1. 1
Development Planning Unit, UCL
“Following decentralisation, how has the quality of education
changed in senior secondary and universities in Mekelle to have an
impact on poverty reduction?”
By Chen Chen, Nazia Carim, Raisa Chowdhury, Charles Ensor,
Emily Snape and Yuanyuan Zhu
Word count: 10,573

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Table of contents
Introduction………………………………………….3
Acknowledgements………………………………….5
Acronyms……………………………………………6
Section 1: Research proposal
A review of the international, national and local policy contexts….7
Institutional Landscape………………….……………13
Review of the existing literature and debates………..18
Analytical framework…………………………………23
Methodology and ethical considerations……………..28
Section 2: Report: findings, analysis and policy recommendations
Introduction……………………………….…………..33
Findings…………………………………….………….33
Guidelines and further research…………….…………40
Conclusion………………………………….………….44
Section 3: Appendices
References………………….........................................46
Appendix 1: Code of conduct……………….………...52
Appendix 2.1 Education Sector covered in the Matrix by Component in PASDEP (2005/06-
2009/10)……………………………………….……….54
Appendix 2.2 Main Challenges listed in ESDP IV….....56
Appendix 3.1: Stakeholder analysis………….………..57
Appendix 3.2: List of stakeholders interviewed.………63
Appendix 3.3: Research questions……………….…….66
Appendix 3.4 Interview transcripts……………….……73
Appendix 4: The relationship between decentralisation and poverty reduction….100
Appendix 5: Table of photographic findings…….……101
Appendix 6: Enrolment and graduation of under and post graduate student, Ministry of
Education………………………………….………….…102
Appendix 7: University of Mekelle staff by gender....…103

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Introduction to our research:
Word count: 487
The aim of this research proposal is to provide readers with an understanding of how the
policy of decentralisation has affected the provision of quality education in Mekelle,
Ethiopia, and ultimately how this is affecting poverty reduction. Our proposal firstly presents
an overview of national and local policies in the Tigray region itself, analysing in depth the
current policies in place to improve the quality of education, as well as the indicators we have
used to measure it. We will then conduct an analysis into the institutional landscape of
education provision within the region, cataloguing its actors and assessing the power relations
present between stakeholders, with particular reference to its effects on decentralisation and
the quality of education. Importantly, the proposal will then present the analytical framework
and the methodology that was employed to better understand the role of decentralisation on
access to quality education and its resulting effects on poverty reduction.
For this we have decided to focus our study on senior secondary schools for the following
distinct reasons:
Though Ethiopia is strongly on track to reach MDG target 2, in reaching universal enrolment
rate at a primary school level, we particularly wanted to see the effects of this on secondary
school education, where there has been a limited, if negligible donor focus. Prior to our field
research we felt this to be of particular importance when considering the region’s strides
towards poverty reduction. We wanted to know how the quality of education within senior
secondary schools (grades 9-12) affects both the region’s prospects of growth as well as the
ability for young adults to reduce or mitigate shocks against their own livelihoods through
increased enrolment in education. In particular we wanted to identify any potential
bottlenecks and barriers to entrance to tertiary education, primarily from the standpoint that
Ethiopia, and the region itself, is pushing towards being a middle-income country by 2025.
Its future is heavily reliant on high-skilled labour, with the country needing to expand its
human capital in order to reach this target.
Decentralisation is particularly important in the process of providing access to quality of
education. We identify resource allocation as a strong element of the process, and for this we
will pay strong attention to the institutional arrangements in place for funding in schools and

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its scope for improving and expanding the education sector in the region. We are particularly
interested in how decentralisation affects and is affected by four main indicators:
participation, policing, efficiency and curriculum, which will be expanded upon in our
analytical framework section. We will be using this as a framework to firstly assess the
institutions and arrangements currently in place, before using the framework as a means of
offering policy recommendations and areas for further research.
Attached to the end of our proposal are tables, graphs and diagrams pertinent to our research,
as well as the list of questions asked to various stakeholders during our research.

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Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the teaching staff of the Development Planning Unit for arranging and
organising this research project in Ethiopia. In particular we would like to thank Mr.
Zeremariam Fre and Ms. Di Jiang for their tireless support in helping to refine and develop
our research brief. We would like to thank Mekelle University for accommodating our
research and for their hospitality. Primarily we would like to give special thanks to our
facilitator, Mr Kibiret Dessalegn, and our translator, Mr. Ataklty Adugna, for all their hard
work in arranging and scheduling interviews with important stakeholders.
This research is dedicated to the school girls and boys of the three senior secondary schools
we visited, as well as the teachers and parents. Their first-hand experience of the education
system as it is today in Mekelle provided invaluable insights, critical thinking and
suggestions which have greatly informed our report.

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Acronyms
CSO Civil Society Organisation
DFID Department for International Development
DLDP District Level Decentralization Program
EPRDF Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front
ESDP Education Sector Development Programme
GEQIP General Education Quality Improvement Project
GER General Enrolment Rate
GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
GTP Growth and Transformation Plan
MoE Ministry of Education
MoFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development
NETP National Education and Training Policy
NGOs Non-government Organisations
PASDEP Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty
PGDT Post Graduate Diploma in Teaching
PTAs Parent-Teacher Associations
PSTAs Parent-Student-Teacher Associations
REB Regional Education Bureau
REST Relief Society of Tigray
SIP School Improvement Program
SDPRP Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program
TDA Tigray Development Association
TDP Teacher Development Program
TPLF Tigray People’s Liberation Front
TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training
WCEA World Conference on Education for All

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Section 1: Research Proposal
A review of the international, national and local policy contexts
By Yuanyuan Zhu
Word Count: 1,649
International Background
Education is recognised as the foundation for individual and societal development.
International efforts attempt to ensure quality basic education to people all around the world.
Article 26 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights proclaims everyone has the
right to education. The World Conference on Education for All (WCEA) held in Thailand in
1990 adopted the World Declaration on Education for All and Framework of Action to Meet
Basic Learning Needs, which directly promotes Universal Primary Education (UPE) and the
elimination of adult illiteracy. Based on WCEA, the World Education Forum (WEF)
assembled in Senegal ten years later reaffirming the WCEA vision, set six goals and
expressing commitment to achieve Education for All (EFA).
The Dakar Framework for Action, Education for All: Meeting our Collective Commitments
and six regional frameworks for action were established and practiced globally. The
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) set by the Declaration are influential to
international and Ethiopia’s national road map towards education progress. According to The
Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP), Ethiopia has set
its education goals and themes according to various MDGs focusing not only access to
education, but also education quality and gender equity (see appendix 2). These international
development agenda on education has encouraged Ethiopia to attach great priority to
education and develop its own policy contexts to achieve quality basic education for all its
citizens.
National Policy Context: From Centralisation to Decentralisation
Since the 1940s there have been three different systems of political governance with distinct
education policies: the Imperial, Socialist and modern day Federal System presided over by
the EPRDF regime (Negash, 2006: 12).

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The Haile Selassie regime (1941-1974) particularly pursued centralisation and policies that
were centred on the idea of national, cultural identity.
The socialist system, governed by the military Derg regime (1974-1991) gave more
autonomy to local regions (McNab, 1990) and challenged the perceived elitism of the
previous regime regarding the poor access to education, especially in rural areas (Daba,
2010). However, as Negash writes (2006), the regime lacked additional resources to expand
which affected education quality.
In 1989, the TPLF founded the EPRDF to unite in opposition against the Derg, and the
Tigray region, especially Mekelle, was a war-torn and neglected area for much of the
proceeding years until the EPRDF came to power in 1991. From this the Federal system was
born and education policies began to take a more decentralised form of planning and
delivery. During the revolutionary movement in the region, the TPLF region acted as a quasi-
autonomous region, exacting and organising its own education system, focusing particularly
on democratic participation and especially the empowerment of women (Young, 1997).
According to the Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (SDPRP, 2002:
38), there are four pillars (building blocks) for the economic and political strategy to fight
against poverty and ensure sustainable development, one of which is “governance,
decentralization, and empowerment”. In the same year, the District Level Decentralisation
Program (DLDP) was adopted by the government to render districts (woredas) the centre of
socio-economic development, entailing decentralised service provision, including education,
health, water, roads, agriculture and so forth. Local policies throughout all sectors are
designed according to local situations and citizens at the grass roots level are involved and
empowered to tackle poverty. Gender issues have been continually considered and stressed in
the process of decentralisation and empowerment.

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Table 1. Timeline of Decentralisation in Ethiopia
(Source: USAID, 2010: 38)
Education
The Education system in Ethiopia changed hugely in different periods according to policies
designed and implemented by different governments. The present Ethiopian government has
made education one of the highest priorities in their development agenda which has
developed tremendously. SDPRP includes private sector growth and off-farm employment as
one of the major thrust and has an emphasis on education and human capacity building to
achieve these goals. PASDEP has set the goal of “increasing proportion of Ethiopians who
are educated and enjoy a higher standard of living with access to improved quality of
education” (see appendix 2.1) (PASDEP, 2006: 8-9). In this policy context, admission to
post-primary schools, qualified teachers, gender disparity, and school facility are all
emphasised in addition to primary education. A general Education and Training Policy has
been formulated in April 2004 followed by Education Sector Strategy in September 1994.

