This document provides guidance on managing sickle cell disease in community care settings. It discusses screening, preventing, and treating common complications of sickle cell disease. Key points include screening children for stroke risk with annual transcranial Doppler ultrasounds and treating vasoclusive crises and acute chest syndrome promptly with analgesics and antibiotics respectively. Immunizations against pneumonia and meningitis are also recommended.

1. Sickle cell
anemia
manageme
nt
Prepared by Dr. Saad Shamsy.
Dr. Taher Kariri , family medicine specialist.

2. Objectives
• How to Care for Patients with SCD in the Community
Care Setting
• To know common acute and chronic complications of
SCD and how to treat them
• To know the protocol for initiation of hydroxyurea
therapy in patients with sickle cell disease
• To know recommendations for acute transfusion in
patients with sickle cell disease

3. Contents
• Introduction
• Screening
• Prevention
• Immunizations
• Complications
• Disease-Modifying Therapies

4. Introduction
 Sickle Cell Disease is a genetic disorder that results
in the formation of sickled red blood cells (RBCs).
Hemoglobin S (HbS) is an abnormal hemoglobin
that results from the substitution of a valine for
glutamic acid as the sixth amino acid of the beta
globin chain.
homozygous for sickle hemoglobin (HbSS, also
called sickle cell anemia [SCA])
 One sickle hemoglobin gene plus a gene for
another abnormal hemoglobin type (e.g., HbSβ+-
thalassemia, HbSC).

5. Introduction
  Deoxygenated RBCs ------→ HbS develop
a sickle or crescent shape ------→
inflexible ------- → increase blood
viscosity -------→ block or limit blood flow
within limbs or organs.
  Aggravated ----- → abnormal
interactions of these RBCs with
leukocytes, platelets, vascular
endothelium, and clotting factors---- →
acute and chronic complications.

6. Introduction
HbA HbA2 HbS HbC HbF Condition
95 to 98 2.5 0 0 < 1 Normal
50 to 60 < 3.5 35 to 45 0 < 2 Sickle cell trait
0 < 3.5 85 to 95 0 2 to 15 Sickle cell anemia
0 < 3.5 45 to 50 45 to 50 1 to 8 Sickle-HbC disease
5 to 30 > 3.5 65 to 90 0 2 to 10
Sickle-beta ( + )
thalassemia
0 > 3.5 80 to 92 0 2 to 15
Sickle-beta ( 0 )
thalassemia
90 to 95 > 3.5 0 0 1 to 3
Beta thalassemia
minor

8. Introduction
The baseline complete blood count (CBC) and peripheral blood
smear in individuals with SCD typically shows the following
findings :
●Hemoglobin level : 8 to 10 g/dL
●Hematocrit : 20 to 30 percent
●Polychromasia and reticulocytosis (typical reticulocytecount
approximately 3 to 15 percent)
●Sickled cells
●Howell Jolly bodies (nuclear remnants that have not been
phagocytosed, due to reduced splenic function)
●Mildly increased white blood cell (WBC) count in some cases

9. 2.Epidemiology
-Sickle gene originates from Africa and India but
becauseof globalisation its now spreading world
wide (1 per 625 live births inAmerica, Medscape).
-Thushighest incidence are found in Subsaharan
Africa, India and Middle East.
-M:F=1:1
-Median ageto acquire renal failure is 23.1years
and life expectancy is 27years regardless of dialysis
(medscape) ie. SCA

10. 3.Pathogenesis.
-SCDis causedby apoint mutation at position 6 of the
beta hb gene in which ahydrophilic glutamic acid is
replaced by valine.
-Thesusceptible RBCsonce subjected to an
oxygen tension of <40mmHg for about 2-4
minutes they become deoxygenated.
-Deoxygenated hb undergoes hydrophobic interaction
with adjacent sickle hb forminglarge polymer and thus
RBCbecomes lessdeformable and acquire sickle
shape.

