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Industrial Policy - 1948, 1956, 1973, 1977, 1980, 1991Industrial Policy - 1948, 1956, 1973, 1977, 1980, 1991RKavithamani
EnvironmentalStudies Scope and Institutions
- 1. EnvironmentalStudies
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ENVIRONMENTALSTUDIES
UNIT-I
‘Environment’isderivedfrom theFrenchwordEnvironnerwhichmeanstoencircle(or)
surrounding.
Definition:
“Environmentissum totalofwater,airandland,inter-relationshipsamongthemselvesand
alsowiththehumanbeings”.
TheMultidisciplinarynature:
1. Env.Chemistry:Inthisareawestudyaboutthebiogeochemicalcycles.Ex:Carboncycle,
Nitrogencycle.
2. Env.Biology:-Itexplainstherelationshipamongtheorganismsintheecosystem.Itdeals
withtheenvironmentalsanitation.
3. Env.Engineering:Isthetechnicalmethodusedtominimizepollutionandotherindustrial
hazards.
Ex:constructionofETP(EffluentTreatmentPlant)
4. Env.Biotechnology :Is the developmentofNew crop varieties withoutdisturbing
environmentalcondition.
5. Env.Sociology:Studyofproblemscausedbyhumanpopulationandtheiractivities.
6. Env.Computation:IdentificationofLocationforthepresenceofNaturalResourcesusingGIS
Software.
Needforpublicawareness:-
TheUnitedNationsConferenceonenvironmentanddevelopmentheldinRiodeJaneroin
1992 popularlyknownas‘EarthSummit’followedbytheworldsummitonsustainabledevelopment
atJohannesburgin2002havehighlightedthekeyissuesofglobalenvironmentconcernandhave
attractedtheattentionofthegeneralpublictowardsthedeterioratingenvironment.Thepublichasto
beeducatedaboutthefactthatifwearedegradingourenvironmentweareactuallyharmingourown
selves.
SCOPEOFENVIRONMENTALSTUDIES
Isbroadbasedandincludestheareasof
1. NaturalResources–theirconservationandmanagement
2. Ecologyandbiodiversity
3. Environmentalpollutionandcontrol
4. Socialissuesinrelationtodevelopmentandenvironment
5. Humanpopulationandenvironment
Environmentalstudiesisveryimportantsinceitdealswiththe mostoftheissueslikesafe
andcleandrinkingwater,hygieniclivingconditions,cleanandfreshair,fertileland,healthyfoodand
developmentthatissustainable
Ifwestudythenaturalhistoryoftheareasinwhichwelive,wewouldseethatour
surroundingswereoriginallyanaturallandscapewhereweliveandmodifiedbyhumanbeings.We
breatheair,weuseresourcesfrom whichfoodismadeandwedependonthecommunityofliving
plantsandanimals.
Ourdependenceonnatureissogreatthatwecannotcontinuetolivewithoutprotectingthe
earth,Environmentalintensiveagricultureproviderthegoodsforthesocietyuseslargeamountsof
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naturalresourceslikewater,minerals,wood,petroleum productsetc.,Ifitistoprovideuswiththe
resourcesweneedinthelongterm ournaturalresourcescanbecomparedwithmoneyinabank.If
weuseitrapidly,thecapitalwillbereducedtozeroontheotherhand.Ifweuseonlytheinterest,it
cansustainusoverthelongerterm.Thisiscalledsustainableutilization(or)development.
Tounderstandallthedifferentaspectsofourenvironmentweneedtounderstandbiology,
chemistry,physics,geography,resourcemanagementeconomicsandpopulationissuesthusscope
ofEnvironmentalStudiesisextremelywideandcoverallaspects.
Weliveinaworldwherenaturalresourcesarelimitedwithoutthem lifeitselfwouldbe
impossible.Wewaste(or)pollutelargeamountsofnature’scleanwater;manufacturingprocesses
createsolidwastebyproductsthatarediscardedandthegasesthatpollutetheair. Increasing
amountofwasteaccumulateinourenvironmentleadingtoavarietyofdiseasesandotheradverse
environmentalimpacts.
Thissituationwillonlyimproveifeachofusbeginstotakeactionsinourdailylifethatwill
helpinpreserveenvironment.
ProductiveValue:Asscientistsmakenewadvancesinfieldslikebiotechnologytheyfound
theworld’sspeciescontainlargenumberofchemicals,whicharetheraw materialsusedfor
developingnewmedicinesandindustrialproducts.
Aesthetic/Recreationalvalueofnature:Thisiscreatedbydevelopingnationalparksandwild
lifesanctuariesinrelativelyundisturbedareas.Atruewildernessexperiencenotonlyhasrecreational
valuebutisanincrediblelearningexperienceonecanappreciatethemagnificenceofmountain,the
powerofthesea,thebeautyofaforestandthevastexpanseofthedesert.
Greenspacesandgardensarevitaltothepsychologicalandphysicalhealthofcitydwellers.