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The policy identifies some major problems of education systems, namely, access, equity,
quality, efficiency and relevance.
Education Sector Development Programs (ESDPs) are designed to meet goals set up by the
MDGs, specifically MDG 2 and MDG 3 mentioned above. From ESDP I to ESDP III, access
to better qualified education for all citizens and relevant socio-economic development were
concentrated to attain the MDGs by 2015. One of the goals ESDPs continue to identify and
focus is to improve the quality of education concerning main challenges (see appendix 2.2).
The current ESDP IV concentrates on “maintaining the momentum of expanding quality
general education and strengthening tertiary education institutions and TVET schools to
promote quality human resource development” (ESDP IV, 2010: 9). Gender equity has been
integrated across all levels of education systems to ensure equal access and quality.
Another policy directly focusing on quality and internal efficiency is the General Education
Quality Improvements Package (GEQIP). It has now become an integral part of ESDP IV, to
ensure student completion and achievement by improving education quality. The attention
has been also placed on improving student learning by quality-focused school supervision,
student participation, school-community partnerships as well as quality concerns in general
concerning numbers and qualification of teachers and the availability of equipment (ESDP
IV, 2010: 10). The challenge of quality is closely related to students’ completion of their
education and drop-out rate. The GEQIP has designed several specific programs on various
aspects of quality improvements, including Curriculum, Textbooks and Assessment (CTA),
Teacher Development Program (TDP), School Improvement Program (SIP), Management
and Administration Program (MAP), Implementation Arrangements, Monitoring and
Evaluation, and Budget and Financing Plan. Gender and equity assessment are applied in
these programs with the consideration of social and culture contexts in Ethiopia.
Local Policy Contexts: Mekelle
Decentralisation at the school level has been practiced through the establishment of Regional
Education Bureaus to improve education quality and to empower local communities to
determine their own educational priorities. Mekelle is one of Ethiopia’s primary economic
and educational centres. As the bearer of responsibility in decentralised service provision,
local government undertakes the responsibility to provide quality education and training for

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any job, title, or position approximate national standards and other activities in the public
services that have been decentralized since 2001. According to Tigray’s Five Years (2010/11
- 2014/15) Growth & Transformation Plan, the access to education in the region is not the
major concern these days so an emphasis will be given to ensure the quality of education in
the region by evaluating and strengthening the good practices that has been achieved so far.
To measure the quality of education, the indicators that are currently used are teacher
qualifications, the teacher-student ratio, class size, and the distribution of text books to
students among others.
In the Plan of the next five years from 2010/11 to 2014/15, one of the missions of Tigray
Regional State is “providing education and health services to all citizens”. The Plan attempts
to bring changes in overall economic structure through several pillar strategies, one of which
is to improve the access and quality of social development. By strengthening the promising
achievements gained in education and training, services and improving quality of education,
efforts will be made to increase the participation rate of children and especially of females.
Moreover, based on evaluation results of the program of improving quality of education,
additional measures will be taken to achieve the intended standard of education.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework presents all the components of this report. The background
explores national and local policies of decentralisation focusing on education quality. Then
the institutional landscape studies stakeholders and the power relationship that exists between
them. Relevant existing literature and debates are reviewed to lay a theoretical foundation.
The analytical framework corresponds to the rationale and logic of the research. Research
questions and strategies are outlined to collect data needed with ethical considerations.
Consequently, findings are analysed to generate further research and policy
recommendations. Through the whole process, the research question is evaluated
theoretically and practically.

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Institutional
Landscape:
Stakeholder &
Power
Relationship
Literature
Review:
Relevant
literature and
debates
Analytical
Framework:
poverty reduction,
decentralisation
and quality of
education
Methodology:
Questions
Strategies
Ethical
considerations
Background:
National and
local policy
contexts
Report:
Findings and
Analysis
Research Question:
Following decentralisation, how has
the quality of education changed in
senior secondary and universities in
Mekelle to have an impact on poverty
reduction?

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Institutional Landscape
By Nazia Carim
Word Count: 1,380
Power analysis of stakeholders in the education system
The power relations between stakeholders can be analysed through two dimensions:
power sourced from capital and power sourced from cultural norms and values. There
are three sources of capital for the various stakeholders within the educational system
in Ethiopia: these are financial, political and social capital, which together determine
the power of each stakeholder’s impact on education, specifically the quality of
education.
The power analysis chart provides a visual representation of the distribution of power
found in the educational sector following decentralisation. The national Ministry of
Education distributes power to the Regional Education Bureau which, in this case
study is Tigray. However, it also gives devolves power to international donors and
NGOs, in some cases even bypassing the regional institutions altogether. Essential to
the success of decentralisation, an example of strong central authority can be found in
the case of GEQIP’s direct allocation of funding to intended senior secondary schools.
The international donors we refer to in this power analysis are; World Bank, DFID,
GIZ and British Council, whereas NGOs refers to TDA. At this level financial and
political capital are the most relevant, although in the case of TDA we found that due
to their ‘local’ nature, they also had considerable social capital in Tigray.
The main influence from the national level on senior secondary schools, are
educational policies and funding. The national government determines core elements
of the curriculum such as the 70-30 policy, which reflects power sourced from
political capital. Furthermore the Ministry of Education also designs national
educational policies and programmes such as GEQIP and the Education Sector
Development Programmes (ESDPs). These demonstrate political capital by

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solidifying their presence at the local level. In contrast to this, power sourced from
financial capital is limited. This is due to the limited funding directly sourced from the
national budget. This is based on the fact that our restricted research indicated that a
mere 20 Birr per student, was allocated by the Mekelle woreda from the national
budget. This affords external stakeholders, such as NGOs and International Donors,
entry points into the power structure through financial capital.
At this level the impact of cultural norms and values are reflected in the history of the
Tigray region in the national context. Due to its central role in the revolution through
the TPLF, Tigray has acquired a certain prestige. This has enabled them to have an
influence within policymaking and also be unique in various areas including
education. This is seen in the curriculum for example, where Tigray is the only region
to teach their regional dialect, Tigrinya, until grade 8, as opposed to grade 4 as in all
other regions. The pro-government sentiment in the region plays a huge role in the
power structure, particularly in reference to the education sector. Tigray is a
significant region in Ethiopia, and its capital, Mekelle, is afforded many perks such as
investment and infrastructure. A clear example is TDA, an NGO that is having a huge
impact on the region’ s education and health, and is formed and financed mainly by
the Tigray diaspora. This denotes the significant cultural power Tigray holds in the
national context, due to its history prior to decentralisation.
The power flow changes from the woreda level down, as it becomes bottom up rather
than top down. We witnessed strong local ownership within Mek’ele’s educational
system, specifically at the level of Senior Secondary schools. This is because the
schools very much relied on community support, which was channelled through the
PSTA’s.
Hence, here we find a power stratum which is more significantly tied to the cultural
dimension than the top down part of the diagram. Nonetheless, power found on the

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bottom half of the power analysis diagram, is still sourced from the three types of
capital. The main source of influence between these three types of capital is difficult
to discern, as here many of the stakeholders overlap. Financial capital for example is
very heavily sourced from the community through the PSTAs, the main stakeholder of
power here are parents. This is due to the fact that they provide the finance for the
schools’ immediate needs. An example is the PSTA in Ayder Senior Secondary
School, which built a staff room for the teachers. This type of power affords them a
great deal of influence in local policies through their kebelles and woredas, but most
importantly in the school’s individual policies.
The woreda is responsible for distributing state funds as well as NGO funds, like
those from TDA. This is because TDA recently changed their policy regarding funds,
so that they no longer manage the funds themselves but rather keep only 30%, for
administration and projects. The remaining 70% is distributed to the woredas and
kebelles directly, to allow them to spend as they see fit with regards to education and
health. Hence the financial entry point into the power strata left by the state is filled
by multiple stakeholders in different positions, changing the power relations in the
local context significantly. This is because it affords the community a real stake in the
education system at senior secondary level, which allows them ownership of the
process. In relation to which there are power hierarchies created within the
community, which can be seen through the establishment of PSTA’s and civic
councils.
This creates sources of political and social capital, with the political being derived
from local institutions such as the civic council and the PSTAs, and the social coming
from being a part of these aforementioned institutions, as they denote power in the
community. For example, the parents we talked to who were members of the PSTA,
spoke very proudly of their role and mentioned that this gave them an elevated status
within society. These overlaps speak to the complex structure of power relations

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within the local context where power flows bottom-up. Interestingly in this structure
parents have more power overall than teachers and the wider community, which is a
unique dynamic within an educational system. This is a result of decentralisation
policy which has created entry points for different stakeholders1
.
Finally, the cultural dimension is quite significant, specifically from the gender
viewpoint. Despite the progressive figures we have seen of women in power in the
political sphere, in the field we spoke to only one woman in power. This is very
important, as the area of Tigray has a very powerful history that includes war
heroines, such as Tirfu Kindemariam, the head of Tigray’s civil service. There is a
huge disparity in the power structure where women are concerned. Within the schools
we did not have access to a single female teacher, despite the fact that we saw female
faculty members, and requested interviews with female teachers specifically. Hence it
can be deduced that the female voice in institutions is not heard despite their presence,
and this may be derived from specific cultural elements.
We had limited access to these cultural facets of power relations, but the brief insights
we did gain were very informative. The research assistant of a very inspiring
professor at Mekelle University told us that she was he only female professor in the
natural sciences department – which accounts for 70% of the curriculum. She said that
this is due to the fact that students still view female teachers as less able to teach than
males, and also that the University was discriminating in the hiring process against
women. This is the kind of struggle the female professor has been facing, yet she has
been successful in making changes in the University’s policy in hiring women.
However, she is an exception to the very patriarchal rule found within the power strata
of the educational system.
1
For a review of primary and secondary stakeholders please refer to appendix 3.1

