplewhoarelistedintelephone
directories.
• When less number of questions have to be answered bythe respondents.
• Whenthetimeavailableforthesurveyis less.
• When the subject is of the interest to the respondent.
• When the respondents are widelyscattered.
Advantages
Thefollowingaretheadvantagesoftelephonicinterviews:
• Less time and low cost
• Good qualityof response
• Lessdemandingoninterviewer
• No fieldwork is required
• Easyto contact those respondents who cannot be reached
Disadvantages
Telephonicinterviewshavethefollowinglimitations:
• Restrictedtopersonswhoarelistedintelephoneorotherrelevantdirectories
• Not feasibletoconduct longinterviews
• Limitationofinformationcollected
• No answer to personal questions by respondents
• Respondent’semotions,facialexpressionsandotherenvironmentalfactors
cannot be recorded
• Difficult todeveloprapport
Group Interview
Groupinterviewisthemethodofcollectingprimarydatafromanumberofindividuals
withcommoninterests.Ingroupinterviews,theinterviewerperformstheroleofa

NOTES
discussionleader.Freediscussionis encouragedonthesameaspectsofthesubject
under the study. Information is collected either through a self-administered
questionnaireorthroughaninterview.Samplesforthegroupcanbeselectedfrom
schools,colleges, clubsandother associations.
Advantages
Thefollowingaretheadvantagesofthistechnique:
• Respondent gets freedom to express his views
• Flexiblemethod
• Useofvisual aids
• Less timeconsumingas group can be interviewedin thetime required for
onerespondent’sinterview
• Respondents are moreconfident in groups
• Eliminatesthelimitationofindividualinterviews
Disadvantages
Thefollowingarethemaindisadvantagesofgroupinterviews:
• Difficultyinselectingthedesiredsamplegroup
• Dominanceofoneindividualinagroup
• Respondents can be biased or they can try to please the interviewer or
others
2. Observations
Observation can be defined as viewing or seeing. Observation means specific
viewing with the purpose of gathering the data for a specific research study.
Observation is a classical method of scientific study. It is veryimportant in any
researchstudyas it is an effective methodfor data collection.
Characteristics of Observation Method
Thefollowingarethe characteristics ofobservationmethodofdatacollection:
• Physical and mental activity: Eyes observe so many things in our
surroundings but our focus orattentionisonlyon data which is relevant to
researchstudy.
• Observation is selective: It is verydifficult for a researcher to observe
everythinginhissurroundings.Heonlyobservesthedatawhichispurposive
forhis researchstudyandmeets with thescopeofhisstudy.Theresearcher
ignores all thedatawhichis not relevanttothestudy.
• Observation is purposive and not casual: Observation is purposive as
it is relevant to a particular study.The purpose of observationis to collect
datafortheresearchstudy.Itfocussesonhumanbehaviourwhichoccursin

NOTES
asocial phenomenon. Itanalyses therelationshipofdifferent variablesin a
specificcontext.
• Accuracyand standardization: Observationofpertinent datashould be
accurateandstandardizedfor its applications.
Types of Observation
Differentconceptsdefinetheclassificationofobservations.
With respect to an investigator’s role,observation maybe:
• Participantobservation
• Non-participant observation
Withrespect tothemethodofobservation,it can beclassifiedintothefollowing:
• Direct observation
• Indirect observation
With reference to the control on the system to be observed, observation can be
classifiedintothefollowing:
• Controlledobservation
• Uncontrolledobservation
(i) Participant observation
In participant type of observation, the observer is an active participant of the
group or process. He participates as well as observes as a part of phenomenon;
for example, to study the behaviour of management students towards studying
and understanding marketing management, the observer or researcher has to
participateinthediscussionwithstudentswithouttellingthemabouttheobservation
orpurpose.Whenrespondentsareunawareofobservations,thenonlytheirnatural
interest can be studied.
Advantages
Thefollowingarethemainadvantagesofparticipantobservation:
• In-depth understandingoftherespondent group
• Context which is meaningful to observed behaviour can be recorded or
documented bythe researcher
Disadvantages
Thefollowingarethedemeritsofparticipantobservation:
• Ifaparticipantis atlowerlevelinhierarchyofgroup,his participation may
be less.
• Emotions oftheobservermayresult inloss ofobjectivity.