Theyprovidenotonlyaestheticandvisualappealbuttheabilitytoensurethateachindividualisable
toaccessacertainamountofpeaceandtransquility. Thus,urbanenvironmentalplannersmust
ensurethattherefacilitiesarecreatedingrowingurbancomplexes.Thereisaneedtoset-upwell
designedandproperlymanagedzoologicalparksandaquariums.Theseareascanbedevelopedto
mimicsmall-scalenaturalecosystems.
INSTITUTIONSANDORGANISATIONSINTHEFILEDOF
ENVIRONMENTALSTUDIES
1. Worldwidefundfornature–India(WWF–I)NewDelhi:Thiswasstartedin1969themain
focusisonwildlifeeducationandawareness.Itrunsseveralprogrammesincludingthe
natureclubsofIndiaprogramforschoolchildren.
2. CentreforScienceandEnvironment(CSE)–NewDelhi:Theactivitiesinclude organizing
campaigns,holdingworkshopsandconferences.Itisinvolvedin publication of
materialintheformofbooks,posters,videofilms,popularmagazine knownas‘Downto
Earth’andalsoconductsseminarsonbiodiversity-relatedissues.
3. CentreforEnvironmentEducation(CEE)–Ahmedabad:Thiswasstartedin1989.Itproduces
avarietyofEducationalmaterialandtrainstheEnvironmentaleducators.
4. BharathiVidyapeethInstituteofEnvironmentEducation&Research(BVIEER)–Pune:The
institutehasaPh.d,mastersandbachelorsprogram inEnvironmentalSciences.Ittrains
teachers and conducts Environmenteducation programmes. Ithas produced several
teachingaidsandatextbookforUGC.
5. UttarakhandSevaNidhi(UKSN)–Almora:ThisisanodalagencythatsupportsNGO’sin
needoffundsfortheirenvironmentrelatedactivitiesitsmaintargetissustainableresource
useatthevillagelevelthroughtrainingschoolchildren. Thisprogram coversabout500
schools.
6. Kalpavriksh,Pune:ThisNGO’sinitiallyDelhibasedisnowworkingfrom Puneandisactivein
severalotherpartsofIndia. Itworksoneducationalandawarenessinvestigationand
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research,directaction.Inconductsoutstationcampus,studentdemonstrations,consumer
awarenessregardingorganicfoodandmeetingswithcityadministrators.
7. TheSalim AliCentreforOrnithologyandNaturalhistory(SACON)– Coimbatore:This
institutionwasDr.Salim Ali’sdream,whichbecomearealityonlyafterhisdemise.Itevolved
intoanindependentorganizationbasedatCoimbatorein1990.Itconductsavarietyoffield
programsthathaveinformationonourthreatenedbiodiversity.
8. TheWildlifeInstituteofIndia(WIT)–Dehradun:Thisinstitutionwasestablishedin1982,asa
majortrainingestablishmentforforestofficialsandforresearchinwildlifemanagement.It
hasproducedaenormousamountofinformationonIndia’sbiologicalwealth. Ithasan
EnvironmentImpactAssessment(EIA)cell. Ittrainspersonnelinecodevelopmentand
nature.
9. BotanicalSurveyofIndia(BSI):TheBSIwasestablishedin1890attheRoyalBotanical
gardens,Calcutta.Itwascloseddownafter1939andreopenedin1954.By1955,theBSIhad
itsheadquartersinCalcuttawithcircleofficeratCoimbatore,Shilling,PuneandDehradun.
Between1962and1979,officeswereestablishedinAllahabad,Jodhpur,Portblair,Itanagar
andGangtok.TheBSIcurrentlyhasnineregionalcenters.Itcarrieroutsurveysofplant
resourcesindifferentregions.
10. ZoologicalSurveyofIndia(ZSI):Itwasestablishedin1916.Ithastodoasystematicsurvey
offaunainIndia.Ithasthecollectionofoveronemillionanimalspecimens.Thismakesit
oneofthelargestcollectionsinAsiabasedattheIndianMuseumsatCalcutta.Ithasdone
anenormousamountofworkontaxonomyandecology. Itcurrentlyoperatesfrom 16
regionalcenters.
11. TheMadrasCrocodileBankTrust(MCBT):ItisthefirstcrocodilebreadingcentreinAsia,was
foundedin1976toconserveIndiancrocodiles.Itstartedthefirstseaturtlesurveysand
conservationprogrammeinIndia.MCBTisthesiteofsnakecatcher’scooperativesociety,
whichsuppliesallofIndia’ssnakeandscorpionvenom neededfortheproductionofanti-
venom andmedicaluse.MCBTalsoinitiatedthetribalwomen’swelfaresociety,whichis
primarilyasocietyforreforestationofwastelandsandincomegenerationprojects.
PEOPLEINENVIRONMENT
1. CHARLESDARWIN :CharlesRobertDarwinwasbornin1809inEngland. Hewasmore
interestedinGeologyandBotany. Hesetsailfortheroundtheworldvoyageon27
th
December,1831forfiveyearsinhisshipcalled‘TheBeagle’.On24
th
November,1859hisfirst
book‘OriginofSpecies’wasreleasedDarwinobservedthatallspeciesincludinghuman
evolvedinduecourseoftimeduetointeractionoftheexistingspeciesamongthemselves.