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Power analysis diagram of relevant stakeholders

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Review of the existing literature and debates
By Chen Chen
Word Count: 1,307
Importance of Education:
While education continues to receive great attention in policy debates, reforming
education to provide adequate access and quality education, involves redefining the
role of government in education management and finance. Proponents of fiscal
decentralisation and decentralised education argue that decision-making in the
delivery of education services that are closer to the people, at lower levels of
government, may translate into better education service delivery and improved output
(Fiske 1996; Hanson and Ulrich 1994).
Theory of Decentralisation:
Decentralisation consists of a transfer of public functions from higher tiers to lower
tiers of governance. Rondinelli (1981) Deconcentration implies the “outsourcing of
central government functions to local or regional offices of the same”. Subnational
officials are appointed by the centre and are subject to directives from above. Demand
for equity and efficiency in local public services pushes the trends of decentralization.
Noted inefficiencies in the management and delivery of local public services, often
provided earlier through central government without a proper notion of local needs
and demands, which has raised the demand for decentralization to improve level,
quality and efficiency in delivering public services.
USAID (2010) has summarized the achievements and limitations of decentralisation
in Ethiopia regarding three aspects – political, fiscal and administrative – and four
intermediate objectives of authority, autonomy, accountability and capacity (see
appendix figure 2). Garcia and Rajkumar (2008) examine social services delivery in

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the contexts of decentralization with coverage of education sector. The potential to
provide better services through decentralisation is asserted but the constraints are also
critically analysed, such as inadequate resource and information at local level, poor
administrative capacity, unclear expenditure assignments and responsibilities, lack of
monitoring and enforcement and so on. Recommendations given are focused on
recruiting and retaining of teachers and stuffs, citizens and communities
empowerment, and accountability mechanisms to ensure the efficiency and equity of
decentralisation.
Local Economy
The economy of Ethiopia as a whole is growing quickly the exact percentage has been
debated but the World Bank has put the figure at 7.2% of GDP growth for 2014.
There GNI per Capita was at $320 in 2012, and the poverty percentage ratio of the
population was at 29.6% in 2011. And school enrolment was at 79% in 2005 – it has
risen considerably since. (World Bank, 2008).
Literature linking the education to the economy have two takes on the issue, one is the
practicality in terms of higher skills translating to higher productivity. The second
argument is based on the efficiency and capacity of the labour force to deal with local
issues effectively, and protecting the economy and knowledge systems from the
global systems. This was presented by Desta he argued in his various articles about
the importance of indigenous knowledge.
The World Bank produced a report in 2005 highlighting the clear and practical links
between education and poverty reduction through higher incomes and productivity.
Mainly the report argues that both in agriculture and the salaried professions those
with higher education levels had higher productivity and income. Furthermore

20. 20
households headed by people with higher levels of education even at a basic primary
level had higher incomes of around 32%.
The argument is made based on established hypothesis and is then reasoned in context
to data from the country to determine whether or not the hypothesis prove true. This
data clearly demonstrates that education has a big impact on the economy and
correlates directly to poverty reduction, both in the agricultural sector as well as the
salaried and private sector. This has clearly had an impact on policy by the
government to improve the education in recent years, hence it will be beneficial to
assess the reality in Ethiopia almost a decade after this report was produced, in order
to compare the progress made (World Bank, 2005).
Education Policy:
There are two key elements concerned as the basis of education quality: students’
cognitive learning (what achievement tests usually measure) and their social, creative,
inter-personal and emotional development. Cognitive learning is usually set as the
objective of education and also as indicators to measure quality despite various
measure targets and methods. Cognitive learning has been emphasized by Ethiopia’s
policies and includes student-centred knowledge, analytical thinking, and problem-
solving skills which are the bedrock of the 1994 National Education and Training
Policy (NETP) and the new curriculum (Transitional Government of Ethiopia 1994)
(Amare et al, 2006: 5). UNESCO (2004: 32-35) has released a report on education
quality outlining four approaches usually mix-used and dominating education
policies.
Tekeste Negash examined and compared the education policies of Ethiopia’s regimes
from 1941 to 2006 and found a correlation between poverty and poor education policy
(Telila, 2010: 59). Since 1991 Ethiopia has gone through decentralisation and big

21. 21
changes in education system. Both positive and negative sides of these changes are
debated by scholars. Almost all the articles recognized the recent expansion of the
educational system with basic access to education yet the quality of education has a
tendency of deterioration instead (Telila, 2010, pp. 61). Besides, scholars also
criticized that the expansion did not decrease the level of poverty.
Gender
The gendered effects of access to quality education are particularly well cited in the
available literature, with the constraints taking the broader headings of
socioeconomic, sociocultural and school related factors (Rose and Al-Samarrai,
2001). The most commonly cited socioeconomic reasons for lack of access to
schooling is due, in part, to household economics and the misallocation of resources
which favours the sending of male children over female when resources are
particularly stretched (Mulugeta, 2004). Due to the socialisation of patriarchal
gendered norms which values the education of boys as being able to see better returns
from education than girls, there is much more of a household work burden, with girls
facing more responsibility in participating in reproductive labour (Mulugeta, 2004;
Rose and Al-Samarrai, 2001).
Even when girls are enrolled in primary and secondary education, work within the
household diverts schoolgirls’ attention away from school work. This in turn leads to
higher drop-out rates and instances of grade repetition among girls, which is more
likely to be the case the larger a family is (Rose et al, 2001). An economically strained
household tends to reinforce cultural norms and the socialisation of gendered
differences (Mjaaland, 2010: 5), with women and girls suffering from a “reproductive
tax” (Palmer, 1995), that is higher opportunity costs vis-à-vis boys (Weir, 2000),
which decreases the chance of education as well as low absorption rates into the local
economy (Rose and Al-Samarrai, 2001).

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Cultural values and expectations particularly affect the enrolment and retention of
female students in the education system, and is something we found that hindered
their progress from senior secondary school level to university as well as employment
in the local economy. Instead of education this becomes a valued priority, which
therefore affects attendance and retention in the schooling system and
disproportionately affects girls2
. Conservative views on gender greatly affect the
mobility of girls and therefore access to education. In areas where schools are more
than ten kilometres away girls unlikely to be able to access schools due to distance.
Particular to the case of Tigray has been a generational shift towards an increased
recognition of the importance of education for girls (Maajland, 2010). Due to the role
of women in the TPLF movement in the region, new dialogues about female
participation in education have emerged (Mjaaland, 2010: 3). In general, trends in
Ethiopia show positive strides towards achieving gender parity in enrolment and
attendance at primary school level education (Unterhalter, 2010), with the Tigray
region actually showing greater enrolment of girls than boys at primary schools
(Mjaaland, 2010: 2) and it is arguable that historical context has allowed this to
become a possibility.
2
This is not something we found in the urban context of the city of Mekelle, but is
something which the literature informs as being a particular rural issue.

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Analytical Framework: Relationship between Decentralisation of Service
Provision and Poverty Reduction
By Raisa Chowdhury
Word Count: 1235 words
The World Bank (2001) defines poverty as “pronounced deprivation in well-being”
and highlights that poverty can include different features, including limited access to
education. According to advocates of decentralisation claim “reorganization will
improve the quality of teaching and learning by locating decisions closer to the point
at which they must be carried out and be energizing teachers and administrators to do
a better job” (Fiske 1996, p. 24).
This section will highlight the relationship between decentralisation of service
provision, particularly in the education sector, to poverty reduction. Decentralisation
can have both political and economic impact (OECD; 2004)3
. We have selected four
indicators for the quality of education, which also corresponds to the political and
economic impacts of decentralisation:
1) Participation
2) Policing
3) Efficiency
4) Curriculum
Political Impact:
Decentralisation of education is expected to allow citizens to have more voice and
encourage community involvement. By creating new institutions, decentralisation
empowers citizens by giving them greater voice and participation, and involving them
more so that they might play a greater role in management of services. This is expected
3
See appendix 4
Political Impact
Economic Impact

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to improve services, including education. If there is local independence, parental
contribution and community participation in school is considered to be a good
strategy for improvement. For our research, participation refers to participation of
students, teachers, parents and civil society organisations.
Decentralisation is also expected to strengthen accountability and improve
transparency. Also, decentralisation is a way to share power between different ethnic
groups (especially in ethnically divided regions) and this is expected to lead to
political stability. Due to greater voice, responsiveness and monitoring, accountability
relationships are also strengthened. “Policing” as an indicator for our research looks at
internal assessments carried out by schools and community, and external inspections
by Regional Education Bureau, woredas and kebelles.
Economic Impact:
Decentralisation should have a strong and positive impact on poverty through
increased efficiency and better targeting of services. Efficiency as an indicator for our
research looked at the infrastructure and the facilities within the educational
institutions. It is important to have a link between costs and benefits in order to
improve the efficiency of services. There is a greater scope for improved revenue
utilisation and increased budget available for programs when local governments have
the independence to charge fees and impose local taxations. Efficiency is ensured as
decentralisation eliminates bureaucratic procedures and motivates local officials to
take responsibility for resource allocation. Efficient allocation of resources takes place
as local government units are assumed to be more informed about local needs and be
responsive towards the communities they serve.
Decentralisation of education leads to improved targeting due to the institutionalised
linkage with beneficiary communities. This enables better and more responsive

