2. An endocrine gland produces hormones, which are the body's chemical messengers.
Hormones are released into the bloodstream to communicate with cells throughout the body & to
transmit messages to other regions of the body.
There are two ways to communicate with humans using it.
First, there is the relationship between two endocrine glands, in which the release of one gland’s
hormone causes the production of another gland’s hormones at a different level.
The second is between an endocrine gland and a target organ.
Growth, metabolism, hunger, puberty, and fertility are just a few of the physiological processes
influenced by hormones.
3. 1. ADRENALINE:
Site: Medulla
Function:
Speed up breathing & BP, expands the airways of the lungs, enlarges the pupil of the eye, lessen pain
sensitivity, enhance vision, hearing, & other senses slow down digestion, redistribute blood to the
muscles, change the body's metabolism, boost oxygen & nutrient delivery, & raise blood glucose levels
(mainly in the brain).
2. ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE:
Site: corticotropic cells of the anterior pituitary gland
Function:
• It circulates throughout the body during the day as a result of several intermittent pulses of secretion
into the blood.
• Similar to cortisol, levels of this hormone peak in the morning, decline throughout the day, & reach their
lowest point while you sleep (circadian rhythm).
• When this hormone gets to the adrenal glands, it binds to receptors & prompts the glands to release
more cortisol this results in higher levels of cortisol in the blood & increases the production of the
chemical compounds that trigger an increase in hormones like adrenaline & noradrenaline.
4. 3. ANDROSTENEDIONE:
Androstenedione is a steroid hormone that primarily affects the body's production of testosterone &
estrogen while having weak androgenic effects on it.
In females, the ovaries & the outer adrenal glands release androstenedione into the blood, where it is
converted to provide almost all of the body's oestrone, a kind of estrogen, & about half of all the body's
testosterone.
Male testes make a lot of androstenedione, but they only leak a small amount into the circulation, where
they quickly turn it into testosterone. Androstenedione is also made by the adrenal glands in men.
4. ANDROGEN:
Site: adrenal gland & ovary
Function:
• Development of pubic & axillary hair, bone density, muscle mass, & puberty.
• If it is high, it may develop acne, facial hair, & other issues like PCOS, osteoporosis, etc.
5. 5. ALDOSTERONE:
Site: outer cortex of the adrenal glands
Function:
regulation of BP by influencing the kidneys
colon to increase the amount of sodium & potassium exerted in the urine
increase the amount of water reabsorbed along with sodium
this raises BP & blood volume.
6. 6. ANGIOTENSIN:
Site: liver
Function: Renin(an enzyme produced in the kidney)
(breaks down)
angiotensinogen(a protein produced in the liver)
produce angiotensin I.
This has no biological purpose, but the angiotensin-converting enzyme
(breaks down)
it travels through the kidneys and lungs in the bloodstream
form angiotensin II
raise BP, body water content, & sodium levels.
7. 7. ANTI-DIURETIC HORMONE:
Site: hypothalamus
Function:
By influencing the kidneys & blood arteries, it helps to regulate BP. Its crucial function is to reduce the
amount of water excreted in the urine, preserving the body's fluid content. It accomplishes this by allowing
a particular region of the kidney to take the water in the urine back into the body. As a result, more water
enters the bloodstream again, urine concentration increases, & water loss is decreased. The blood arteries
narrow as a result of higher levels of this hormone, which raises BP. Dehydration can only be restored by
consuming more water.
8. ANTI-MULLERIAN HORMONE (AMH):
Site: ovaries
Function:
It has a role in controlling the sex steroid generation in adult ovaries & testes as well as throughout
puberty. This hormone in the ovaries seems to be crucial for the early growth of the follicles, which house
the eggs before fertilization. A woman's ovaries can produce more AMH if she has more ovarian follicles
than usual. To determine how many follicles a woman still has in her ovaries, AMH levels in the blood are
examined.