NOTES
(ii) Non-participant observation
In non-participant observation, the observer does not participate in the group
process. He acknowledges the behaviour of the group without telling the
respondents. It requires a lot of skills to record observations in an unnoticeable
manner.
(iii) Direct observation
In direct observation, the observer and researcher personally observe all the
happenings ofaprocess oranevent whenthe event is happening.In this method,
the observer records all the relevant aspects of an event which are necessaryfor
study. He is free to changethelocations and focus of theobservation. Onemajor
limitation ofthemethod is that the observermaynot be able to coverall relevant
events whentheyare happening.
(iv) Indirect observation
Physical presence of an observer is not required and recording is done with the
helpofmechanical,photographicorelectronicdevices;forexample,closecircuit
TV (CCTV) cameras are used in manyshowrooms to observe the behaviour of
customers. It provides a permanent record for an analysis ofdifferent aspects of
theevent.
(v) Controlled observation
Allobservationsaredoneunderpre-specifiedconditionsoverextrinsicandintrinsic
variables by adopting experimental design and systematically recording
observations. Controlled observations are carried out either in the laboratoryor
thefield.
(vi) Uncontrolled observation
There is no control over extrinsic and intrinsic variables. It is mainlyused for
descriptiveresearch. Participant observation is atypical uncontrolled one.
Prerequisites of Observation
Thefollowingarethe prerequisites ofobservation:
• The conditions ofobservation must provide accurateresults.An observer
should be in a position to observethe object clearly.
• Therightnumber of respondents shouldbe selected as thesample sizefor
the observation toproduce the desired results.
• Accurate and completerecordingof an event.
• Ifit ispossible,twoseparateobserversandsets of instrumentscanbeused
in all or some observations. Then the result can be compared to measure
accuracyand completeness.

NOTES
Advantages and Limitations of Observation
Thefollowingarethe advantagesof observations:
• It ensures the study of behaviour in accordance with the occurrence of
events. The observer does not ask anything from the representatives, he
just watchesthedoingand sayingof the sample.
• The data collected by observation defines the observed phenomenon as
theyoccurintheirnaturalsettings.
• Whenanobjectisnotabletodefinethemeaningofitsbehaviour,observation
is best methodforanalysis; forexample,animals,birds andchildren.
• Observation coversthe entire happenings ofanevent.
• Observation is less biased as comparedto questioning.
• Itiseasiertoconductdisguisedobservationstudies asopposedtodisguised
questioning.
• Theuseof mechanical devices can generate accurateresults.
Thefollowingarethelimitationsofobservation:
• Past studies andevents are of no use to observation. Forthese events and
study, one has to go through narrations,people and documents.
• It isdifficulttounderstandattitudes withthehelpofobservation.
• Observations cannot be performed bythe choice of the observer. He has
to wait for an event to occur.
• It is difficult to predict whenandwhere the event will occur.Thus, it may
not be possible for an observer to reach in everyevent.
• Observation requires moretime and money.
Use of observation in business research
Observation isveryusefulinthefollowingbusinessresearchpurposes:
• Buyingbehaviourofcustomer,lifestyles,customs,interpersonal relations,
groupdynamics,leadershipstyles,managerial styleandactions.
• Physical characteristics of inanimate things likehouses, factories, stores,
etc.
• Movements inaproductionplant.
• Flow of traffic, crowd and parkingon road.
3. Schedule and Questionnaire
Primarydatacanbecollectedwiththehelpofmailsandsurveys.Therespondents
receivethequestionnairesfromtheresearcherandareaskedtofillthemcompletely
andreturnthemtothe researcher.Itcanbe performedonlywhentherespondents
areeducated.Themail questionnaireshouldbesimpleandeasytounderstand,so