25. 25
mechanisms that are able to distinguish between local changes in conditions,
standards, and market requirements. Again, community participation leads to
increased access to information and therefore better project performance through
improved targeting. As such, for our research, we used “curriculum” as a measure of
better targeting since it is designed and revised every five years to meet the local
development needs.
Analytical Framework: Linking decentralisation to poverty reduction
An improvement in the quality of education (measured by the four indicators:
participation, policing, efficiency and curriculum) is expected to create high skilled
labour in the region. The Ethiopian government has a target to become a middle-
Government Policy -
Decentralisation
Local Ownership of Education
Quality of Education Measured
By
Participation Policing Efficiency Curriculum
High Skilled Labour
Poverty Reduction
Government Development Policy

26. 26
income country by 2025, and this will be possible if the economy moves from
agriculture to manufacturing. Therefore there is a need for creation of high skilled
labour force. This is derived from important contributions by Kaldor (1966; 1967)
who states that manufacturing should be considered as the leading sector in economic
growth. The link between GDP and the rate of growth of manufacturing can be seen
in Kaldor’s first law - “the faster the rate of growth of manufacturing in the economy,
the faster will be its growth of GDP” (Dasgupta; 2006). We can also assume that the
employed labour will have higher income, leading to poverty reduction. In addition,
the employed labour will be able to pay higher taxes, which can be used as a source of
increased public expenditure by the government to further implement its development
policy.
Central governments in most developing countries are involved in financing and
regulating (standardising and monitoring) in many developing countries as primary
and secondary education tends to be a national priority. On the other hand, it is the
responsibility of the regional governments in most developed countries, such as the
United States. However, education decentralisation will only improve education
output in a context where democracy is working effectively, i.e. in which regional
governments are able to apprehend all local externalities, and institutions have
adequate capacity to respond to people’s needs. In the absence of these presumptions
it is argued that “decentralisation in education may increase disparities in access,
learning outputs, and disparities and inequality in expenditures” (Elmore, Fuller, and
Orfield 1996; Godwin and Kemerer 2002).
There are two sets of conditions that determine the impact of decentralisation on
poverty (OECD; 2004). They are as follows:
1) Background conditions:
 Country Setting: This includes population density, national
infrastructure, level of income and inequalities across regions. In

27. 27
countries with low GDP, resources may be drained for the
establishment of local institutions, and thereby leave minimal amount
for poverty reduction strategies.
 Capacity of local actors: In countries with weak government
accountability, decentralisation does not necessarily lead to pro-poor
outcomes.
 Political power structure: The institutional framework of checks and
balances is critical.
2) Process conditions:
 The capacity and willingness to carry out reforms: It is important to
have political commitment (at the national level), monetary means (at
the local level), and involvement of international donors in assisting to
plan and implement policies.
 Transparency and participation: Outcomes for the pro-poor growth
depend on the implementation of transparent and accountable
mechanisms, as well as the participation of local communities.
 Consistent Policies: Decentralisation will have greater effectiveness if
it is supported by other policy changes and if the course does not
oppose other efforts that are being carried out by the country.

28. 28
Methodology and Ethical Code
By Emily Snape
Word Count: 1,252
Main Question: “Following decentralisation, how has the quality of education
changed in senior secondary and universities in Mekelle to have an impact on poverty
reduction?”
Sub Questions:
 How has the level of participation of each stakeholder changed following
decentralisation?
 What are the policing mechanisms for quality of education following
decentralization?
 Have there been any improvements in infrastructure and facilities as a result of
decentralisation?
 How responsive is the curriculum to local development needs?
 Is there evidence that graduates are able to enter the high-skilled labor market
and able to participate in the local economy?
 Is there a divide between men and women in pursuing higher education? If so,
what are the reasons behind this?
Strategy for Collecting Primary and Secondary Data:
In order to collect a holistic interpretation of the quality of education found in
Mekelle, research triangulation was conducted through 75 semi-structured interviews,
including 25 formal interviews, 44 informal interviews and a focus group discussion.
Rational behind these informal interviews (mostly with students and teachers) was to
get an understanding of individual perspectives regarding satisfaction with the current
taught curriculum and facilities found on campus. Motivated in achieving a
comprehensive study of analysis, the purpose of conducting these informal and

29. 29
unsupervised interviews was to counteract challenges associated to receiving a biased
image of a school’s reputation.
In terms of sampling, we were able to visit all three public senior secondary schools,
one public TVET institution, and the only public university within the Mekelle region.
In doing so, 100 percent coverage of all public education institutions was
accomplished within the city4
. In terms of stakeholders interviewed, we only had
access to top-tier students, parents involved with PTA’s, teachers (including
principals and senior teachers), government officials and representatives supporting
NGO’s, such as the Tigray Development Association (TDA) and Relief Society of
Tigray (REST).
The objective of all formal interviews was to firstly understand the influence
administrative decentralisation in the education sector has transformed quality,
specifically looking at the four crucial indicators of our analytical framework: 1.
Participation, 2. Policing, 3. Efficiency and 4. Curriculum. Secondly, interview
questions regarding the role of gender were included to analyse the influence these
societal norms have had on these aforementioned indicators. A third focus of our
interviews looked at how interviewees felt about any barriers involved in their
entrance into the labour market, to establish an understanding of whether changes in
the education sector have reduced levels of poverty.
To overcome ethical considerations surrounding whether or not to record formal
interviews, our team delegated one individual to create a verbatim transcript of all
interviewee responses (see appendix 3.2). Benefits associated to the creation of this
transcript include allowing the interview to have better flow without interruption (of
4
It should be noted that our analysis was limited to research only public schools, despite
acknowledging the presence of private and religious schools. Our reasoning behind limiting
our study to these institutions was because these schools provide the most appropriate
representation of the role decentralization has had on the education sector.

30. 30
note taking), create a comprehensive narrative useful for our analysis, and reduce
levels of interviewer bias in interpretation. Another scope of qualitative analysis was
achieved through a focus group discussion with six TVET students. While this
experience proved beneficial in enabling an in depth discussion regarding our topic,
the main purpose of this activity was purely ethnographic in making observations
about the interactions witnessed between participants related to our analysis of
gender. Lastly, an alternative source of primary qualitative data collected includes a
photographic comparison of the standards of infrastructure and facilities observed in
each educational institution, e.g. toilets.
The main source of primary quantitative data was gathered from senior secondary
schools, TVET, and Mekelle University administrations. We collected sex-
disaggregated data from secondary and TVET institutions including; enrolment rates,
drop out rates, academic performance of students within different subjects. From
Mekelle University, figures were provided from the registration office on the gender
composition of staff and student within all departments. This information was
gathered in parallel to our gender parity analysis of female/male student participation
and performance. Such data is imperative in linking the realities of education quality
performance on the ground to national and regional statistics regarding the education
sector, ex: Education Statistics Annual Abstract (2012-13) and the Tigray’s Five Year
Plan (2010/11- 2014/15).
Ethical Considerations:
Particular considerations were taken into account when assessing how we would
conduct interviews and collect primary data, both on the part of the participants and
the researchers. Our primary concern was developing an equitable methodology in
collecting data and formation of interview questions, which were sensitive to
local/individual issues and contexts. Given the political environment of the Mekelle

31. 31
and Tigray region, there were particular constraints in how we were able to phrase
certain questions in our interviews in making sure they did not include any political
connotations and/or overtures.
This meant that primary and secondary stakeholders were unable or reluctant to talk
about advocacy, campaigning and issues surrounding human rights in the education
sector. With an understanding of this situation prior to our field research, we ensured
that our questions did not probe into sensitive issues that would make participants feel
uncomfortable about proceedings.
The issue of cultural sensitivity pervades the issue of what can be discerned as
sensitive information, which inherently is politically and culturally determined. As
researchers from backgrounds unfamiliar with the Ethiopian and Mekelle context, we
therefore found it appropriate to consult academics, particularly our facilitators and
members of the DPU staff, about the appropriateness of our interview questions. This
was used as a strategy to firstly mitigate against bias in the interview process as well
as avoiding posing questions which would be insensitive to local realities. However, it
should also be noted that our facilitators did hold a significant power in
influencing/selecting the individuals we were able to interview for our study.
An explicit choice we arrived at during discussions prior to the fieldtrip was the
emphasis on including children over the age of 16 as interview informants as it was
deemed insensitive to interview children lower than this age.
In relation to the participants of both our formal interviews and our focus group
session, the following ethical issues were considered prior to our research:
Prior to every interview it was mandatory to obtain the informed consent of voluntary
participants after notifying participants of the objective of our research and their

32. 32
particular relevance to the information being collected (Brydon, 2006; Phillips and
Johns, 2012: 79). If participants were unable to interpret the consent forms provided,
an oral translation was provided by our facilitator before they signed. The importance
of this was to allow the interviewee or focus group participants to be pre-warn them of
any risks associated to participating in our research, as well as establish a baseline
level of trust.
Confidentiality was of paramount concern, especially when regarding the safety and
anonymity of participants. For example our research has particular implications
regarding the issue of gender at Mekelle University, where we have discovered some
very fundamental gender inequalities through informal accounts. As our gender
analysis plays a predominate role in our report, we feel it necessary to protect the
identities of those students/staff involved where sensitive issues have cropped up
within our analysis of education at the university level. Though the identities of
interviewees are known by the researchers of the group, and have been included in
this research report (see appendix 3.4), confidential information will not be used in
any publications outside UCL’s Development Planning Unit.