8. 9. CALCITONIN:
Site: the thyroid gland's parafollicular cells (C-cells).
Function:
It lowers blood calcium levels. The importance of this role in humans is unclear. However, the
significance of this function in humans is unknown because patients with extremely low or extremely high
calcitonin levels do not have any negative effects.
10.CHOLECYSTOKININ (CCK; CCK-PZ):
It is also called "pancreozymin" due to its actions on the pancreas.
Site: Certain neurons in the brain & the lining of the duodenum produce I-cells. It affects two different
receptors of the gut & CNS.
Function:
In appetite & digestion. By delaying the stomach's emptying of food & promoting the liver’s & gall
bladder's generation of bile, it facilitates digestion. The cleansing effect of bile makes the fat droplets
small so that enzymes can break them down easily. Moreover, cholecystokinin stimulates the pancreas's
production of fluid & the enzymes needed to break down lipids, proteins, & carbs.
Cholecystokinin affects appetite by making people feel fuller after meals rather than between them. The
action of this hormone secreted in the brain, rather than an effect of secretion from other parts of the
body, suggests that it may have a role in anxiety & panic disorders.
9. 11. CORTISOL:
It is a glucocorticoid steroid hormone that is also known as hydrocortisone.
Site: in the cortex of the adrenal glands, where it is then released into circulation for distribution
throughout the body.
Function:
Depending on the type of cell it is working upon, it takes a varied course of action. It also acts as an anti-
inflammatory, influences memory & BP manages salt & water balance & aids in the growth of the fetus.
Blood sugar levels & metabolism are also controlled.
12. CORTICOTROPHIN-RELEASING HORMONE:
Additional names: corticotrophin-releasing factor; corticoliberin
Site: the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus.
Function:
• A key regulator of the stress hormone system (hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis). It is known as
corticotrophin-releasing hormone because it causes the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone from
the pituitary gland. The bloodstream carries adrenocorticotropic hormone to the adrenal glands, which
secrete the stress hormone cortisol as a result. It also affects a wide range of other brain regions,
impairing memory, & selective attention while enhancing anxiety & appetite.
10. • Due to the effects of rising cortisol, it is also created throughout pregnancy by the placenta & the fetus in
escalating proportions. Labor is mostly brought on by hormone levels that are elevated when compared
to other hormones. WBC produces a limited quantity of this hormone, which causes swelling &
inflammation, especially in the gut.
13. DEHYDROEPIANDROSTERIN(DHEA):
Site: It is produced from cholesterol by the outer layer of the adrenal glands (the adrenal cortex), as well as
from testes and ovaries.
Function:
• It has biological effects since it is a precursor hormone, but it also has strong effects when it is
transformed into testosterone and oestradiol. By moving the hormone through the bloodstream as
dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, which is connected to sulfur, it stops the hormone from being broken
down. Its output starts to increase at the age of 9 or 10, peaks in the 20s, and then steadily declines as
it gets older.
• This hormone is crucial for women since it supplies roughly 75% of the estrogen before menopause and
100% of the estrogen after.
11. 14. DIHYDROTESTOSTERONE (DH):
Site: skin, liver In males: testes and prostate; in women: ovaries
Function:
• To promote the development of androgens (male features). The androgen testosterone produces it.
Dihydrotestosterone is formed from 10-15% of the testosterone that an adult produces each day. It is
lower before puberty; however, if its production increased, it may be responsible for the beginning of
puberty in boys (the development of the genitals, including the penis, testes & scrotum), the growth of
pubic & body hair, as well as the fact that this hormone causes the prostate to grow & combine with
testosterone to express male sexual behavior. It also causes pubic & body hair to grow. The majority
of the effects on the body only take place when testosterone is transformed to dihydrotestosterone
since it is a more potent hormone than testosterone.
• In women, it is much less, but it causes the body & pubic hair growth seen in girls after puberty &
helps to determine the age at which girls begin puberty.