2. RACHELCARSON:wasbornon1907.Shewasareader,greatloverofbirds.Atage10,she
firstwroteasmallarticleforamagazineforchildren. Shecontinuedherwritingsfor
periodicalsduringherstudiesinthePennsylvaniaCollegeforwomenandlatermastersin
Zoology.ShejoinedaPh.DatmarinebiologicallaboratoriesMaryland.Sheworkedasa
junioraquaticbiologist.Herfirstbookwassea-wind(1941).Intheyear1962shepublisheda
bookknownas‘silentspring’torealizetheeffectsofpollutiononhealthin1945.Shefought
againsttheuseandabuseofDDT.ShefeltDDTwoulddestroyseveralcreaturespushing
themtoextinction.
3. SALIM ALI:Dr.Salim MoizuddinAbdulAli(1896to1987)wasassociatedwithbirdsandhe
wasknownas‘BirdmanofIndia’. Hestudiedthebirdsofnearlyeveryregionofthe
subcontinent.In1927hejoinedajobasaguideatBombay’sPrinceCharles’Museum.He
usedtospenddayscontinuouslyobservingbirdshowtheylive.In1941Salim Alipublished
thebookcalled‘IndianBirds’hetook20yearstowritehis2
nd
bookcalledas‘Handbookof
birdsofIndiaandPakistan’on12
th
Novembereveryyear,SalimAlibirdcountisconducted.
4. Dr.M.S.SWAMINATHAN:IsregardedasthefatherofIndia’sgreenrevolution.Heisagreat
agriculturalorganizerofprojects.HewasborninKumbakonam,TamilNaduin1925.He
workedasDirectorGeneraloftheInternationalRiceResearchInstitute,Manila,Philippines.
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ManyIndianandforeignuniversitieshaveconferreddoctoratesonhim. Hewonseveral
awardslike‘PadmaBhushan’MegaSaySayAwardin1972and‘worldfoodprize’in1987.He
ispresentlythechairmanofDr.SwamiNathanResearchInstitute,Chennai.
5. INDIRAGANDHI:AsPrimeMinistersheplayedaverysignificantroleinthepreservationof
India’swildlife.Duringherperiodthenetworkofprotectarea’s(PAS)grewfrom 65to298
andwildlifeprotectionActwasformulated.ShewasthechairpersonfortheIndianBoardfor
wildlife.
6. S.P.GODREJ:wasoneoftheIndia’sgreatestsupportersofwildlifeconservationandnature
awareness. Between1975and1999SPGodrejreceived10awardsforhisconservation
activities.HewasawardedPadmaBhushanin1999.
7. ANILAGARWAL:wasjournalistwhowrotethefirstreportonthestateofIndia’sEnvironment
in1982,heformedtheCSE,anactiveNGOthatsupportsvariousenvironmentalissues.
8. SUNDERLALBAHUGUNA:During1970’scommercialloggersstartedlargescaletreefellingin
the gharwalregion ofUtterPradesh in India land slides and floods resulted due to
deforestationwithcourageanddetermination,thevillagewomen,undertheleadershipof
SundarlalBahugana,wrappedtheirarmsaroundthetreestoprotectthem.Thiswasknown
as‘chipcomovement’(or)‘chipcoandolan’.Itwasasloganofplanting5fsFood,Fodder,Fuel,
FibreandFertilizer.ThewomenofthisareaandMr.Bahugunaundertookmarchesoftotal
distanceover3000kmtopropagatethemovement.
9. MEDHAPATKAR:bornintheyear1956.SheistheIndianSocialactivist,environmentalist
andleaderof‘savenarmadamovement’.Shereceivedtherightlivelihoodaward.
10. M.C.MEHTA:IsIndia’smostfamousenvironmentallawyersince,1984,hehasfiledseveral
publicinterestlitigationsforsupportingthecauseofenvironmentalconservationhismost
famouslong-drawnbattlersupportedbytheSupremeCourtincludeprotectingTajmahal,
cleaninguptheGangerRiver,initiatingthegovernmenttoimplementenvironmentaleducation
inschoolsandcolleges.
11. WANGRIMAATHAI:Iskenya’spopularenvironmentalactivistandthedeputyenvironmental
minister,haswontheNoblePrizeintheyear2004forfightingpovertybytryingtosave
Africa’sforests.SheisthefirstAfricanwomenhavegotNobelPrize.Sheis64year,isa
zoologyprofessorwho launched thegreenbeltmovementinKenya. Hergroup was
comprisedmostlyofwomen,whoplantedmillionsoftreesacrosstheAfrica.
ENVIRONMENTALSEGMENTS
Theglobalenvironmentconsistsoffoursegments
1. Atmosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Lithosphere
4. Biosphere
1. Atmosphere:Theatmosphereisablanketofgasesandsuspendedliquids.Itabsorbsmost
ofthecosmicraysfrom outerspaceandmajorportionoftheelectromagneticradiationfrom
thesun.Atmospherehasweightandexactspressure.Aliterofairweightsaround1.3gm.