33. 33
Section 2:
Report: findings, analysis and policy recommendations
Word Count: 3,225
Introduction
This section of the report summarises the key findings of our research, as measured by
the four indicators we have used to assess the quality of education that was collected
in the field.
To do this we will utilise our analytical framework to assess the performance of the
education sector in the region, as well as using it as a diagnostic tool to identify the
obstacles and opportunities in accessing quality of education across the three levels of
education that we have studied.
We then use our analysis to detail a set of policy recommendations which we believe
will ameliorate the quality of education in the Mekelle region, and explore avenues of
research which can supplement this process.
Findings
1. Obstacles and opportunities in achieving quality education
Based on the analytical framework, the research during the field trip to Mekelle was
concentrated on the four indicators of local education quality: participation, policing,
efficiency and curriculum. Secondary schools, TVET and university were picked to
collect information and compare four indicators at various levels.

34. 34
I. Participation
Students
As the recipients of education, students’ participation and voice are pivotal
considerations. Overall students faced dissatisfaction with the facilities across three
levels of education, TVET, senior secondary school and at a university level which
arguably. The students we interviewed at all three senior secondary schools expressed
discontent at the quality of the facilities available at the schools, with students
interviewed articulating a poor impression of the libraries present in each of the
schools. Alongside poor library facilities we generally found that the out-of-class
support for students was non-existent, a strong reason being the lack of support
teachers had themselves in terms of capacity building and on-the-job training from
relevant government ministries. Though in-class arrangements such as the 5-1
“educational army”, whereby top students mentor medium-low achieving students
seek to bridge educational and attainment gaps at an intra-pupil level, the quality of
education afforded per pupil vastly differed.
Girls also reported more concern with the toilet facilities at school, TVET and
university level, which affects girls who are middle to low achievers in the classroom.
For the girls at the top of their classes in the schools we interviewed this was cited as
an issue, but was given a low level of priority regarding their enrolment at school.
Boys found the toilets in a poor state as well, but not as much of an issue as their
female counterparts
Due to successes at policy level in mainstreaming the importance of good gender
practices at senior secondary school level, the participation of girls at a secondary
school level was equal to that of boys, with more girls than boys actually enrolled
across all three schools. However, having analysed data across three, we have found a

35. 35
general pattern which shows that the top performers in each school were, by and
large, male, with only a handful of girls achieving at the top of their classes.
Undoubtedly this affects the ability of females in pursuing higher education, with a
grade disparity particularly apparent between girls and boys. The gender ratio at
TVET and at Mekelle University was unbalanced in favour of males. Unfortunately
we were unable to access this data at a university level5
. However through interviews,
especially with a female alumnus who graduated from the university in the last year,
we were able to understand some of the social pressures young women face in
enrolling past senior secondary school level, as well as the gender inequalities faced
by women while enrolled at university.
Teachers
Due to the Post Graduate Diploma in Teaching (PGDT) government policy the
minimum qualifications for teachers at all three levels has increased. In order to
promote student centred teaching, PGDT gives training teachers the opportunity to
develop practical hours in observing classes and receiving feedback from both
students and mentor teachers concerning proposed class plans. Though this is a
needed and necessary step towards improving the quality of education within senior
secondary schools, the time it takes for prospective teachers to train to become fully
qualified can act to affect the stock of fully trained teachers available to serve
secondary schools. Teachers can receive on-the-job training and capacity building, but
this is not given in situ at the schools in which they are employed, but rather by
external actors or through self-motivation to travel to teacher training centres.
Motivation of teachers at senior secondary school, TVET and university level was
low. We discovered that this was due to the fact that a number of teachers whom we
interviewed were working on a voluntary basis or for minimal pay, as well
5
See appendix figure 6 for an overview of the male-female ratio across Ethiopian universities

36. 36
experiencing low-job satisfaction arising from poor teacher training provisions for
example. This is cause for some concern as it undeniable affects the quality of
education provided for students.
Parents
Given the heavily decentralised nature of senior secondary schools, whereby schools
are funded by bottom-up community approaches, parents whom we interviewed who
were members of PTA organisations identified the important role of community
fundraising in pooling resources towards the management, administration and
expansion of the schools they were involved in. The role of parents in this process is
largely voluntary, with members balancing paid employment with their PTA roles.
Parents very much play an active role participating in resource allocation for senior
secondary school, but play as passive role in TVET and university. Overall a
consistent role of parents across the three levels is the role they play as “initiators”
(Mulugeta, 2004), in the sense that their perception of the value of education dictates
involvement of not only the students interviewed, but also their classmates. Parental
expectations can largely inform and shape social constraints which limit the level of
female graduates studying at a higher education level.
Civil Society Organisations
As described with parents, CSO organisations form the social body which helps
financial assistance through fundraising for senior secondary school. These locally
embedded organisations also provided technical and material assistance in the form of
manpower and building materials respectively. They play an active role in the
physical building and expansion plans of senior secondary schools. This role is the
same at TVET level. Mekelle University is greatly involved in the local community
and provides vital technological, technical and knowledge inputs for stakeholders in

37. 37
the community. For example, the university is involved in soil conservation and
irrigation projects in the Tigray region, particularly applying critical research to help
local farmers become more productive in a harsh climate or in growing crops which
are more appropriate for this environment. In this sense there is a large degree of
knowledge sharing between civil society actors and Mekelle University.
II. Policing
Policing is essential for guaranteeing education quality, and in making sure the correct
institutional frameworks are put in place to regulate for an efficient and equitable
education system. Decentralisation has particularly provided PTA organisations and
civil society organisations with a large role to play in ensuring the quality of
education. PTAs also create an environment where mechanisms for dealing with
student and teacher malfeasance can be enforced. Internally, PTAs oversees the
outputs and inputs of education with the participation of both school teachers and
parents. They decide the priority list for investment in infrastructure expansion within
schools, and generally have a large role to play in the allocation of budgets within
schools. In essence PTAs self-regulate without the intervention of external actors.
Externally, Tigray Regional Education Bureau undertakes supervisions every three
years. Inspections are applied at the woreda and kebelle levels yearly and quarterly
respectively.
The framework for policing at TVET was not analysed as rigorously as we could not
contact the body in charge of the process. At university level the process of policing is
highly centralised, with the central government providing the assessment of
investment needs within university, as well providing the regulatory body in terms of
quality of education.

38. 38
III. Efficiency
The indicator of efficiency mainly focuses on school infrastructure and facilities. The
sanitation problems are severe in schools, both students and teachers are dissatisfied
with low quality toilets. Except university, all secondary schools and TVET don’t
have water to flush and wash hands in their toilets. Libraries are poorly built and the
books are insufficient and outdated. The satisfaction of science and ICT labs in
secondary schools and universities are low due to inadequate equipment and
computers as well as inaccessibility to Internet. Another problem in secondary schools
is their cramped seating that 3 to 4 students have to share one table together and one
classroom is overcrowded with 60 to 70 students. For an illustration of facilities at the
school we have attached photographs to the appendix (se appendix 5)
IV. Curriculum
The curriculum decides the contents of education. For secondary schools, curriculums
are revised every 5 years according to findings of inspections and assessment to fill
the gaps and respond to local and governmental needs. Students have to share one
textbook with 2 to 3 classmates and return books to school after their graduation. This
greatly affects grade attainment in the classroom More and new textbooks are needed.
Students in TVET have their own textbooks which are only revised when relevant
guidelines or criteria are changed. Additionally, students complained about
overemphasis on theory and lack of practice in secondary schools and university,
especially the university students are worried about their job hunting after graduation
without any practical experiences.
At present government policy dictates that 70% of the curriculum is dedicated
towards the natural sciences compared to 30% directed towards the social science.
This dictates local development plans and thereby defines the types of jobs available

39. 39
on the job market for university graduates. This particularly has gendered
implications, as subjects within the remit of natural sciences, which include physics,
medical degrees, biology and chemistry which are traditionally male-oriented career
paths. This arguably limits the effects of poverty reduction on women through
creating an inefficient allocation of resources.
The current curriculum is also constrained by lack of infrastructural development at
senior secondary schools, TVET and at Mekelle University. Students at senior
secondary school who are interested in, or study more practical subjects or degrees,
face particular issues relating to the lack of adequate facilities. TVET students,
conversely, complain at the lack of theoretical application to their studies, and find
that they have to enrol at university level in order to gain a holistic understanding of
their chosen subjects. University students faced similar problems to senior secondary
school students, and were unhappy with the facilities (most noticeably IT and science
laboratories), which results in a curriculum which is overly theoretical for the
demands of students studying in the natural sciences sector.
Gender disparities in grade attainment at senior secondary school level
Primary data, collected at each of the three senior secondary schools regarding grade
attainment, reflect notable gender inequalities. In this section of the report we include a
cumulative collection of this data in form of pie charts (see over the page) to better illustrate
the trend we found in the schools between boys and girls on aggregate. The left hand column
shows the number of males (first pie chart) and the number of females (second pie chart) in
the bottom grade percentile per school (which we set at 50 and lower). The right hand
column shows the number of males (first pie chart) and the number of females
(second pie chart) in the top grade percentile (which we set accordingly at 85 and
over). We found that, despite the fact that there were a higher number of females than
males enrolled in all three schools, the number of girls in the bottom percentile was