12. 15. ERYTHOPOIETIN(EPO):
Site: interstitial cells in the kidney
Function:
• It acts on RBCs to shield them from deterioration & encourages bone marrow stem cells to promote
RBC synthesis. Erythropoietin production is lowered when there is enough O2 in the blood circulation
& is increased when there is a decrease in oxygen levels. This is an adaptive mechanism because it
makes it easier to produce RBC, which enhances oxygen transport throughout the body & raises
tissue oxygen levels. Hypoxia may occur in low-O2 environments.
• In some circumstances, such as renal failure, HIV/AIDS, cancer, & chronic inflammatory disorders,
the production of erythropoietin is decreased.
16. FOLLICLE – STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH):
Site: Pituitary
Function:
• They play a crucial role in pubertal development & also help ovarian follicles expand before releasing
an egg during ovulation.
• Moreover, it boosts ovarian oestradiol synthesis.
13. 17. GASTRIN:
Site: "G" cells are located in the lining of the stomach & upper small intestine & are released into the
blood circulation.
Function:
• Gastrin induces the secretion of hydrochloric (gastric) acid from the stomach. The conversion of this
acid from its inactive form, pepsinogen, to its active form, pepsin, enables the stomach to digest
proteins in food & absorb vit such as vit B12. It functions as a disinfectant & eliminates the majority of
germs & other microbes that are brought into the stomach by food, lowering the risk of
gastrointestinal infections. Since it aids in food absorption in the small intestine, it can induce the
gallbladder to release its reserve of bile & the pancreas to secrete enzymes.
• In order to facilitate digestion, gastrin also stimulates the stomach lining & enhances gut muscular
contractions.
18. GHRELIN:
Site: stomach, as well as the small intestine, pancreas & brain.
Function:
• “Hunger hormone" is to enhance food intake, stimulate appetite & encourage fat storage. It moves
through the bloodstream, controls the hypothalamus, & also influences the amygdala to increase
appetite
14. • It also has beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system & is a key mediator of whole-body energy
& glucose homeostasis According to recent studies, it also has a significant role in modulating stress
& memory, which may be due to the ghrelin system's unidentified signaling pathways in the brain's
hippocampus & amygdala.
19. GLYCOGEN:
Site: Alpha cells are produced in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans and released into circulation.
Function:
It regulating the body's blood sugar (glucose) levels as well as acting on adipose tissue to encourage the
release of fat reserves into circulation.
20. GLYCOGEN-LIKE PELTIDE 1 (GLP-1):
Also called incretins. Pre-proglucagon, a polypeptide (i.e., a chain of amino acids, which are chemical
substances) that is divided to create several hormones, including glucagon, is the source of the
substance.
Site: the lining of the small intestine (L-cells), as well as the pancreas & the CNS.
Function:
• It promotes the pancreas' production of insulin, boosts the number of insulin-producing beta cells
there, & inhibits the release of glucagon.
15. • It promotes the sense of fullness during & between meals by influencing appetite regions in the brain &
delaying stomach emptying.
21. GLUCOSE-DEPENDENT INSULINOTROPIC PEPTIDE (GIP):
It belongs to the family of incretin hormones.
Site: K cells in the upper section of the small intestine
Function:
Its primary role is to trigger the pancreatic beta cells' secretion of insulin, which keeps blood sugar levels
low after meals. Moreover, it speeds up beta cell formation & slows down their degeneration.
several other effects are:
• Glucose encourages the proliferation of cells that can divide & transform into nerve cells in the brain.
• In bones, estrogen increases the formation of bone & decreases bone breakdown.
• By increasing the production of fat cells in fat tissue, fatter will be present in the body.
22. GONADOTROPHIN- RELEASING HORMONE(GnRH):
Site: Hypothalamus
Function:
• It promotes the synthesis of luteinizing hormone & follicle-stimulating hormone.
16. • These hormones work on the ovaries to start & maintain reproductive processes after being released
into the body's regular circulation.