11. -Rigid RBCsobstruct microvasculature causing tissue
hypoxia which precipitates further sickling.
-Sickle cells rapidly hemolyze and havealife span of
about 10-20days
-Theinitiation of polymerization may beincomplete
and reversible if re-oxygenation occurs early in the
process. Repetitive exposure to alternating de-
oxygenated and oxygenated states canlead to
membrane distortion, oxidative damageand
irreversible sickling.

12. Caring for Patients with SCD in the Community
Care Setting
SCREENING, PREVENTION, AND
IMMUNIZATIONS

13. 1- Children with SCA are at increased risk of invasive
pneumococcal disease.
Prevention of invasive pneumococcal disease
Therefore, in addition to the recommended pneumococcal
vaccinations for all infants and children, those with SCA
should receive prophylactic oral penicillin (125 mg twice
daily for children younger than three years; 250 mg twice
daily for those three years and older) once the diagnosis is
established; this regimen should be continued until at least
five years of age.
SCREENING, PREVENTION,
AND IMMUNIZATIONS

14. Prevention of invasive pneumococcal disease
Ensure that all persons with SCD have been vaccinated against
Streptococcus pneumoniae. (SOR: strong, based on
moderate-quality evidence)
Ensure that children 6 to 18 years of age who have functional
or anatomic asplenia have received at least 1 dose of 13-
valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. (SOR: adapted
from the Advisory Committee onImmunization Practices)
SCREENING, PREVENTION,
AND IMMUNIZATIONS

15. SCREENING, PREVENTION,
AND IMMUNIZATIONS
• Vaccines for patients with sickle cell disease
1 In patients six months and older, influenza vaccine should be
given annually. ( C )
2 The 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (Prevnar)
should be administered as for children without sickle cell
disease. ( B )
3 The 23-valent polysaccharide pneumococcal vaccine should
be administered if two years or older, with another dose at
three to five years (if patient is 10 years or younger) or five
years (if patient is older than 10 years) after the first dose. ( B )
4 Meningococcal vaccine is recommended for patients two
years and older with sickle cell disease. ( C )

17. 2- Persons with SCD are also at increased risk of vascular
complications, particularly stroke.
All persons with SCA should be screened annually with
transcranial Doppler ultrasonography (TCD) beginning at
two years of age and continuing until at least 16 years of
age.
A TCD ≥ 200 cm per second : correlates with a 10% annual
increase in stroke risk.
When TCD findings are marginal or conditional (170 to 199 cm
per second) or elevated (200 cm per second or greater), the
child is considered a candidate for blood transfusion
therapy to prevent stroke and should be referred for
comanagement with a subspecialist.
SCREENING, PREVENTION,
AND IMMUNIZATIONS

18. Screening for ischemic retinopathy
• Refer patients with SCD to an ophthalmologist for an annual
dilated retinal examination beginning at 10 years of age. (SOR:
strong, based on low-quality evidence)
• Rescreen persons with normal dilated retinal examination
findings at 1- to 2-year intervals. (SOR: consensus)
Screening for renal disease
• Begin annual screening of persons with SCD for
microalbuminuria and proteinuria with spot urine testing by 10
years of age. (SOR: consensus)
• Refer persons with proteinuria (> 300 mg per 24 hours) to a
nephrologist for further evaluation. (SOR: strong, based on low-
quality evidence)
SCREENING, PREVENTION,
AND IMMUNIZATIONS

19. 3- In women with SCD, regular use of contraception can
decrease the health risks associated with an unintended
pregnancy.
Progestin-only contraceptives (pills, injections, and
implants) and barrier methods have no restrictions or
concerns for use in women with SCD.
The levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system is also
associated with few risks, except for those associated
with the device placement.
Pregnancy in women with SCD is associated with preterm
delivery, preeclampsia, stillbirth, high maternal
mortality, and severe fetal anemia.
SCREENING, PREVENTION,
AND IMMUNIZATIONS

20. COMMON ACUTE AND
CHRONIC
COMPLICATIONS

22. Vasoocclusive crisis (VOC)
Sudden onset of severe pain, often localized to the
extremities, chest, or back, but with few objective findings.
Pain episodes can begin as early as six months of age (when
it presents as dactylitis ) and typically last throughout life
(one-third had experienced pain by the age of one year,
two-thirds by the age of two years, and over 90 percent by
the age of six years )
Triggers for pain such as cold, wind, low humidity,
dehydration, stress, alcohol, and menses.
Recurrences have variable presentations and frequency.
VOC is a clinical diagnosis with no objective diagnostic tests.