NOTES
thattherespondentscananswerallquestionseasily.Inmailquestionnaires,allthe
answers have to be given and recorded by the respondents and not by the
researcherorinvestigator,asinthecaseofpersonalinterviewmethod.Thereis no
face-to-face interaction between the investigator and respondent and so the
respondent is freeto give answers ofhis own choice.
Importance of questionnaires
Aquestionnaireisaveryeffectivemethodaswell as researchtoolinanyresearch
study. Itensuresthecollectionofadiversifiedand widerangeofscientificdata to
completetheresearch objectives.Thequestionnaireprovides all the inputsinthe
form ofrelevant data to all statisticalmethods used ina research study.
Types of Questionnaire
Thefollowingarethevariouscategoriesofquestionnaires:
(i) Structured or standard questionnaire
Structured or standard questionnaires contain predefined questions in order to
collect the required data for research study.These questions are the same for all
the respondents.Questions areinthe samelanguageand inthesameorderfor all
the respondents.
(ii) Unstructured questionnaire
In unstructuredquestionnaires, the respondent has the freedom to answerall the
questions in his ownframe ofreferenceandinhis ownterms.
Process of Data Collection
The researcher prepares the mailing list by collecting the addresses of all the
respondents with the help of primaryand secondarysources of data.Acovering
lettermustaccompanyeveryquestionnaire,indicatingthepurposeandimportance
of the research and importance of cooperation of the respondent for the success
of the research study.
Alternate modes of sending questionnaire
Thefollowingarethealternatemodesofdistributingquestionnairetorespondents:
(i) Personal delivery
Theresearcherorinvestigatorhimselfdeliversthequestionnairetotherespondents
and requests them to fill it within a specific duration, i.e., one day or two days,
as per the convenience of the researcher.After the given duration, theycollect
the questionnaire from the respondents. This added the advantage of personal
interview and mail survey.Alternatively, the questionnaire can be delivered
personally to the respondents and the respondents return the questionnaire by
mail to the researcher.

NOTES
(ii) Attaching questionnaire to a product
When a firm is launching a new product or wants to collect the feedback on old
products, the firm attaches a questionnaire with its product and requests the
customerstofillthequestionnaire.Thecompanycangivesomediscountorgift to
the respondent ofeveryreturnquestionnaire.
(iii) Advertising the questionnaire
Thequestionnaireisadvertisedinmagazinesandnewspaperswithinstructions to
complete it.After fillingthe questionnairefrom the magazine ornewspaper, the
respondents mail it to theadvertiser.
(iv) Newsstand inserts
In this method of sending questionnaires to the respondents, the questionnaire,
along with covering letter and a self-addressed reply-paid envelope, is inserted
into arandom sample of newsstandcopies of a newspaperor magazine.
Improving the Response in a Mail Survey
Generally,theresponserateinmailsurveysincountrieslikeIndiaisverylow.The
following techniques can be adopted to increase therate of response:
• Coveringletter:Thecoveringlettershouldbeinalanguagewhichgenerates
the interest of the respondent. It should address the respondent byname.
• Quality printing:Sometimesthequalityoftheprintedquestionnaire isso
bad that therespondent faces alot ofproblems in readingit.This results in
lossofinterestandso,thequalityofprintingshouldbeexcellentandattractive.
• Prior information: Prior information can be given to the concerned
respondent bytelephone, e-mail, newsletters, etc. Such steps bring more
success thanfollow-ups.
• Incentives: Monetary and non-monetary incentives can be given to
respondentswhoarefillingquestionnaire.Thisgeneratesahigherresponse.
• Follow-ups: The respondent can be approached with the help of an
investigator tocollect the questionnaire orto solve the problems faced by
respondentinfillingthequestionnaire.
• Largersamplesize:Weshouldalwaysselectasamplesizewhichislarger
thanwhatisactuallyrequired.Thiswillhelptheresearcheringettinganswers
fromtheeffectivesamplesize.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
Thefollowingaretheadvantagesofquestionnaires:
• Low cost
• Wide reachand extensivecoverage
• Easyto contact the person who is busy