23. GROWTH HORMONE(GH):
Additional names: somatotropin, human growth hormone (HGH)
Site: anterior pituitary gland
Function:
It promotes growth in children by acting on various body parts. Growth hormone does not result in an
increase in height if the growth plates (epiphyses) in the bones have fused. Adults do not experience
growth from it, but it does assist in maintaining healthy blood glucose levels & a proper body structure &
metabolism.
24. GROWTH HORMONE- RELEASING (GHRH):
Site: hypothalamus.
Function:
• To activate the pituitary gland to create & release growth hormone into the blood, which then
regulates metabolism & growth in every tissue of the body. It increases the liver’s & other organs'
production of insulin-like growth factor 1. It also has an impact on memory, eating, & sleep.
17. • These hormones work on the ovaries to start & maintain reproductive processes after being released
into the body's regular circulation.
25. HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPHIN (HCG):
As the embryo attaches and implants in the womb, this hormone can be found in the urine 7-9 days after
fertilization.
Site: produced by the cells that surround the growing human embryo & go on to form the placenta
(trophoblasts).
Function:
• The corpus luteum produces progesterone (also known as oestradiol and other hormones) to
maintain the pregnancy if the egg is fertilized & implants.
• Progesterone acts on the lining of the womb (the decidua) during pregnancy to maintain the
pregnancy.
• In the event that implantation does not take place, the hCG levels drop, the corpus luteum expires &
stops producing progesterone, which may result in the shedding of the uterine endometrium
(menstruation), & as a result of implantation failing, the pituitary gland's FSH levels rise, starting the
next menstrual cycle.
18. 26. INSULIN:
Site: pancreas (islets of Langerhans) The beta cells, which create insulin, are the most prevalent type of
hormone-producing cell in the islets of Langerhans.
Function:
• It has a variety of effects, but primarily it regulates how the body utilizes the carbohydrates found in
specific foods. Carbohydrates are broken down by the human body into a sugar called glucose
through this process. The primary energy source utilized by cells is glucose. With the aid of insulin,
cells in the muscles, liver, & fat are able to absorb this glucose and utilize it as an energy source for
proper operation.
• Without insulin, cells cannot use glucose as fuel and would begin to act abnormally. Excess glucose
will be converted to fat & stored so that it can be used as energy when blood glucose levels are too
low. Moreover, insulin has a number of additional metabolic impacts.
27. KISSPEPTIN:
Additional name: metastin.
Site: hypothalamus
19. Function:
• It regulates the hormones involved in reproduction in both men & women. It primarily controls how
much "GnRH" is released from the hypothalamus, & GnRH stimulates the bloodstream release of the
pituitary hormones LH & FSH. In order to produce sex-steroid hormones known as testosterone in
men & oestradiol in women, these two hormones act on the testes & ovaries, respectively.
• These sex-steroid hormones are responsible for the psychological & physical changes that occur
during puberty in order to prepare a person for adulthood.
• It was given the term "metastatin" because of its capacity to stop the spread of cancer in addition to
its non-hormonal role (metastasis).
28. Luteinizing hormone (LH):
Site : pituitary
Function:
• It has different roles in the two phases of the menstrual cycle.
• In the first phase, it is required to stimulate the ovarian follicles in the ovary to produce oestradiol (the
female sexual hormone). Around day 14 of the cycle, a surge in LH levels causes ovulation (the
release of a mature egg from the ovary).
• In the second phase, the remnants of the ovarian follicle form the corpus luteum.
20. 29. LEPTIN:
Site: released from adipose tissue fat cells
Leptin signals the hypothalamus
Function:
• Leptin acts to change food intake & regulate energy expenditure over the long term rather than
affecting food intake from meal to meal.
• When we lose weight and the hormone's levels drop, the impact is greater.
• Huge appetites are sparked, leading to an increase in food consumption.