2. CompositionofAtmosphere:Theatmosphereiscomposedofvariousgasesandwatervapor,
tracegasesetc.
1. NitrogenN2–78.08%
2. OxygenO2–20.94%
3. Carbondioxide–CO2–0.03%
4. Argon(Ar)–0.934%
5. Neon(Ne)–0.0018%
6. Helium–He–0.00052%
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7. Methane–CH4–0.00015%
8. Krypton–Kr–0.00011%
AlongwithlessamountsofHydrogen,NitrousOxide,carbonmonoxide,Xenon.Ozone,
Ammonia,Nitrogendioxide(NO2)NitricOxide(No),Sulpherdioxide(SO2),HydrogenSulphide(H2S).
StructureoftheAtmosphere:Atmosphereisdividedintofourmajorlayers
1. Troposphere:Isthelowerportionoftheatmosphereextendingupto18km.
2. Stratosphere:Itextendsupto50kmthetemperatureisnearlycontactinthiszone.
3. Mesosphere:Extendsupto80km,herethetemperaturedecreasesslowlywiththealtitude.
4. Thermosphere(or)Ionosphere:Itisanatmosphericlayerat100to400km withionized
particleshowseffectonthepropagationofradiowaves
2.HYDROSPHERE:
Thehydrosphereconsistsoftheocean,seas,rivers,streams,glacier,lakes,reservoirs,polar
icecapsandgroundwater.Approximately70.5%oftheearthsurfaceiscoveredwithwatermainlyin
theform ofocean.Itisestimatedthatthehydrospherecontainsabout1360millioncubickm of
water.
CompositionofNaturalWaters: Thepurewateristheonewhichcontaintwopartsof
hydrogenandonepartofoxygenbyvolumeandweight.Itconsistsofonepartofhydrogenandeight
partsofoxygen.Itisaliquidatroom temperaturewithmeltingpoint0
0
C;boilingpoint100
0
C;
density1.0;specificheat1.0calperg;surfacetension73dynes/cm at20
0
candtheviscosityabout
0.01poiseat20
0
c.PH7.0.
3.LITHOSPHERE:
Isthetopcrustoftheearthonwhichthecontinentsandoceansrestwithanaverage
thicknessof40km (continentalregion)and10to12km (oceanregion).Itformsonly3/10
th
ofthe
totalsurfaceoftheearth.Lithosphereisthesoilmantleinwhichthebiologicalactivitiestakesplace;
butalsothedecompositionoforganicwateriscarriedoutbymicroorganismsinthesoil.
4.BIOSPHERE:
Itisthatallthelifeformsofearth,includingmanusethelifesustainingresources(air,water
andfood)arewithdrawnfrom thebiosphereandcycledthroughthebiosphereformillionsofyears
butnowithasbeguntoshowsignsofstress,primarilybecauseoftheimpactofhumansuponthe
environment.
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NATURALRESOURCES
Lifeonthisplanetearthdependsuponalargenumberofthingsandservicesprovidedbythe
naturewhichareknownasNaturalResources.
Theseareoftwokinds.
1. RenewableResources:-whichcanberegeneratedwithinagivenspanoftimeex-forests,
wildlife,windenergy,solarenergyhydropoweretc.
2. Non-RenewableResources:-Whichcannotberegeneratedex-fossilfuelslikecoal,petrol,
mineralsetc.
2.1 FORESTRESOURCES
Definition:
“Aforestisacommunityoranecosystem ofbioticandnon-bioticcomponentsconsisting
mostlyoftreesorotherwoodyvegetationgrowingmoreorlesscloselytogether.Inadditiontothese
wefoundsmallandwildanimals,differenttypesofsoilandclimaticconditions”.
About1/3oftheworld’slandareaisforestedwhichincludesclosedaswellasopenforests.
USSR,Brazil,CanadaandUSAhavinghigherforestcoveredlandareas.
USES:
1. CommercialUses:-
MajorProducts MinorProducts
Wood FuelWood Bamboo Manmade
Forestryproducts
Tea Coffee Rubber Cardamom Cashew Spices
Fibers Grasses Tans&dyes Gums, Drugs, Lac EdibleOils
Resins insecticides
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2. ForestResources–EcologicalUses:
a. ProductionofOxygen
b. Reducingglobalwarming
c. Wildlifeconservation
d. RegulationofHydrologicalcycle
e. SoilConversation
f. PollutionControl
TypesofForests:
1. GrassLand:
Grasses,floweringplants,animalslikebison,wildbeasts,sheepcattleandbirds,reptilesetc.
2. Savanna:
Grasslandswithoccasionaltreesmostlyconsistingspinesandthornsresistanttofire
damage,kangaroos,rodentsareseen.
3. TropicalRainForests:
Treeswithextensiverootnetworksliketeakwood,climbingmammal’slizardsandtreefrogs.