NOTES
• Respondent’sconvenienceincompletionofquestionnaire
• Moreimpersonal,provides moreanonymity
• Nointerviewer’s biasness
• Accuracy
Thefollowingarethedisadvantages ofquestionnaires:
• Low response byrespondent
• Low scopeinmanysocieties whereliterarylevel is low
• Moretimerequirement
Preparation of an Effective Questionnaire
Whilepreparingaquestionnaire,theresearchermustfocusonsomekeyparameters
to prepareit. These keyparameters are as follows:
• Proper use of open and close probe
• Proper sequenceof questions
• Useofsimplelanguage
• Askingnopersonalquestioninwhichtherespondentishesitatingtoanswer
• Shouldnotbetimeconsuming
• Useofcontrolquestions indicatingreliabilityoftherespondent
Collecting Data through Schedule
This method is verysimilar tothecollection of datathrough questionnaires.The
onlydifferenceisthat inschedule,enumeratorsareappointed.Theseenumerators
gototherespondents,askthestatedquestionsinthesamesequenceastheschedule
and recordthe replyof respondents. Schedules maybe given to the respondents
and theenumerators shouldhelpthemsolvetheproblems facedwhileanswering
thequestioninthegivenschedule.Thus,enumeratorselectionisveryimportant in
datacollectionthroughschedules.
Distinction between schedule and questionnaire
Both questionnaire and schedule are popular methods of data collection. The
followingarethemain differencesbetweenquestionnaireandschedule:
• A questionnaire is generallysent to the respondents through mail, but in
caseofschedule, it is sent through enumerators.
• Questionnaires are relatively cheaper mediums of data collection as
comparedtoschedules.Inthecaseofquestionnaires,thecostis incurredin
preparingitandmailingit torespondent,whileinschedule,more moneyis
required for hiring enumerators, training them and incurring their field
expenses.

NOTES
• Theresponserateinquestionnaires islowasmanypeoplereturn itwithout
filling. On the other hand, the response rate in schedules is high because
theyarefilledbyenumerators.
• Incollectingdatathroughquestionnaires,theidentityoftherespondentmay
not be known,but this is not the case when it comes to schedules.
• Data collection through questionnaires requires a lot of time, which is
comparativelyveryless incaseof schedules.
• Generally, there is no personal contact in case of questionnaires, but in
schedules, personal contact is always there.
• The literacy level of the respondent is very important while filling
questionnaires,butin schedules,theliteracyleveloftherespondentisnota
major concern as the responses have to be recorded byenumerators.
• Wider distribution of questionnaires is possible but this is difficult with
schedules.
• There is lessaccuracyandcompleteness ofresponsesin questionnaires as
compared to schedules.
• Thesuccessofquestionnairesdependsonthequalityofquestionsbutsuccess
of a scheduledepends on the enumerators.
• Thephysicalappearanceofquestionnairemattersalot,whichislessimportant
in case ofschedules.
• Observationmethodcannot beusedalongwithquestionnairesbutitcanbe
usedalongwithschedule.
4. Case Study Method
Weexploreandanalysethelifeofasocial chapterorentity,whetheritbeafamily,
aperson,aninstitution oracommunity,withthehelpofacasestudy.Thepurpose
ofcasestudymethodistoidentifythefactorsandreasonsthataccountforparticular
behaviour patterns of a sample chapter and its association with other social or
environmental factors. Generallysocial researchers use case study method to
understand thecomplex social phenomenon andto identifythe factorsrelated to
this phenomenon. Case study provides the clues and ideas to a researcher for
further researchstudy.Byadoptingcasestudymethod, aresearchergets toknow
about happenings in the past, which could be related to the research studies and
analyse the problemwith betterperspectives.
Assumptions of case study method
The assumptions madein acase studymethodare as follows:
• Casestudydependsontheimaginationoftheinvestigatorwhois analysing
the casestudy.The investigator makes up his procedure as he goes along.
• Historyrelated to the case is complete and as coherent as it could be.