• Sadly, the hormone makes it difficult for dieters to shed those additional pounds because it helps us
maintain our usual weight!
30. MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONES:
Site: peptide hormones produced by the pituitary, brain, & skin.
Function:
• In response to UV radiation, the skin & pituitary produce more melanin, which is important for
producing the coloured pigmentation found in the skin, hair, & eyes.
• Melanin protects the melanocyte, a type of specialised cell, from damage that could otherwise result in
skin cancer (melanoma).
21. • This hormone, which is made in the brain & is called for its stimulation of pigment cells, can also inhibit
appetite. Leptin makes this impact more powerful.
• This hormone can influence the release of the hormone aldosterone, which regulates the body’s salt
and water balance, & it also has anti-inflammatory properties has an effect on sexual behavior.
31. MELATONIN:
Site: produce & release from the pineal gland occur with a clear daily (circadian) rhythm, with peak levels
occurring at night
Function:
• It sends signals to far-off organs after being generated and secreted into the blood & CSF.
• The circulatory system transports it from the brain to every part of the body.
• The body receives a signal that it is nighttime from tissues that express proteins known as receptors
• specialized for melatonin, which are able to detect the peak in circulating melatonin at night.
• Melatonin levels at night are at least 10 times higher than those during the day.
• In addition to its circadian rhythm, melatonin levels also have a seasonal rhythm,
with higher levels in the fall & winter when the nights are longer & lower levels in the spring & summer.
• During adolescence, melatonin levels at night in humans decline.
• Clinical research uses samples of blood & saliva to measure the amount of melatonin in circulation & to
pinpoint internal circadian rhythms.
22. • The data supports two functions for melatonin in humans: nocturnal melatonin production is involved in
starting & maintaining sleep & other 24-hrs rhythms are controlled by the day/night melatonin cycle.
Thus, melatonin has frequently been referred to as the “ SLEEP HORMONE” although it is not
necessary for human sleep, melatonin secretion is associated with improved sleep quality,
• It may also play a small part in the development of the reproductive system, however, the exact
mechanism of action is unknown, according to the correlation between pineal gland tumors & the time
of puberty,
• The human pineal gland produces significantly different amounts of melatonin as we age. Infancy’s 3rd
or4thmonth marks the beginning of melatonin production, which also happens to be the time when night
time sleep patterns are established.
• After a sharp rise in secretion, nocturnal melatonin levels reach their highest point between the ages of
1-3 years, after which they plateau for the duration of early adulthood.
• A 70years nighttime old’s melatonin levels are just one-fourth of that of a young adult after a gradual
fall in levels for most persons.
• When the pupils are dilated, a relatively weak light suppresses the release of melatonin at night, this is
due to the extended use of gadgets like laptops & smartphones before bed might negatively affect
melatonin release, circadian rhythms & sleep.
• Melatonin can be consumed as a supplement in addition to being produced naturally by the body.
Greater melatonin dosages can cause circadian rhythms to be reset, induce sleep, & lower core body
temperature.
23. 32. NORADRENALINE:
Site: nerve endings of the sympathetic nervous system and also small amounts from the adrenal
medulla.
Function:
While noradrenaline is released into the bloodstream at modest levels of sympathetic nervous system
activity, the release of adrenaline increases at times of acute & long-term stress.
33. OESTRIOL(E3) :
• Additional names: E3; estriol
• It is one of the three oestrogens that women naturally produce.
Site: Ovaries. The body produces very little of it, but the placenta produces substantially more of it when
a woman is pregnant.
Function:
• Pregnancy increases oestrogen levels, which peak right before delivery.
• Because it is created in the placenta from a different chemical that is first created in the baby's
adrenal glands & then altered in the baby's liver before being finally converted to oestriol in the
placenta, it is a sign of the health of the unborn foetus. It accelerates labour preparation by forcing
the uterus to expand and become more sensitive to other pregnancy-related hormones.