40. 40
higher than boys. However, in the top percentile, the number of boys was higher than
girls. Given the fact that we included all three schools in the Mekelle region, this
strongly emphasises the gender bias in access to education which in turn affects the
ability of female students to pursue university level education.
Comparative pie charts for aggregate data disaggregated by sex

41. 41
Further Research and Policy Recommendations
1. Quantity of education must also be met with quality by improving each of
the indicators in the analytical framework
 Revolving class planning around “student centered learning” to include
subjects outside of local issues. In-class activities, discussions and debates
should also be introduced.
 Following this, expand the selection of taught subjects and have an even
balance of theory and practice in all educational institutions.
 Participation in the educational army should be made a compulsory module for
all students.
 Citizens should be involved in accountability mechanisms such as community
scorecard process to assess the performance and quality of education taking
place within all educational institutions.6
This can also be used to generate a
database of feedback on services that is placed in the public domain.
 The current toilets are unhygienic and almost non-existent for many students,
particularly girls. Hygienic sanitation is a key to increase the enrollment rates
and will reduce absence rate of students who catch diseases caused by the
unhygienic sanitation of the current sanitation facilities. As such, there needs
to be an increased budget allocation towards the upgrading and maintenance of
toilets for students. Cleaners should be given a daily schedule, instead of the
current weekly schedule.
 The experience of introducing different ICTs in the classrooms suggests that
the staff did not fully realize the potential educational benefits of ICTs.
Various competencies of teachers must be developed throughout the
educational system for ICT integration to be successful. Teacher professional
6
Community Scorecard: World Bank and UN

42. 42
development in skills with particular applications and integration into existing
curriculum. It is also necessary to have stable Internet connections for
university students in order to access online articles and journals.
Further Research:
 Long-term studies should be conducted to look at the architecture of
investment from government as well as donors, particularly in terms of teacher
remuneration, training, and infrastructure.
2. Policy to tackle existing youth unemployment
 Set up career counselling at universities and TVET institutions, host annual
job fairs and set up job centres in every city to match prospective applicants to
job vacancies in the market.
 Increased access to finance for young entrepreneurs, such as micro-credit and
revolving funds for group-based lending, specifically for women.
 Create an enabling environment to promote the growth of niche markets, such
as white honey, and compete in national and global markets. Additionally,
expand service sector industries, such as tourism, which will attract
investment, create a new market for employment, and gain foreign exchange.
Further research:
 We would suggest conducting further research on the credentials and
limitations to receiving government loans, as well studies that look at the
success rates of existing loans.

43. 43
 It would be useful to have increased transparency regarding information on
current employment patterns to encourage both domestic and international
investment, specifically angel investors.
3. Better support for young women transitioning into higher education and
those currently enrolled in the education system
 Creation of women’s groups within universities tackling social issues such as
sexual harassment, pressures of early marriage, as well as to increase the
security and empower the livelihoods of female students. This should include
a staff liaison responsible for addressing any pressing issues.
 Improved childcare support at the state and university level by the creation of
a day-care facility, maternity leave policies and networking “big sister-little
sister” model for employment, references and advice.
Further Research:
 Need for further advocacy efforts by both regional and national organisations
to eliminate social stigmas associated with women receiving higher education.
4. Provide incentives for teachers
 Every school should practice knowledge management in order to redesign and
updated schools knowledge practices as part of their professional development
process and internal training in enhancing teachers’ performances.
 According to a study by DFID, the “minimum household survival incomes for
teachers are typically two-three times more than the basic government salary
(including allowances), and frequently more than this” (Bennell and
Akyeampong 2004). As such, it may be necessary to provide the basic salary,

44. 44
as well as performance related pays. It may also be good to have individual
payment schemes for each subject, as certain subjects may have greater
shortage of teachers.
 Teacher’s union should be created as a platform to collectively use their
strength to have a voice to discuss issues such as low pay, lack of capacity
building training, etc.
Further Research:
 Further research can be carried out on the main barriers preventing the entry of
female teachers into the education system. The research can also examine
current gender equality policies and professional development policies within
the institutions, as well as the effectiveness of the government’s quota policy.
5. Supporting organisations to address rural/urban linkages
 Create effective transport systems since many boys and girls have to commute
long distance to get access to quality education. The local government should
work with rural people to identify transport needs, possible interventions,
priorities and to design the most appropriate projects that will improve
people’s mobility.
 Safe and secure boarding schools need to be set up to prevent fear and
isolation, especially for girls moving from rural to urban areas at a young age.
 An improved rural infrastructure is a necessary condition for developing rural
areas. This brings to the fore the urgent need for developing countries to
design and implement realistic urban-rural and spatial infrastructure policies
and begin setting up secondary schools in rural areas as well.

45. 45
Further Research:
 There is a need to examine the difference in performance between urban and
rural boys and girls
 There is a need to conduct a rural transportation needs-assessment in the
region and evaluate current policies and implementation process in place.
Conclusion
Our research has identified that while decentralisation has played a vital role in
improving the quality of education in the Mekelle region, there are still some
improvements to be made. Our findings reflect a reality which can be argued as being
entirely different from the forecasts and predictions at government and policy level.
Though it is arguable that there is a general push towards quality of education, taking
into account the central government’s GEQIP plan for example, we feel that our
findings present a reality which is very much different
.
Rapid GER rates in senior secondary schools is promising, and much needed to
stimulate growth, but the quality of education is being compromised by a lack of
sustained and upgraded investment in the creation of new schools in the general area
of Mekelle as well as investments in teacher quality. If the region is to improve, it
must also consider that the success of students is highly dependent on investments in
quality training. High quality teacher training results in a highly prosperous and
skilled work force which is headed towards a middle-income growth pattern. This
therefore allows greater fiscal expenditure on education to therefore increase the tax
base to be able to upgrade the per-student expenditure average of 20 Birr per student,
which is currently not enough to ensure quality education per head.

46. 46
We also analysed the gender perspective of access to quality of education, which we
argued is highly imbalanced, based on our own data which informed us that girls are
underachieving at senior secondary school, thus finding greater barriers to tertiary
education (see appendix 6). This also expands onto the job market, where young
women are finding it harder to find similar employment opportunities to men.

47. 47
Section 3:
References:
Asgedom, A et al, (2006), Quality in Education, Teaching, and Learning: Perceptions
and Practice, USAID.
Bennell, P and Akyeampong, (2004), “Teacher Motivation in Sub-Saharan Africa and
South Asia”
Bureau of Plan and Finance, (2003), Five Years (2010/11 - 2014/15) Growth &
Transformation Plan, Mekelle: Bureau of Plan and Finance.
Daba, O.T., (2010), “Decentralization and Community Participation in Education in
Ethiopia: A case of three woredas in Horro Gudduru Wollaga Zone of Oromia
National Regional State”
Desta, A., (2010a), Comprehending Globalization and Local Development, Ethiopian
Journal for Research and Innovation Foresight 2 (Special Issue on Education), pp.71-
83
Desta, A, ( 2010b), “Indigenous Knowledge In the Context of Natural Resource
Mangement: An Information System Perspective”
Dickovick, J.T. and Gebre-Egziabher, T., (2010), Comparative Assessment of
Decentralization in Africa: Ethiopia Desk Study, USAID.
Elmore, R.F., and Fuller, B., (1996), “Empirical Research on Educational Choice:
What Are the Implications for Policy-Makers?”

48. 48
Ethiopian Economics Association., (2011), Financial Sector Development in Ethiopia:
Performance, Challenges and Policy Issues, Report on the Ethiopian Economy
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) and Ministry of Finance and
Economic Development Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (2002),
Ethiopia: Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (SDPRP), Addis
Ababa: FDRE and MOFED.
Federal Ministry of Education, (2010), Education Sector Development Program IV
(ESDP IV) 2010/2011 – 2014/2015, Addis Ababa: Federal Ministry of Education.
Federal Ministry of Education, (2008), General Education Quality Improvement
Package (GEQIP), Addis Ababa: Federal Ministry of Education.
Fiske, E.B, (1996), “Decentralization of Education: Politics and Consensus”
Garcia, M. and Rajkumar, A.S., (2008), Achieving Better Service Delivery through
Decentralization, Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
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Conceptual Framework for the Economic Impact.Hamburg: German Overseas
Institute.
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Hanson, M.E., and Caroline Ulrich, (1994), “Democracy, Decentralization and
School-Based Management in Spain.” La Educación 38 (118): 319-31

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International Fund for Agricultural Development, (2005), “Performance and Impact in
Decentralizing Environments: Experiences from Ethiopia, Tanzania and Uganda”
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Ethiopia, Mekelle.
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Multilingual Literacy Education in Ethiopia", African Studies Review, 3 (3), 65-82.
Retrieved from http://jstor.org.gate2.library.lse.ac.uk/stable/524187
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Sustained Development to End Poverty (2005/06-2009/10), Volume I and II, Addis
Ababa: Ministry of Finance and Economic Development and the Bureau of Planning
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Mekelle: Bureau of Plan and Finance.
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Addis Ababa, Republic of Ethiopia
Ministry of Education, (2010), "Education Sector Development Program IV", Addis
Ababa, Republic of Ethiopia