NOTES
• It isadvisable to supplement thecase data byobservational,statistical and
historical data, since these provide standards for assessing the reliability
andconsistencyofthe casematerial.
• Efforts should be made to ascertain the reliabilityof life historydata by
examiningtheinternalconsistencyofthematerial.
• A judicious combinationof techniques of data collection is a prerequisite
forsecuringdatathatisculturallymeaningfulandscientificallysignificant.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Case Study Method
Case studyensures several advantages to the researcher for his research work.
Keyadvantages ofthe case studymethod are as follows:
• Provides the basis for understandingcomplex social phenomenon and all
relatedfactors affectingthesocialphenomenon.
• Provides clues andideas for exploratoryresearch. When the researcher is
not able toget afairideaabout theresearch,pasthappenings mentionedin
a case studyhelp the researcher get clues and ideas.
• Case studyhelps in generatingobjectives forexploratoryresearch.
• It suggests thenew courses of inquiry.
• Casestudyhelpsinformulatingresearchhypothesis.
Some important disadvantages ofcase studymethodare as follows:
• Reliability:Datacollectedthroughcasestudymaynot bereliableorit can
bedifficulttoverifythereliabilityofdatainthecurrent scenario.
• Adequacy: Data collected through case studies maynot be adequate for
research work asdata is not pertinent to the research conditions.
• Representative:Datapresentedbycasestudiesrepresentsthehappenings
with unknowncircumstances to a researcher. Hence, it cannot bethe true
representation of events to a researcher.
Making Case Study Effective
Thecriteriaforevaluatingtheadequacyofcasehistoryisofcentralimportancefor
casestudy.JohnDollardhasproposedsevencriteriaforevaluatingsuchadequacy.
Theyareas follows:
(i) The subject must be viewed as a specimen in the cultural series, i.e., the
case drawn out from its total context for the purpose of study must be
consideredasamemberoftheparticularculturalgrouporcommunity.The
scrutiny of life histories of people must be done with a view to identify
communityvalues,standardsandtheirsharedwayoflife.
(ii) The organic motto of action must be sociallyrelevant, i.e., the action of
individual cases must beviewedas aseries ofreactions tosocial stimuli or
situations. Inother words, the social meaningof behaviour must be taken
intoconsideration.

NOTES
(iii) The strategic role of the familygroup in transmitting the culture must be
recognized, i.e., incase of the individual beingthe member ofa familyin
shapinghis behaviourmust neverbeoverlooked.
(iv) Thespecificmethodofelaborationoforganicmaterialontosocialbehaviour
mustbeclearlyshown,i.e.,casehistorythatportraysindetailhowbasically
abiologicalorganism,theman,graduallyblossomsforthintoasocialperson,
areespeciallyfruitful.
(v) The continuous related character of experience for childhood through
adulthood must be stressed. In other words, the life history must be a
configurationdepictingtheinter-relationshipsbetweenthepersonsvarious
experiences.
(vi) Thesocialsituationmustbecarefullyandcontinuouslyspecifiedasafactor.
Oneoftheimportantcriteriaforthelifehistoryisthataperson’slifemustbe
shownasunfoldingitselfinthecontextofandpartlyowingtospecificsocial
situations.
(vii) Thelifehistorymaterialitselfmustbeorganizedaccordingtosomeconceptual
framework.Thisinturnwouldfacilitategeneralizationsatahigherlevel.
Case study as a method of business research
A detailed case studyhelps theresearcher identifythe reasons behind business-
related problems.As it can bepossiblethat that particularincident has happened
in past, so the current issues can be sorted out, byreferring to the same case. In-
depth analysis ofselectedcases is ofparticularvaluetobusiness researchwhen a
complexsetofvariablesmaybeatworkingeneratingobservedresultsandintensive
studyis neededto unravel the complexities.Theexploratoryinvestigator should
havean activecuriosityandwillingness todeviate from theinitial plan,whenthe
finding suggests a new course of enquiry, which might prove more productive.
With the help of case studymethod, the risk can be minimized in anydecision-
makingprocess.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
7. What are the two main types of surveys?
8. List the two categories of the types of questionnaires.
9. What are the two alternate modes of sending questionnaires?
10. What is the main purpose of the case study method?
1.4 HYPOTHESIS: MEANING, NEED AND NATURE
According to Theodorson, ‘a hypothesis is a tentative statement asserting a
relationshipbetweencertainfacts.’Kerlingerdescribesitas‘aconjecturalstatement
of therelationship between two ormore variables’.