• During the 8th week of pregnancy, Oestriol levels start to increase
24. 34. Oestradial( E2)
It is an estrogen E2 hormone.
Site: ovary
Function:
• By making the endometrium thicker, the egg can implant when fertilized by sperm. Increased bone &
cartilage density together with stimulation of breast tissue growth.
• Oestradiol levels gradually decline as we age, but they sharply decline after menopause when the
ovaries stop producing it.
• Oestradiol is produced in early pregnancy by the corpus luteum & later in pregnancy by the placenta in
pregnant women.
35. OESTRONE:
• Additional names: E1; estrone
• One of the three kinds of estrogen produced by the body is oestrone.
Sites include the adrenal glands, adipose tissue, & ovaries.
Function:
• It is substantially less active biologically than oestradiol.
• The most common form of estrogen generated by postmenopausal women is oestrone.
25. 36. OXYTOCIN:
Site: this hormone is produced in the hypothalamus & is secreted into the bloodstream by the posterior
pituitary gland.
Function:
• Oxytocin has two primary effects during childbirth:
• First, it stimulates the contraction of the uterine muscles & second, it enhances the creation of
prostaglandins, which further intensifies the contractions.
• Artificial oxytocin is used to speed up the delivery of the placenta, lower the risk of major bleeding, &
initiate labor if it does not begin spontaneously. It can also be used to enhance contractions to
facilitate childbirth.
• While breastfeeding, oxytocin encourages the flow of milk through the breast ducts so that it can be
expelled by the nipple.
• In men, playing a part in sperm transport and the testes' synthesis of testosterone.
• In the brain, plays a crucial part in many human actions & functions as a chemical messenger.
26. 37. PARATHYROID HORMONES(PTH):
Additional names: parathormone; parathyrin
Site: Four parathyroid glands, which are behind the thyroid gland, secrete this hormone.
Function:
Raising calcium levels when they are too low, controls calcium levels in the blood.
It accomplishes this via affecting the colon, bones, and kidneys:
• Bones: It promotes the bloodstream's absorption of calcium from the bones' substantial calcium
reserves. This causes more bone to be destroyed & less bone to grow.
• Kidneys: It lessens the loss of calcium in the urine. The kidney’s ability to produce active vit D is also
stimulated by parathyroid hormones.
• Intestine: By its effects on vitamin D metabolism, it indirectly improves calcium absorption from food in
the intestine.
38. PEPTIDE YY(PYY):
Additional names: peptide tyrosine, pancreatic peptide YY
Site: (L-cells) endocrine cells in the small intestine
27. Function:
• It is secreted alongside the hormone glucagon-like peptide 1.
• After eating, the body releases peptide YY, which travels through the blood & reduces appetite by
attaching to receptors in the brain & this makes people feel full after eating.
• To slow down the passage of food through the digestive system, peptide YY also has an effect on the
stomach & intestine.
39. PROGESTERONE:
Site: ovary
Function:
During the second part of the menstrual cycle, it is mostly secreted by the corpus luteum in the ovary. It
helps to sustain the first trimester of pregnancy & the menstrual cycle.
40. PROLACTIN:
Additional names: milk hormone, luteotropic hormone
Site: It is made both in the anterior pituitary gland & at numerous other locations throughout the body.
Prolactin is produced by lactotroph cells in the pituitary gland & is first stored there before being released
into the bloodstream.
28. Moreover, the uterus, immunological cells, brain, breasts, prostate, skin, & adipose tissue all produce
human prolactin.
Functions:
include reproductive, metabolic, osmoregulation, immunoregulation, regulation of fluids, & behavioral
activities.
41. PROSTAGLANDINS:
Additional names: prostaglandin D2, prostaglandin E2, prostaglandin F2, & prostaglandin I2.
Site: Produced on-site, where they are required. All cells make them, and the body uses them to respond
to illness and injury.
