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Basic methodology of the Scientific Method
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Bs ed,gen sc the scientific method
1.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
2.
3.
Copyright © The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.1- The Scientific Method: Observation • An observation is a thoughtful and careful recognition of an event or a fact. • The careful observation of a phenomenon leads to a question. – How does this happen? – What causes it to occur?
4.
Copyright © The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.1- The Scientific Method: The Hypothesis • Hypothesizing – question an observation – propose possible solutions to questions based on what is already understood about the phenomenon • Hypotheses must: – be logical – account for all current information – make the least possible assumptions – be testable
5.
Copyright © The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.1- Testing Hypotheses • Hypotheses need to be tested to see if they are supported or disproved. – Disproved hypotheses are rejected – Hypotheses can be supported but not proven • Ways to test a hypothesis: – Gathering relevant historical information • Retrospective Studies – Make additional observations from the natural world – Experimentation
6.
Copyright © The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.1- The Scientific Method: Experimentation • Experiments – rigorous tests to determine if the solutions are supported • Experiments attempt to recreation an occurrence – tests whether or not the hypothesis can be supported or rejected • There are many types of experiments – laboratory, clinical trials, surveys, statistical analyses
7.
Copyright © The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.1- Experimental Design • Experiments must: – use large numbers of subjects and/or must be repeated several times (replication) – be independently reproducible • The validity of experimental results must: – be tested statistically • chi-squared test for statistical significance – be scrutinized by other scientists • peer reviewed
8.
Copyright © The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.1- Experimental Design • Experiments must: – use large numbers of subjects and/or must be repeated several times (replication) – be independently reproducible • The validity of experimental results must: – be tested statistically • chi-squared test for statistical significance – be scrutinized by other scientists • peer reviewed
9.
Copyright © The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.1- Theory • If the hypothesis is supported by ample experimental data, it leads to a theory. • A theory may be defined as a widely accepted, plausible general statement about a fundamental concept in science. – The germ theory states that infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms. • Many diseases are not caused by microorganisms, so we must be careful not to generalize theories too broadly. – Theories continue to be tested • Exceptions identified • Modifications made
10.
Copyright © The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.1- A Scientific Law • A scientific law is a uniform and constant fact of nature that describes what happens in nature. – An example: All living things come from pre-existing living things. • Scientific laws promote the process of generalization. – Inductive reasoning – Since every bird that has been studied lays eggs, we can generalize that all birds lay eggs. • Once a theory becomes established, it can be used to predict specific facts. – Deductive reasoning – We can predict that a newly discovered bird species will lay eggs.
11.
Copyright © The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.1- Scientific Communication • Data is shared with the scientific community through research articles published in scientific journals. – peer review • Scientists present preliminary data at conferences. • Scientists collaborate directly by phone and e-mail.
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