NOTES
Thefollowingpointshelpinunderstandingtheimportanceofhypothesis:
• A hypothesis is a proposal intendedto explain a fact or an observation.
• A hypothesis specifies the sources of data which shall be studied and in
what context theyshall be studied.
• It determinesthe data needs.
• Hypothesis suggests the type of research which is likely to be the most
appropriate.
• Ahypothesis contributes to the development of the theory.
Nature of hypothesis
Hypothesis is more useful when stated in precise and clearlydefined terms.A
goodhypothesisimpliesthathypothesiswhichfulfillsitsintendedpurposesandis
up to themark. The followingaresome important points to be kept in mind:
• Agoodhypothesisshouldbestated inthesimplest possibleterms.It is also
called the principle of the economy or business. It should be clear and
precise.
• A good hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts. It should be
based on originaldata derived directly.
• It shouldbesodesignedthat bitstest will provideananswerto theoriginal
problem whichfarms theprimarypurposeoftheinvestigation.
• Hypothesis shouldstaterelationship betweenvariables,if,ithappenstobe
arationalhypothesis.
Oncetheinvestigativequestionsaresetupforeachoftheobjectives,theresearcher
shouldidentifytheanticipatedorpossibleanswerstotheinvestigativequestions.A
surveyofrelatedtheoriesandearlierstudiesanddiscussionswithco-scientistswill
facilitate this process. He, then, shouldwrite down those answers as appropriate
types of hypotheses—descriptive, relational or causal—as the case maybe. He
shouldevaluatethesetentativehypothesesinterms ofthecharacteristicsofagood
hypothesisandrefineandrecordthemintologicalandtestablehypotheses,keeping
inmindtherulesgivenbelow:
Rules for constructing hypotheses
According to Smith, there are certain rules for constructing good hypotheses.
These areas follows:
(i) Searchforvariablemeasurementswiththemostquantitativecharacteristics
available:Precisequantitativemeasurementsaremorecriticalintestingtheory
than qualitative characteristics. Hage gives four techniques to search for

NOTES
and create variables from non-variable concepts. First, the researcher can
searchforimplieddimensionsunderlyingnon-variableconcepts.Campbell
provides a good example of this method in the study of the non-variable
concept‘socialgroup’.Heidentifiesfourunderlyingdimensionsofdegrees
ofproximity,similarity,perceivedcommonfate,andperceivedspatialpattern.
Second,onecancreatenewvariablesbycomparingconceptualsynonyms
oranalogies.Priceusedthesynonymtechniqueinhisstudyoforganizational
measurementconceptslike‘participationindecisionmaking’,‘organization
control’, ‘power’ and ‘influence’ refer to the degree of organizational
centralization. Third, one can search the literature for rarely occurring
associations between phenomena. The cognitive dissonance theory in
sociologygotitsstartinthismanner.Fourth,onecangeneratenewvariables
through ordering many concepts from more or less abstract extension of
theresearchvariablesandtheirapplicabilityintheneworderofsociety,say
virtualornetworkorganization.
(ii) Make the variable scale properties explicit by stating all of the variable’s
mutuallyexclusiveandtotallyinclusivecategoriesbydegrees.Forexample,
a variable like ‘income’ may be categorized into (1) up to ` 5000 per
month, (2) ` 5001 to 10000, (3) ` 10001 to 20000, (4) ` 20001 and
above.
(iii) Describethemeansusedtosortobservationsintoyourvariablescategories
insufficientdetailsothatyourmethodsmaybeevaluatedandreplicatedby
others. ‘Personality disintegration’ is a good example of a poorly
operationalisedvariable.Itisanunreliablemeasureandcannotbereplicated.
(iv) Alwaysconsideralternativeoperationsthatmightbemoreappropriatefor
agivenvariable.
(v) Analysevariablesthroughtheirrelationships.Non-ratiouni-ormulti-variable
distributionisarbitrary,sinceithasnointrinsiclowerboundary.
(vi) Link two or more formal propositions through a shared independent or
dependentvariablewherepossible.Forexample,fromfollowingconcrete
observations:
(a) ‘Married persons are less likely than unmarried persons to commit
suicide.’
(b) ‘Married persons with children are less likely than married persons
withoutchildrentocommitsuicide.’
Thefollowingabstractformalhypothesesmaybeinductivelyproduced:
(i) ‘Sucideratesvarydirectlywiththedegreeofindividualism.’
(ii) ‘Suicideratesvaryindirectlywiththedegreeofgroupcohesion.’