23. Primary management of VOC includes rapid triage,
assessment, and administration of appropriate analgesics.
For mild or moderate pain, treatment may begin with
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, if they are not
contraindicated.
For more severe pain, opioids are the first-line therapy.
Meperidine (Demerol) should not be used unless it is the
only effective alternative available.
Hydration and other nonpharmacologic therapies (e.g.,
maintaining body temperature) may also be useful.
Vasoocclusive crisis (VOC)

25. Acute chest syndrome
(ACS)
Acute chest syndrome defined as the presence of a new lung
infiltrate in a patient with acute onset of lower respiratory
symptoms such as cough and shortness of breath, is less
common than VOC but potentially life threatening.
In children, it often presents with fever and signs of middle lobe
lung involvement, whereas adults are often afebrile and have
multilobe infiltrates.
ACS requires prompt evaluation and, once diagnosed, early
intervention with antibiotic therapy* and hospitalization.
For mild episodes of ACS we suggest the use of simple
transfusion ( target Hb ?? ) , while for moderate to severe ACS
we suggest the use of exchange transfusion
* (Third generation cephalosporin and a macrolide or a fourth generation fluoroquinolone)

26. Fever
-- Fever greater than 101°F (38.3°C), even in the absence of other
signs of infection, should be evaluated carefully ( high risk of
overwhelming bacterial infections or sepsis ).
Should be treated empirically until culture results are available

27. Hepatobiliary tract
complications
 -- Hepatobiliary tract complications (e.g.,
cholelithiasis, acute cholecystitis, biliary
sludge, acute choledocholithiasis) are
common in persons with SCD, particularly in
those with SCA.
 Gallstones occur in up to 75% of adults
with SCD and, when asymptomatic,
should be managed with watchful waiting.

28. Priapism
Prolonged episodes may lead to irreversible changes including
tissue necrosis, fibrosis, and erectile dysfunction.
Administer aggressive oral or intravenous hydration and oral or
intravenous analgesia for episodes of priapism lasting 4 hours
or longer. (SOR: strong, based on low-quality evidence)
Consult with a urologist for an episode of priapism lasting 4 hours
or longer. (SOR: consensus)
Aspiration of blood from the corpus cavernosum for individuals
with SCD and an episode of low flow priapism lasting more
than four hours or exchange transfusion for cases of priapism
that are refractory to aspiration .

29. Aplastic crisis
Aplastic crisis is characterized by an acute drop in hemoglobin
level and a markedly reduced number of reticulocytes in the
peripheral blood (typically, reticulocytes <1.0 percent,
absolute reticulocyte count <10,000 per microL).
Most cases in children follow infection with human parvovirus
B19
Other reported causes of transient aplasia are infections by
Streptococcus pneumoniae, Salmonella, other streptococci,
and Epstein-Barr virus.
Aplastic crisis can result in a rapid and life-threatening drop in
hemoglobin level caused by chronic hemolysis without the
ability of the bone marrow to compensate.
Management is with transfusion.

30. Splenic sequestration crisis
Splenic sequestration crisis is characterized by an acute drop in
hemoglobin level caused by vasoocclusion within the spleen
and splenic pooling of RBCs.
A large percentage of the total blood volume can become
sequestered in the spleen, leading to hypovolemic shock and
death.
Patients with splenic sequestration crisis present with a rapidly
enlarging spleen and a marked decrease in hemoglobin level
despite persistent reticulocytosis
Up to half of individuals who survive a splenic sequestration crisis
are reported to have recurrent sequestration, and
splenectomy is often used after the first acute event to
prevent recurrence.