4. DeciduousForests:
Fewerspeciesmostlyherbsandwoodyspecieslikeaspen,beech,oaks,birdslikewood
peckers,mice,squirrels,deer,molesandrabbitsarecommon.
5. ConiferousForests:-
Treesshowecologicaladaptations(AspertheEnvironmentalconditions).It’sabout22.7%of
thetotallandiscoveredwithforestsinIndia.NationaltreeofIndiaisPIPAL.
ForestsProtectionandManagement:
1.Reforestation:Itmeansreplantationofforests.
2.AgroForestry:Developmentoffodderandfuelrichtrees.Ex:Eucalyptus.
3.TaungyaSystem:Forestcultureplusagriculture.
4.CoppiceSystem:Treesmustcutdowntothegroundleveltoallowshootstogrow.
5.Forest(Conversation)Act,1980.
DevelopmentofForests:
Thedevelopmentofsocialforestrycreatesvastemploymentandmoneyforthetribalpeople.
Ex:VSS–VanaSamrakshanaSamithi.
NationalPolicy Administration PeoplesParticipation LaborExtension&Publicity
planning Management Training EducationResearch Credit
Investment ExportLinkingwithForestIndustriesandMarket.
DEFORESTATION
MajorCauses:
1. ShiftingCultivation
2. FuelRequirement
3. RawMaterialforIndustrialUse
4. DevelopmentofProjects
5. GrowingFoodNeeds
6. Overgrazing
MajorEffectsonEnvironment:
1. Effectsexistenceofmanywildlifespecies
2. Biodiversityislost
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3. Hydrologicalcyclegetsaffected
4. Soilerosionandlossoffertility
5. Inhillyareasitleadstolandslides
WATERRESOURCES
Waterisavitalnaturalresourcewhichformsthebasisofalllifeabout97%ofwaterfoundin
theoceansremaining3%fordrinking,irrigationandindustry.
%OFTOTALWATERONTHEEARTH
1. Ocean 97.6%
2. Ice&Snow 2.07%
3. GroundWater 0.28%
4. LakesandReservoirs 0.009%
5. Atmosphere 0.001%
6. Biologicalmoistureinplants&animals 0.005%
ThemainsourceofwateronthisearthisonlyRainfall.Itisformedby“hydrologicalCycle”.It
istheprocesswhichincludesevaporation condensation precipitation
Outofthetotalrainfallinanarea41%islostbyevaporation,40%byrun-off,10%retainedas
soilmoisture,9%seepsandformsthegroundwater.
Precipitationoccursinvariousforms:
1.Drizzle–Involvesminutedropsappearingastofloatinair.
2.Rain–Isthedropsofliquidwater,whicharelargerthandrizzle.
3.Snow–Isthemoistureassolidstate.
4.Dew andFrost–Formedduetocondensationofmoisturedirectlyonthesurfacesofobjects,
plants,animalssoiletc.
5.Sleet–Isintheformofsmallgrains(or)pelletsofice.
6.Hail–consistsofballs(or)lumpsofice.
Annualrainfalldeterminesthetypeofvegetationinanyregion.
Heavyrainfallthroughouttheyear–evergreenforests.
Heavyduringwinterandlow duringsummer–sclerophyllousforests(Shrubs,stuntedin
heightwithleatherythickevergreenleaves)
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Heavyduringsummerlowduringwinter–grasslands
Rainfallisscanty–deserts–Xerophyticvegetation
Theminimumrequirementofwateronpercapitabasisisabout135Lt/day.
Therearethreekindsofavailablewaterformsonthisearth.Theyare1)SurfaceWater,2)
GroundWater,3)MarineWater
1. SurfaceWater:Thewatercomingthroughprecipitation(rainfall,snow)whendoesnot
percolatedownintotheground(or)doesnotreturntotheatmosphereasevaporation(or)
transpirationloss,foundinstreams,lakes,ponds,wetlands(or)artificialreservoirsknownas
surfacewater.
2. GroundWater:About9.86%ofthetotalfreshwaterresourcesisintheform ofgroundwater
anditisabout35-50timesmorethatofsurfacewatersupplies.Alayerofsediment(or)rock
thatishighlypermeableandcontainswateriscalledaquifer.
Unconfinedaquifers:-Whichareoverlaidbypermeableearthmaterials.
Confinedaquifers:-Whicharesandwichedbetweentwoimpermeablelayersofrock(or)
sediments.
3. MarineWater:Mostoftheriversultimatelyjointoformtheocean.Theplacewhereriverjoins
withtheseaisknownas“Eusterine”. Therivercarrydifferentkindsofpollutantswhich
mixing in the sea water. These include sewage,industrialeffluents,synthetics,
agrochemicals,solidwastes,plastics,metalsandwasteheatreleasedbyindustries.
MINERALRESOURCES
Mineralsare naturallyoccurring inorganiccrystalline solidshaving a definite chemical
compositionandcharacteristicphysicalproperties.