NOTES
Types of Statistical Hypothesis
Incontext ofstatistical analysis,wegenerallyconsidertwotypes of hypothesis:
• Nullhypothesis
• Alternativehypothesis
When comparingthesuperiorityof boththemethodsAandB, ifwe assume that
both the methods are equally good, then the assumption is known as ‘null
hypothesis’.Ontheotherhand,ifweconsidermethodAtobebetter,itisalternative
hypothesis.Thesemaybe, symbolicallypresented as:
Null Hypothesis = H0
AlternativeHypothesis=Ha
The differencebetweena proposition, hypothesis and theoryare as follows
(i) A proposition is a logical statement of relationship between two or more
variables which has, generally, been confirmed byempirical research. (A
proposition should be distinguished from a hypothesis which is a logical
statementofanassumedrelationshipbetweentwoormorevariableswhich
mustbeempiricallytested,replicatedandelaboratedbeforebeingaccepted
asconfirmed).
(ii) Propositionisabroadstatement drawnfromatheory,whereasahypothesis
takes this one step furtherand formulates a more specificstatement that is
empiricallytestable.Propositionstatesarelationshipbetweentwoconcepts
andahypothesisoperationalizesthisrelationshipandputsitinanempirically
testableform.
(iii) Theterm hypothesisis usedto referto an explanation ofthings that occur.
In somecases, it mayreferto asimple guess.Inother instances it maybe a
well-developed set ofpropositions that are crafted toexplain the detailed
workings of some occurrence or occurrences. One definition states
specificallythat itis theantecedent toaconditionalproposition.
(iv) Thehypothesisis formedandtestedwithinthe scientificprocess.Onemay
developthehypothesiswhileobservationisoccurring,but thatmayalsobe
consideredpremature.Theactofobservation(outsideofexperimentation)
mayactuallypresentopportunityto disproveahypothesis.Thehypothesis
though isnecessarilywell definedandinclusiveofdetails.Thisallows for
accurate testing.It also,inmanycases distinguishes it from atheory.
(v) The term theoryis one of a rather scientific nature, but of a less limited
nature.Someusescanrefertoexplanationsofoccurrences;somedoinclude
usageasreferencingasimple guess.There is morethough.Theoryis used
to refer toa branch of studythat is focusedon the general and conceptual,
as compared to the practical and the applied of the same subject. It is
significantthatatheoryis conjecturalinnature.