Function:
• They serve as signals to regulate a number of various processes & are produced in the areas of tissue
damage or infection, where they cause swelling, discomfort, & fever as a part of the healing process.
• A prostaglandin called thromboxane induces the development of a blood clot to try &repair the damage
to the blood vessel,& it also causes the muscle in the blood vessel wall to contract to try & stop blood
loss.
29. • Prostacyclin, a prostaglandin that works in opposition to thromboxane, inhibits blood clotting &
dissolves any clots that are no longer necessary.
• Moreover, it leads to the relaxation of the blood vessel wall's muscle, causing the vessel to enlarge.
• Blood flow can be regulated along with the body's reaction to injury &inflammation by the opposing
effects that thromboxane & prostacyclin have on the diameter of blood vessels.
• It controls how the muscles in the gastrointestinal system & airways contract & relax.
• It controls all aspects of the female reproductive system, including as ovulation, the menstrual cycle,
& labor induction.
• To start labor, artificial prostaglandins (E2) are used.
42. RELAXIN:
Site: In females, the corpus luteum in the ovary secretes it into the bloodstream. It is also expelled from
the uterine lining & placenta during pregnancy,
In men, it is produced by the prostate gland & found in the semen, but not in the bloodstream.
Function:
• During the female reproductive cycle & pregnancy, relaxin's effects are felt.
• Following ovulation, during the second stage of the menstrual cycle, relaxin level in the blood
increase,
30. • At this point, it is believed to relax the uterine wall by preventing contractions & preparing the uterine
lining for pregnancy.
• Relaxin levels decline once more if pregnancy is not achieved.
• Throughout the first trimester of pregnancy, relaxin levels are at their maximum.
• It is thought that doing so now will encourage the placenta's growth & the implantation of the growing
embryo into the uterine wall.
• In order to avoid preterm birth, relaxin also slows uterine wall contractions early in pregnancy.
• The mother's cardiovascular & renal systems can be regulated by relaxin to assist them to
adjust to the fetus's increased need for O2 & nutrients, as well as to process the waste products that
arise.
• In order to enhance blood flow to the placenta & kidneys, it is believed to accomplish this relaxing the
mother's blood arteries.
• In order to facilitate birthing, relaxin encourages the rupturing of the membranes enclosing the
fetus at the end of pregnancy as well as the expansion, opening, & softening of the cervix & vagina.
• In order to facilitate the delivery of the baby, there is some evidence that relaxin can loosen the
ligaments at the front of the pelvis.
• Labor is influenced by a number of additional things, but it is still unclear what exactly sets it off.
• In males, it might speed up the migration of sperm cells in the semen
• Relaxin also enhances wound healing & lessens tissue fibrosis in the kidney, heart, lungs,&
liver, among other bodily systems.
31. • Moreover, relaxin has anti-inflammatory properties, relaxes blood vessels to lower BP, and
encourages the development of new blood vessels.
43. SOMATOSTATIN:
Additional names: growth hormone inhibitory hormone (GHIH); somatotropin release inhibiting factor
(SRIF); somatotropin release inhibiting hormone (SRIH)
Site: produced by many tissues in the body, primarily in the nervous and digestive systems.
Function:
• It controls a wide range of physiological processes, including the release of other hormones, the
activity of the gastrointestinal tract, & the rapid reproduction of normal & tumor cells. In the
neurological system, it might also function as a neurotransmitter.
• Somatostatin from the hypothalamus inhibits the pituitary gland’s secretion of growth hormone &
thyroid stimulating hormone.
• Furthermore, the pancreas produces somatostatin, which prevents the release of other pancreatic
hormones including glucagon & insulin.
• Moreover, it is made in the digestive system, where it localized effect on reducing gastric output,
gastrointestinal motility, & the release of digestive hormones as such gastrin & secretin.
• analogs that have undergone chemical modification are used in medicine to treat tumors, some
gastrointestinal ailments, & people with acromegaly & other endocrine disorders.