METALLICMINERALS
Sl.No. Metal WorldReserves Uses
1 Aluminum Australia,Guinea,Jamaica
Packingfooditems,utensils,
electronics
2 Chromium CIS,SouthAfrica
Formakingsteel,textile/tanning
industry
3 Copper
U.S.A.,Canada,Chile,
Zambia
Electric/ElectronicGoods,
constructionvessels
4 Iron SouthAmerica,Canada HeavyMachinery
5 Lead NorthAmerica LeadedGasoline,CarBatteries
6 Manganese SouthAfrica,Brazil MakingHeatresistantsteel
7 Platinum CIS Catalyticconverter,medicaluses
8 Gold SouthAfrica,Canada Ornaments,aerospace
9 Silver Canada,Mexico Photography,Electronics
10 Nickel Canada Chemicalindustry,steelalloys
CIS–(TheCommonwealthofIndependentStatei.e.12RepublicsofFarmerUSSR)
NON–METALLICMINERALS
1.Silicateminerals–sandandgravelforconstructionbricksetc.
2.LimeStone–Usedforconcrete,buildingstone,usedinagricultureforneutralizingacidsoils,used
incementindustry.
3.Gypsum–Usedinplasterwall–board,inagriculture
4.Potash–Usedasfertilizers
5.SulphurPyrites–Usedinmedicine,carbattery,industry
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SomemajormineralsofIndia:
a)Energygeneratingminerals:
CoalandLignite:WestBengal,Jharkhand,Orissa,M.P.,A.P.
Uranium:Jharkhand,A.P(Nellore,Nalgonda),Meghalaya,Rajasthan(Ajmer)
b)Othercommerciallyusedminerals:
Aluminum(BauxiteOre):WestBengal,Tamilnadu,M.P.,Maharashtra
Iron:Jharkhand,Orissa,M.P.,A.P.,Karnataka,Maharashtra&Goa
Copper:Rajasthan(Khetri),Bihar,A.P.andUttaranchal.
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EnvironmentalImpactsofMining
1.DevegetationanddefacingofLandscape:
Thetopsoilsaswellasthevegetationareremovedfromtheminingareatogetaccesstothe
deposit,leadingtosoilerosion.
2.Subsidenceofland:
Subsidenceofminingareasoftenresultsintiltingofbuildings,cracksinhouses,bucklingof
roads,bendingofrailtracksandleakingofgasfrom crackedpipelineleadingtoserious
disasters.
3.Groundwatercontamination:-
Sulphurusuallypresentasanimpurityisknowntogetconvertedintosulphuricacidthrough
microbialaction,therebymakingthewateracidic.Someheavymetalsalsogetleachedinto
thegroundwaterandcontaminateitposinghealthhazards.
4.Surfacewaterpollution:
Theacidminedrainageoftencontaminatesthenearbystream andlakeskillingaquatic
animals.
5.Airpollution:
Inordertoseparateandpuritythemetalform otherimpuritiesintheore,smeltingisdone
whichemitsenormousquantitiesofairpollutantsdamagingthevegetation.
Ex:SPM,Arsenic,Cadmium,Lead
6.OccupationalHealthhazards:
Mostoftheminerssufferfrom variousrespiratoryandskindiseasesduetoconstant
exposuretotoxicsubstances.Theysufferfromasbestosis,silicosis,blacklungdiseaseetc.
RemedialMeasures:
1.Thehighgradeorescanbeused.
2.Thebacterium thiobacillushasbeensuccessfullyandeconomicallyusedfortheremovalofthe
toxicants.
3.Restorationofminedareasbyre-vegetatingthemwithappropriateplantspecies.
LANDRESOURCES
Soilespeciallythetopsoilisclassifiedasarenewableresourcebecauseitiscontinuously
regeneratedbynaturalprocessthroughataveryslowrate.About200-1000yearsareneededforthe
formationofoneinchor2.5cm.ofsoildependingupontheclimateandthesoiltype.
SOILEROSION:
Definition:-Themovementofsoilcomponents,especiallysurfacelitterandtopsoilfromoneplaceto
another.Soilerosionisbasicallyoftwotypesbasedonthecauseoferosion.
1.NormalErosionorGeologicErosion:
Causedbythegradualremovaloftopsoilbynaturalprocess.
2.Acceleratederosion:
Thisismainlycausedbyanthropogenic(manmade)activitiesandtherateoferosionismuch
fasterthantherateofformationofsoil.Therearetwotypesofagentswhichcauseerosion.
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i. ClimaticAgents:Waterandwindaretheclimaticagentsofsoilerosion.
Waterinducedsoilerosion:
a)Sheeterosion:Whenthereisuniformremovalofathinlayerofsoilfromalargesurface
area.Itiscalledsheeterosion.Thisisduetorun-offwater.
b)Rillerosion:Whenthereisrainfallandrapidlyrunningwaterproducesfinger–shaped
grovesorrillsovertheareaitiscalledrillerosion.
c)Gullyerosion:Itismoreprominenttypewhentherainfallisveryheavy,deeper
cavitiesofUorVshapedareformed.
d)Sliperosion:Thisoccursduetoheavyrainfallonscopesofhillsandmountains.
e)StreamBankerosion:Duringrainyseason,whenfastrunningstreamstakeaturnin
someotherdirection,theycutthesoilandmakecavesinbanks.