NOTES
(vi) Ahypothesis is a proposed explanationfor something.We call it a theory
when that hypothesis has been tested with considerable evidence.As a
result,a theoryis usuallya muchlarger set ofstatements thanahypothesis
because atheorycangrowwitheverynewpieceofevidenceit explains. In
otherwords,atheorycanexplainfarmorethanthephenomenonitoriginally
was proposed to explain.
(vii) A hypothesis attempts to answer questions by putting forth a plausible
explanationthathasyettoberigorouslytested.Atheory,ontheotherhand,
hasalreadyundergoneextensivetestingbyvariousscientistsandisgenerally
acceptedas beingan accurate explanationofanobservation. This doesn’t
meanthetheoryis correct; onlythat current testinghas not yetbeenableto
disprove it, and the evidence as it is understood, appears to support it.A
theorywill often start out as ahypothesis — an educatedguess to explain
observablephenomenon.Themore ahypothesisis testedandholdsup,the
better accepted it becomes as a theory.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
11. State the definition ofthe term ‘hypothesis’ asgiven byTheodorson.
12. What is a good hypothesis?
13. List the two types of statistical hypothesis.
1.5 SUMMARY
• Researchis asystematic approach toapurposeful investigation.Research
isscientificbynatureasitinvolvesmanyscientificmethods.
• On the basis of intent, researchcan be classified as pure research, applied
research,exploratoryresearch,descriptiveresearchanddiagnosticresearch.
• As per the methods of study, research can be classified as fundamental,
applied,historical,formulative,experimental,expostfactoandcasestudy.
• Quantitativeapproachandqualitativeapproacharethetwomainapproaches
fordata collection.
• Definingtheproblemandobjectives,developingdatasource,datacollection,
dataanalysisandpresentingthefindingsarethestepsintheresearchprocess.
• A research designis a systematic, objective and scientific plan developed
fordirectingaresearchstudy.Itconstitutestheoverviewfordatacollection,
measurement andanalysis ofdata.
• Theidealresearchdesignisconcernedwithspecifyingtheoptimumresearch
procedure that couldbefollowed where therearenopractical restrictions.
Tomanagewiththefuturechanges,aresearchermusthaveaflexibleresearch
design. Thisflexibilityensuresthedesiredachievementsinaresearch.

NOTES
• Formulative research is another term used for exploratoryresearch. The
mainobjectiveofsuchstudiesisproblemformationwithmoreprecisionfor
researchanddevelopingresearchhypothesistogettheresultsforoperations.
Thekeyconcerninsuchtypeofstudies is togenerateideasandfindingthe
insights.
• Studiesdescribingtheindividualityofaparticularpersonorgrouparecalled
descriptive research, whereas research studies definingthe occurrenceof
any happening or association of one happening with others are called
diagnosticresearch.
• Survey is an important tool in research. No research can be performed
without them. Descriptiveand analytical arethetwotypes of surveys.
• While the most common method of collecting survey data is the
‘questionnaire’, the means bywhich you gather theinformation that goes
into the surveyresponses mayvary.
• Planning and designing the survey, collection of data, accessing data,
preparingandmanagingdata,analysingdata,reportinganddeploymentare
the various stages of a surveymethod.
• Telephonicinterviewisanon-personalmethodofdatacollection.Itmaybe
used as amajor method or supplementarymethodof data collection.
• Group interviewisthemethod ofcollectingprimarydatafromanumberof
individuals with common interests. In group interviews, the interviewer
performs therole of a discussionleader. Free discussion is encouraged on
the same aspects of the subject under the study. Information is collected
eitherthroughaself-administeredquestionnaireorthroughaninterview.
• Observationisaclassical methodofscientificstudy.It isveryimportant in
anyresearchstudyas it is an effective method fordata collection.
• A questionnaire is a veryeffective method as well as research tool in any
research study.It ensures the collectionof a diversified andwide range of
scientific data to complete the research objectives. The questionnaire
provides all theinputs intheformof relevant data toallstatistical methods
used in a research study.
• Thepurposeofcasestudymethodistoidentifythe factorsandreasons that
account for particular behaviour patterns of a sample chapter and its
association with other social or environmental factors. Generallysocial
researchers use case study method to understand the complex social
phenomenon and toidentifythe factors related to this phenomenon. Case
studyprovidesthecluesandideastoaresearcherforfurtherresearchstudy.
Byadoptingcasestudymethod,aresearchergetstoknowabouthappenings
in the past, which could be related to the research studies and analyse the
problem withbetter perspectives.

Research Methodology in Political Science

Research Methodology in Political Science

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