32. 44. TESTOSTERONE:
Site: produced by the gonads (by the Leydig cells in the testes of men and by the ovaries of women) and the adrenal
glands in both sexes.
Function:
• It is Testosterone, which is far more abundant in males than in women, starts the development of the
male internal & external reproductive organs during fetal development & is crucial for the generation of
sperm in adulthood. This hormone also promotes libido in both men & women & instructs the body to
produce new blood cells. It also keeps bones & muscles strong during & after puberty.
• Many of the changes that boys experience during puberty are associated with testosterone, including
an increase in height, pubic & body hair development, enlargement of the penis, testes, & prostate
gland, as well as changes in sexual & aggressive behavior. Furthermore, it controls LH and FSH
release
• To effect these changes, Dihydrotestosterone, an androgen, is frequently formed from testosterone
• In women, the majority of the testosterone produced in the ovary is transformed into oestradiol, which is
the main hormone involved in the female sex.
45. THYROID STIMULATING HORMONES( TSH):
Additional names: thyrotropin
Site: produced & released into the bloodstream by the pituitary gland.
33. Function:
• Its primary function is to promote the thyroid gland's synthesis of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine
(T3) & thyroxine (T4) by interacting with the thyroid gland's receptors.
• Triiodothyronine (T3) &thyroxine (T4) are necessary for the body's metabolism, cardiac & digestive
processes, muscle control, brain growth, & bone activity.
46. THYROTROPHIN – RELEASING HORMONES(TRH):
Site: It is made by a cluster of nerve cells (the paraventricular nucleus) in the hypothalamus, & it is
released into the blood surrounding the pituitary gland.
Function:
• This controls how much thyroid-stimulating hormone is produced & released by the pituitary gland,
which in turn controls how much thyroid hormone is produced by the thyroid gland. The thyrotropin-
releasing hormone only lasts for a matter of two minutes & travels only a fraction of an inch through the
blood to the pituitary gland before it is broken.
• The hypothalamus can secrete this hormone, which in turn stimulates the production of prolactin from
the pituitary gland. The thyrotropin-releasing hormone has a larger distribution in nervous system
tissues, where it may function as a neurotransmitter, in addition to its control over thyroid-stimulating
hormone & prolactin release.
34. • For instance, thyrotropin-releasing hormone injections affect the brain’s arousal & feeding areas,
inducing wakefulness & appetite loss.
47. THYROXINE:
Additional names: thyroxin
Site: secreted into the bloodstream by the thyroid gland.
Function:
• It is the inactive form, & organs like the liver & kidneys convert the majority of it into the active form
triiodothyronine.
• The body’s metabolism, cardiac & digestive process, muscle control, brain growth & bone
maintenance are all significantly regulated by thyroid hormones.
48. TRIIODOTHYRONINE(T3):
Site: Thyroid gland
Function:
• It is the thyroid hormone thyroxine in its active form.
• The thyroid gland directly secretes 20% of triiodothyronine into the bloodstream.
• The liver, kidneys, & other organs convert thyroxine into the remaining 80% of the body's supply.
35. • The body's metabolism, cardiac & digestive processes, muscle control, brain growth & function, &
bone maintenance are all significantly regulated by thyroid hormones.
49. VITAMIN D:
Additional names: Calcitriol, cholecalciferol (vitamin D3), calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D)
Site: produced in the skin in response to sunlight & is also absorbed from food eaten
Function:
• Rather than being a vitamin, it is actually a hormone that is necessary for the bloodstream to absorb
calcium & phosphate from the intestines.
• Vitamin D is mostly converted into the active hormone, calcitriol, by the liver &kidneys from vitamin D
, which is produced in the skin & ingested through food 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D).
• In addition to preventing calcium loss from the kidneys, active vitamin D aids in increasing the
amount of calcium the gut can absorb from food & transport into the bloodstream.
• Both children &adults need vitamin D to produce new bone because it alters the function of bone
cells.