Windinducedsoilerosion:
a) Saltation:Thisoccursundertheinfluenceofdirectpressureofstromywindandthesoil
particlesof1-1.55mmdiametermoveupinverticaldirection.
b) Suspension:Herefinesoilparticles(lessthan1mm dia)whicharesuspendedintheairand
takenawaytodistantplaces.
c) SurfaceCreep:Herelargerparticles(5-10mmdia)creepoverthesoilsurfacealongwithwind.
ii. Bioticagents:Excessivegrazinganddeforestationarethemajorbioticagents.Over
grazing–35%,deforestation–30%,unsustainablemethodsoffarming–28%.
SOILCONSERVATION:
i. Contourfarming:Ongentleslopes,cropsaregrowninrowsacrossratherthanupanddown.
Eachrowplantedhorizontallyalongtheslope.
ii. Terracing:Itisusedonstillsteeperslopesareconvertedintoaseriesofbroadterraceswhich
runacrossthecontour.
iii. StripCropping:Herestripsofcropsarealternatedwithstripsofsoilsavingcovercropslike
grassesorlegumecrops.
iv. Alleycropping:Itisaform ofintercroppinginwhichcropsareplantedbetweenrowsoftrees
orshrubs.ThisisalsocalledAgroforestry.
v. Windbreaksorshelterbelts:Thesehelpinreducingerosioncausedbystrongwinds.The
treesareplantedinlongrowsalongthecultivatedlandboundarysowhatwindisblocked.
Thebestwaytocontrolsoilerosionistomaintainadequatevegetationcoveroverthesoil.
ENERGYRESOURCES
Asourcethatcanprovideadequateamountofenergyinausableform overalongperiodof
time.Theresourcesareoftwotypes.
1. RenewableresourceswhichanbegeneratedcontinuouslyinnatureandareinexhaustibleEx:Wood,
SolarEnergy,WindEnergy,Hydropower,GeothermalEnergy. Thesearealsoknownasnon-
conventionalsourcesofenergy.
2. Non-renewableresourceswhichhaveaccumulatedinnatureoveralongspanoftimeandcannotbe
quicklyreplenishedwhenexhausted.Ex:Coal,PetrolNaturalgasandnuclearfuelslikeUraniumand
Thorium.
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COAL
Coalwasformed255–350millionyearsagobytheplantsburiedafterdeathintothesoil,
duetotheheatandpressuregraduallyconvertedintothecoal.
Occurrence:Indiahasabout5% ofworld’scoalandIndiancoalisnotverygoodintermsofheat
capacity.MajorcoalfieldsinIndiaareBokaro,Singrauli,Godavarivally.ThecoalstatesofIndiaare
Jharkand,Orissa,WestBengal,MadhyaPradesh,AndhraPradesh,Maharashtra,anthraciteoccurs
onlyinJ&K.
Composition:Coalcontainsashinamountsrangingform10-40%and3-4%Sulphur,Traceamountsof
Mercury,UraniumandThorium.
Coalformandtheirproperties
Sl.No. Form
Physical
Appearance
Chemical
Composition
CalorificValue
(B/U/Pound)
1 Peat
Brownand
Porous
Carbonupto35-
39%
-
2 Lignite
Densedark
brownorBlack
rock
Carbonupto70% 8,300–11,000
3 Bituminous
Blackwithdull
starryluster
Carbonupto85%
11,000–
14,000
4 Anthracite
Hardbrittle
burningwithout
smoke
Carbonnearly
100%
14,000
PETROLIUM
Theplantsandanimalswhichliveintheaquaticenvironslikeseasandoceansburiedwithin
thegroundundertheanaerobicconditionsconvertedtocrudeoil.
Crudeoilisacomplexmixtureofalkanehydrocarbons. Henceithastobepurifiedand
refinedbytheprocessoffractionaldistillation.Thesupergaintsinthepetroleum reservesareUSSR,
Mexico,Libya,AlgeriaandVenezuela.Indiaisoil–poorcountry.
Composition:Crudeoilconsistsoflargevarietiesofhydrocarbonswhicharebroadlygroupedinto
paraffin’s,napthenesandaromatics.Inadditionsulphur,nitrogenandoxygenareusuallypresentin
smallquantities.
CrudePetroliumFractions
Sl.No. Fraction BoilingPoint(
0
C) No.ofatoms
1 Petrol 40–100 4
2 Naptha 100–160 4–10
3 Kerosene 160–250 10–16
4 Lubricants 350
0
C 25
Petrolisamixtureofvolatileliquidhydrocarbonswhichisvaporizedbeforeenteringthe
cylinderoftheengineorcombustion. Thestraightchainalkanesasobtainedfrom thecrude
petroleum arenotidealasenginedonotburnuniformlyinthecylinder.Thiscausesengineknock,
resultsinbothenginewearandwastageofpetrol.Thiscanbeimprovedbyadditionofbranched
chainhydrocarbonsliketetraethyllead,knownasantiknockagent.Butleadissourceofserious
environmentalpollution.