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Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED), (2006), A Plan for
Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP) (2005/06-
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strategies of rural female students in Ethiopia”, Eastern Africa Social Science
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Weir, S. (2000), “Concealed Preferences : parental attitudes to education and
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53. 53
Appendices
Appendix 1
Code of Conduct:
Group members will try their best to attend all arranged meetings. If this is not
possible it is required for group members to notify the project manager in advance .
Group members will do their best to be sensitive and informed to the local context in
terms of culture, customs, values and environment of Ethiopia, as well as that of their
colleagues.
All group members will do their best to contribute, collaborate and input towards the
report as a whole.
Group members will do their best to submit their work in a timely manner. Where this
is not possible, the team member in question will inform other members in advance in
order to make arrangements accordingly.
If any issues arise as to the direction of the report during the team’s field research,
group members will be encouraged and facilitated by the project manager to reach a
unanimous decision, or at least a democratic consensus if possible. In order to inform
this process better, team members will consult our facilitator and translator first and
foremost, before referring any issues to DPU staff.
Where possible, the project manager will ensure that meetings are arranged in
advance so as not to impose upon professionals and students, all of whom have busy
schedules. Whilst we acknowledge and are aware that the interview schedule is likely
to change during our visit to Mekelle, we will try to arrange meetings with
stakeholders in good time rather than turning up unannounced.
For all written work, members will follow the Harvard Referencing System

54. 54
Group members must obtain the informed consent of all interview participants by
using the Model Interview Consent Sheet provided by the DPU
All interview participants will be informed about the purpose of the group’s research
proposal prior to every interview in order to inform positionality within the education
sector
Group members will use the team’s private Facebook group as a platform for sharing
information, sources and data pertinent to the project’s research. It will also be used as
a means by which the project manager will consolidate all team members’ work into
the project report.

55. 55
Appendix 2.1 Education Sector covered in the Matrix by Component in PASDEP (2005/06-2009/10)
Source: PASDEP, 2006, pp.8

56. 56
Appendix 2.1 (cont.)
Source: PASDEP, 2006, pp.9

57. 57
Appendix 2.2
Main Challenges listed in ESDP IV:
Source: ESDP IV, (2010:19)

58. 58
Appendix 3.1
Stakeholder Analysis:
Stakeholder
Stake in
Project
Impact
(1/4)
Responsibilities
Contact Details
Students primary n/a
Parents primary 4
Parent Teacher
Association
primary 4
• Tigray Region Teacher's Association - PO Box 24536, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: +251 344 400207/344 409 498
Teachers/Deans primary 3
• Promote student enrolment as 'community members' and facilitate higher
school performance .
Secondary Schools in Mekelle: none-governmental (1), governmental (5), private
(10):
1. (non-governmental) Nicolas Robinson Secondary School – backed by
Rainbows4Children (Swiss)
Tel: +417 862 62364
2. Alpha International Academy
Tel: +251 344 417451
3. ATSE Yohannes Prepatory School
Tel: +251 344 440 0030
4. Ayder Secondary School
Tel: +251 344 41963
Universities:
Mekelle University – PO Box 231, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia.
Tel: +251 344 404 4005
* Community primary 4
Offer support in determining school infrastructure and maintenance, management
and administration, teacher support and supervision, and classroom support,
specifically:
• Mekelle City Education Bureau
- Contribute expenditure to regional education (= 30% of all gov. contributions in
2000)
- Community ownership over issues of school disciplinary
- Assessment of teachers performance
- Participate in student recruitment
* Woreda
Education Offices
(WEO)
secondary 3
Manages education systems up to secondary level:
• Tigray Regional Education Bureau - Tel: + 251 11 34 44 08 296• Overall recruitment and training of head teachers
• Ensuring standards and accreditation of institutions

59. 59
• Implementing and evaluating projects
• Administering primary and secondary schools
• Monitoring and supervising programs
• Enhancing community participation by establishing administrative boards
(Kebele), PTAs and other committees
• Developing inter-school integration and coordination
* Kebele Education
and Training Board
(KETB)
secondary 4
• Allocating school budgets and teacher distribution
* Regional
Education Bureau
(REB)
secondary 3
Prepare strategic plans for the region at the federal level, within the approved
framework:
• Plan, administer and direct education from the pre-school to junior college level
in line with the country’s education policy;
• Monitor the implementation of education policy in the region;
• Adapt the national curricular framework, particularly that of primary and pre-
primary education, to the region’s specific needs and culture;
• Build, rehabilitate, maintain and repair educational establishments (secondary
schools, TVET and teacher training schools) in the region;
• Train, employ, manage and dismiss teachers and other educational staff;
• Supply educational materials and equipment, and issue certificates;
• License the establishment of private institutions of education (primary,
secondary and middle-level TVETs); initiate enhance the participation of the
community.
• Tigray Regional Education Bureau - Tel: + 251 11 34 44 08 296

60. 60
Local NGOs secondary 2
Offer technical and financial support.
• Capacity Building- offer financial support in a 'gap filing' capacity to the
education sector
• Support the Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP) 1997.
LOCAL NGO
• CARE International - PO Box 4710, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Email: www.care.org.et
• Relief Society of Tigray (REST) – 211 Clapham Rd, London, SW9 0QH, UK.
Tel: +44 20 035 967
• Ethiopian Economics Association (EEC) – PO Box 34282, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Contact: Fitsum Estifanos
Tel: +251 11 6453 200
Email: eea@ethionet.et
• Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) – PO Box 20882, 22 Mazoria,
Djibouti Rd, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: +251 11 618 0260
Email: fawe.ethiopia@ethionet.et
• Ethiopian Youth Educational Support (EYES) – PO Box 839, Mekelle, Tigray,
Ethiopia.
Contact: Bisrat Mesfin (Manager)
Tel: +251 344 402 067
Email: www.e-yes.org/wwwa-cet.org (funder)
International NGOs secondary 2
Offer technical and financial support.
• Capacity Building- offer financial support in a 'gap filing' capacity to the
education sector
• Support the Education Sector Development Program (ESDP) 1997.
INT NGO (UK)
• CARE International – 89 Albert Embankment (9th Floor), Vauxhall, London, SE1
7TP, UK.
Tel: +44 20 7091 6000
• Relief Society of Tigray (REST)/Tigray Development Association (same office) –
211 Clapham Rd, London, SW9 0QH, UK.
Tel: +44 20 035 967
Email: rest@ethionet.et
• Link Ethiopia – Peel Center, Percy Circus, London, WC1X NEY, UK.
Contact: Matt Stockdale (Head of Operations)
Tel: +44 20 8045 4558
Email: matt@linkethiopia.org

61. 61
International
Donors
secondary 2
Main focus of technical and financial support:
• Capacity Building Initiative - where a representative from each bilateral and
multilateral partner has formed a think-tank to identify missing gaps in
Ethiopia’s education policy.
• Experiential 'stock-taking', or policy/sector analyses to inform policy dialogue
and development
Coordination among International Donors take part in the Development
Assistance Committee (DAC) - DfID, European Commission, Italy, Netherlands,
Belgium, Irish Development Cooperation, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, SIDA,
UNICEF, USAID, UNESCO, JICA and WB. Recent work:
• USAID assisted in a training program focused on educational planning and
management for the heads of REBs
• JICA trained planners from the regional and woreda levels of the Oromia
Region in school mapping and micro-planning
• UNESCO assisted in the collection, storage, analysis and dissemination of
education data (2007)
Bilateral
• Italian Embassy – PO Box 1105, Villa Italia, Kebena, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Tel +251 11 123 5689
• Netherlands Embassy – Old Airport Zone, Kifle Ketema – Lindeta, Kebele 02/03,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: +251 11 371 1100
• Belgium Embassy – PO Box 1239, Comoros St, Yeka Kifle-Ketema, Kebele 08,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Tel: +251 11 662 3420
• Swedish Embassy (SIDA) – PO BOX1442, Addis Ababa
Tel: +251 11 158 0030
• Irish Embassy (Irish Development Cooperation) – PO Box 9585, Guinea Conakry
St, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: +251 11 518 0500
• USAID - PO Box 1014, Entondo St, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Tel: +251 11 130 6002
• European Commission – PO Box 5570, Cape-Verde Rd, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Tel: +251 11 661 2511
• DFID - PO Box 858, Comoros St, Addis Ababa , Ethiopia.
Tel: +251 11 661 2354
• JICA - P.O Box 5384, MINA Building, Kebele 02, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Tel: +251 11 550 4755
Multilateral
• UNESCO - P.O. Box 2996, ECA New Building, Menelik Avenue, Addis Ababa
Ethiopia.
Tel: +251 11 551 3953
• UNICEF - P.O. Box 1169. Africa Hall, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Tel: +251 11 5515155.
• World Bank – PO Box 5515, Africa Avenue (Bole Road), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Tel: +251 11 627 7700