32. Disease-Modifying Therapies
Hydroxyurea & RBC transfusion

33. Hydroxyurea
Hydroxyurea therapy decreases SCD-related complications but is
currently underused.
Hydroxyurea works primarily by increasing the level of fetal
hemoglobin (HbF), which does not sickle.
This improves several clinical outcomes, such as decreasing the
frequency of VOCs and ACS, reducing mortality, and
decreasing the need for RBC transfusions and
hospitalizations.
Hydroxyurea is rapidly absorbed, has nearly complete
bioavailability, and requires only once-daily oral dosing.

35. Protocol for Initiation of Hydroxyurea Therapy in Patients with
Sickle Cell Disease
Laboratory tests (recommended before starting therapy )
 CBC with WBC differential, reticulocyte count, platelet count,
and RBC MCV
 Comprehensive metabolic profile, including kidney and liver
function tests
 Pregnancy test for women
 Quantitative measurement of HbF, if available (e.g.,
hemoglobin electrophoresis, high-performance liquid
chromatography)

36. Protocol for Initiation of Hydroxyurea Therapy in Patients with
Sickle Cell Disease
Initiating and monitoring therapy
 Counseled about the need for contraception while taking
hydroxyurea
 Starting dosage for adults: 15 mg per kg per day (round up to the
nearest 500 mg); 5 to 10 mg per kg per day in patients withchronic
kidney disease
 Starting dosage for infants and children: 20 mg per kg per day
 Monitor CBC with WBC differential and reticulocyte count at least
every 4 weeks when adjusting dosage
 Aim for a target absolute neutrophil count ≥ 2,000 per μL (2.0 × 109
per L); younger patients with lower baseline counts maysafely
tolerate absolute neutrophil counts as low as 1,205 per μL (1.2 ×109
per L)
 Maintain platelet count ≥ 80,000 per μL (80.0 × 109 per L)

37. Protocol for Initiation of Hydroxyurea Therapy in
Patients with Sickle Cell
Disease
If neutropenia or thrombocytopenia occurs:
 Maintain hydroxyurea dosing
 Monitor CBC with WBC differential weekly
 When blood counts have recovered, reinstitute hydroxyurea at a dosage of
5 mg per kg per day lower than the dosage given before onset of cytopenia
If dose escalation is warranted based on clinical and laboratory findings:
 Increase in increments of 5 mg per kg per day every 8 weeks
 Give until mild myelosuppression is achieved (absolute neutrophil count
2,000 to 4,000 per μL [2.0 × 109 to 4.0 × 109 per L]), up to a maximum of 35
mg per kg per day
Once a stable dosage is established, laboratory monitoring should include CBC
with WBC differential, reticulocyte count, and platelet count every 2 to 3
months

38. Protocol for Initiation of Hydroxyurea Therapy in Patients with
Sickle Cell Disease
 A clinical response to treatment may take 3 to 6 months;
therefore, a 6-month trial at the maximum tolerated dose is
required before considering discontinuation because of lack
of adherence or nonresponse
 Monitor RBC, MCV, and HbF levels for evidence of consistent
or progressive response
 A lack of increase in MCV or HbF is not an indication to
discontinue therapy
 Long-term hydroxyurea therapy is indicated in patients who
have a clinical response
 Therapy should be continued during hospitalizations or illness

39. RBC transfusion
RBC transfusion, the first disease-modifying therapy used for
SCD, reduces the percentage of circulating RBCs with HbS,
thereby treating acute symptomatic anemia as well as
treating and preventing many SCD complications.
Episodic transfusion is used acutely in response to an SCD
complication or prophylactically in preparation for general
anesthesia and surgery.
Long-term transfusion therapy is used when sustained reduction
of HbS (e.g., to less than 30%) is desired for primary or
secondary prophylaxis for specific SCD complications, most
commonly stroke in children.

40. Patients with Sickle
Cell Disease
• Indications for acute transfusion

41. Recommendations for
Acute Transfusion in
Patients with Sickle
Cell Disease