62. 62
* Regional
Education Bureau
(REB)
secondary 3
Offer technical and financial support.
• Capacity Building Initiative - where a representative from each bilateral and
multilateral partner has formed a think-tank to identify missing gaps in
Ethiopia’s education policy.
• USAID assisted in a training program focused on educational planning and
management for the heads of REBs
• JICA trained planners from the regional and woreda levels of the Oromia
Region in school mapping and micro-planning
• UNESCO assisted in the collection, storage, analysis and dissemination of
education data (2007)
Ministry of
Education (MoE)
secondary 2
Prepare strategic plans for the region at the federal level, within the approved
framework:
• Plan, administer and direct education from the pre-school to junior college level
in line with the country’s education policy;
• Monitor the implementation of education policy in the region;
• Adapt the national curricular framework, particularly that of primary and pre-
primary education, to the region’s specific needs and culture;
• Build, rehabilitate, maintain and repair educational establishments (secondary
schools, TVET and teacher training schools) in the region;
• Train, employ, manage and dismiss teachers and other educational staff;
• Supply educational materials and equipment, and issue certificates;
• License the establishment of private institutions of education (primary,
secondary and middle-level TVETs); initiate enhance the participation of the
community.
PO Box 1367, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: +251 115553133

63. 63
Ministry of
Capacity Building
(MOCB)
secondary 1
Formulates national education policy:
• Monitor the education and training standards of woreda administrations
• Monitoring the implementation of education policies and ensuring that these
standards are respected Tel:+251 115572227
Ministry of
Construction and
Urban Development
secondary 1
Provide policy directions, coordination and implementation support
PO BOX 24134/1000, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: +251 115541261
Email: tekesteab@ethionet.et
Ministry of Federal
Affairs (MOFA)
secondary 1
Design, construction and contracting of all educational projects.
PO Box 5718, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: +251 115537373
Ministry of Finance
and Economic
Development
(MOFED)
secondary 1
provides financial assistance to regions with particular emphasis on those least
developed & macro level budgeting for the education sector PO Box 1037, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: +251 115552400
Email: meda2@telecom.net.et

64. 64
Appendix 3.2
List of stakeholders interviewed:
Date Time Organization/Institution Interviewee Position Type of Interview (Formal/Informal/Focus Group)
05/05/2014 11:00am Addis University Mahilet Tamret Student Informal
Addis University
Mekedes
Tekeste Student Informal
Addis University Abel Shiferau Student Informal
Addis University Binyam Fikru Student Informal
Addis University Yanatar Mulatu Student Informal
2:00pm
Agro Pastoralist
Development Association Elias Guya ? Formal
08/05/2014 9:30am
Yohannes Preparatory
Senior Secondary School
Lettcmart
Kahshy Parent/PTA Formal
Yohannes Preparatory
Senior Secondary School Mr. Araya Parent/PTA Formal
Yohannes Preparatory
Senior Secondary School
Beyene
Yohannes Senior Teacher Formal
Yohannes Preparatory
Senior Secondary School Gher Gebru Principle Formal
Yohannes Preparatory
Senior Secondary School
Solomon
Germay Student (M) Formal
Yohannes Preparatory
Senior Secondary School
Sarah
Teklehaimanat Student (F) Formal
Yohannes Preparatory
Senior Secondary School Students x8 Informal
11:00am
Tigray Regional Education
Bureau Mr. Ali PR Director Formal
Daniel Seife
Quality
Assurance Officer Formal
3:00pm Ministry of Capacity Tirfu Head of Civil Formal

65. 65
Building Kindanemariam Service
4:00pm TVET Wasie Ibrahem Student (M) Focus Group
TVET Hareg Haile Student (F) Focus Group
TVET Rigbe Alem Student (F) Focus Group
TVET Redwan Said Student (M) Focsu Group
TVET
Letemedhn
Areya Student (F) Focus Group
TVET Grmanesh Hafte Student (F) Focus Group
TVET Zinabu Desalew Teacher Formal
TVET Terkit Gilassie Teacher Formal
Gesellschaft für
Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) Cheryll Garay
Capacity Building
Officer/Teacher Formal
N/A Teacher x2 Informal
09/05/2014 9:30am REST
Menguste
Gerresse
Director of
Communications Formal
Weldu Niguse Secondary
and Preperatory School
Mulugeta
Gebrekrstos Principle Formal
Weldu Niguse Secondary
and Preperatory School Sisay Werede English Teacher Formal
Weldu Niguse Secondary
and Preperatory School
Mebrouhtu
M/Slassie Student (M) Formal
Weldu Niguse Secondary
and Preperatory School Luwam Ali Student (F) Formal
Weldu Niguse Secondary
and Preperatory School Students x2 Informal
Weldu Niguse Secondary
and Preperatory School Teachers x2 Informal
12:00pm
Ayder Preperatory
Secondary School Kibrom Tidel Principle? Formal

66. 66
TOTALS:
Focus Group: 6
Formal: 25
Informal: 44
Ayder Preperatory
Secondary School Haile Borhe VP? Formal
Ayder Preperatory
Secondary School Kitsila Tarike VP? Formal
Ayder Preperatory
Secondary School
Hatteselassie
Zemmariam Student (M) Formal
Ayder Preperatory
Secondary School
Meron
G/Yohannes Student (F) Formal
10/05/2014 10:00am
Tigray Development
Association (TDA)
Weldeslasie
Kelkay
Director of
Communications
and PR Formal
Bilen
Mekelle
University
Alumni Informal
11/05/2014 3:30pm Mekelle University Students x2 Formal
Students x24 Informal

67. 67
Appendix 3.3
Research questions:
Senior Secondary
Objective: To gain an insight into why the students have (individually or as a family) they
have continued with their formal education
Type of interview: Individual Interviews
Number of Students: 2
Research Questions:
 Aspirations
 Expectations
 Siblings
 Potential remittance
 Commute and Access (Distance to school)
 Gaps in the curriculum
 Satisfaction with curriculum
 Feelings about infrastructure (how it affects their quality of education)
 Impact on their position in the society (social standing)
 How do they feel about the teachers?
 Do they face some kind of pressure from home?
 Social pressures faced by girls?
 How do you feel about being in a mixed class-room?
 Parents’ education?
 Do you think going through higher education reduces vulnerability? For example,
seasonal shocks affecting food supply.
 Are you planning migrate for work or return to your home?
 Do you plan on pursuing further education?
TVET Focus Group Discussion
Objective: To gain an insight into why the students have (individually or as a family)
continued with their formal education and to see whether the government’s plans are
supporting them.
Type of interview: Focus Group Discussions
Number of Students: 4-5
Research Questions:
 Aspirations
 Expectations
 Potential remittance
 Commute and Access (Distance to school)

68. 68
 Satisfaction with course
 Feelings about infrastructure (how it affects their quality of education)
 Impact on their position in the society
 How do they feel about the teachers?
 Do they face some kind of pressure from home?
 Social pressures faced by girls?
 How do you feel about being in a mixed class-room?
 Parents’ education?
 How are you funding your education?
 Are you planning migrate for work or return to your home?
 Do you feel that the institution is helping you to advance your career?
 Are you part of any local institutions or projects?
 Do you vote in national elections?
 Do you think going through higher education reduces vulnerability? For example,
seasonal shocks affecting food supply.
 Did you consider going to university instead of TVET?
University Focus Group Discussion
Objective: To gain an insight into why the students have (individually or as a family)
continued with their formal education and to see whether the government’s plans are
supporting them.
Type of interview: Focus Group Discussions
Number of Students: 4-5
Research Questions:
 Aspirations
 Expectations
 Potential remittance
 Commute and Access (Distance to school)
 Satisfaction with course
 Feelings about infrastructure (how it affects their quality of education)
 Impact on their position in the society
 How do they feel about the teachers?
 Do they face some kind of pressure from home? (both boys and girls)
 Social pressures faced by girls?
 How do you feel about being in a mixed class-room?
 Parents’ education?
 How are you funding your education?
 Are you planning for migrate for work or return to your home?
 Do you feel that the institution is helping you to advance your career?
 Are you part of any local institutions or projects?
 Are you part of student politics?
 Do you vote in national elections?
 Do you think going through higher education reduces vulnerability? For example,
seasonal shocks affecting food supply.
 Did you consider going to TVET instead of university?

69. 69
Parents (part of PTA)
Objective: To understand the links between community and teachers, and how much
influence they have on the politics of the education system.
Type of interview: Individual Interviews
Number of Parents: 1
Research Questions:
 How did you get elected in this position?
 Does this affect your social standing?
 Does this have an effect on your view of teachers?
 How much of an influence do you have the education system?
 What challenges do you face?
 Do you have power to influence something?
 What are some of the improvements that you made?
 Where would you like to see the school in 5 years’ time?
 Do your children go to school? If so, how many?
 Is it a problem trying to get new members in the PTA?
 Education level?
 How do you feel about education?
 Do you think you are getting the support from government and NGOs?
 Who are the most supportive bodies?
 How often do they meet?
 Who are the attendants?
 Do your external duties affect your participation in the PTA?
 Are educational policies being discussed in these sessions?
 How do you think the education system has changed over the years?
 Potential remittance
 Commute and Access (Distance to school)
 Satisfaction with course
 Feelings about infrastructure (how it affects their quality of education)
 Impact on their position in the society
 How do they feel about the teachers?
 Do they face some kind of pressure from home? (both boys and girls)
 Social pressures faced by girls?
 How do you feel about being in a mixed class-room?
 Parents’ education?
 How are you funding your education?
 Are you planning for migrate for work or return to your home?
 Do you feel that the institution is helping you to advance your career?
 Are you part of any local institutions or projects?
 Are you part of student politics?
 Do you vote in national elections?
 Do you think going through higher education reduces vulnerability? For example,
seasonal shocks affecting food supply.
 Did you consider going to TVET instead of university?
 What are some of the pressing issues you had to deal with this year?