Thestabilityofpetrolasfuelsismeasuredintermsofratingknownasoctanenumbergiven
toeachhydrocarbon.
NATURALGAS
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Itcontainsprincipallymethane.Ifthemethanecontentismorethan95%itisknownasdry
naturalgas.Iflargeramountsofethane,propaneandbutanearepresentitiscalledwetnaturalgas.
ThiswetnaturalgasisrecoveredandusedasLPG–LiquidPetroleum Gas.Anotherconstituentof
naturalgasishydrogensulphidepresentinsmallamounts.CertainAmericangasfieldscontainupto
5% helium gaswhichisavaluablenoblegas.Somenew gasfieldshavebeenfoundinTripura,
Jaisalmer,Off-shoreareaofMumbaiandtheKrishnaGodavariDeltacompressednaturalgas(CNG)
isusedasanalternativetopetrolanddieselfortransportofvehicles.
NON–CONVENTIONALENERGYSOURCES
SOLARENERGY
SUNistheultimatesourceofenergy,directlyorindirectlyformsallotherformofenergy.
“Theamountofenergyactuallyreachingtheearthsurfaceperunittimeperunitarea
perpendiculartothesun’sraysiscalledas“SolarConstant”.Thevalueisabout1.34KW perSq.m or
1.4KiloJoules/Second/m
2
.
SolarEnergyCollection:
Wehaveseveraltechniquesforcollectingsolarenergylike
1. SolarCells:Thesearealsoknownasphotovoltaiccellsmadeofthinwafersofsemiconductor
materialslikesiliconandgallium.Whensolarradiationsfallonthem apotentialdifferenceis
producedwhichcausesflowofelectronsandproduceselectricity.Siliconcanbeobtained
fromsilicaorsand,whichisabundantlyavailableandinexpensive.
ThepotentialdifferenceproducedbyasinglePVcellof4cm
2
sizeisabout60milleamperes.
Agroupofsolarcellsjoinedtogetherinadefinitepatternform asolarpanelwhichcan
producelargeamountsofsolarenergyandcanproduceelectricityenoughtorunstreet–
light,irrigationwaterpumpetc.
Solarcellsarewidelyusedincalculators,electronicwatches,trafficsignals.
2. SolarCooker:Solarcookersmakeuseofsolarheatbyreflectingthesolarradiationsusinga
mirrordirectlyontoaglasssheetwhichcovertheblackinsulatedboxwithinwhichtheraw
foodiskept. Solarcookerwithsphericali.e.concaveorparabolicreflectorhavegrater
efficiency.
3. SolarWaterHeater:Itconsistsofaninsulatedboxpaintedblackfrom insideandhavinga
glasslidtoreceiveandstoresolarheat.Insidetheboxithasblackpaintedcoppercoil
throughwhichcoldwaterismadetoflowinwhichgetsitheatedandflowoutintoastorage
tank,andthensuppliedthroughpipesintobuildingslikehotelsandhospitals.
4. SolarFurnace:Herethousandsofsmallplanemirrorsarearrangedconcavereflectorsallof
whichcollectthesolarheatandproduceashighatemperatureas3000
0
C.
5. SolarPowerPlant:Alargescaleconcavereflectorscauseboilingofwatertoproducesteam
whichdrivestheturbineandgeneratortoproduceelectricity.Asolarpowerplant(50KWatt
capacity)hasbeeninstalledatGurgaon,Haryana.
WINDENERGY
Thehighspeedwindshavealotofenergyinthem asKineticenergyduetotheirmotion.The
drivingforceofthewindsisthesun. Therotationalmotionofthebladesdrivesanumberof
machineslikewaterpumps,flourmillsandelectricgenerators.
Thepowerthatawindmillcanextractfromthewindisdirectlyproportionaltotheairdensity,
theareathatissweptoutbythewindmillbladeandthecubeofthewindspeed(Speed
3
).Theideal
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15
locationforwindmillsarecoastalregions,opengrasslands,hillyregions.Particularlymountain
passeswherethewindsarestrongandsteady.
Theminimum windspeedrequiredforsatisfactoryworkingofawindgeneratoris15Km/hr.
Thewindmillwitha90mt.bladeiscapableofproducingfourtimesmorepowerthanthatof45mt.
with60mttowerheight.
Ex:Aunitwithtwolargeblades(madeoffiberglass)thatof100mt.onatower60mt.tallcan
generate2.5MWofelectricityinwindsbetween22.5and72Km/hour.
Thewindpowerpotentialofourcountryisestimatedtobeabout20,000MW,whileatpresent
wearegeneratingabout1020MW.Thelargestwindfarm ofourcountryisnearKanyakumariin
Tamilnadugenerating380MW electricity.Windenergyisveryusefulasitdoesnotcauseanyair
pollution.Aftertheinitialinstallationcost,thewindenergyisverycheaptheaveragecapitalcostof
theinstallationisRs.30millionperMW whiletheaveragecostofgenerationrangesfrom Rs.2.00to
2.25perKWh.
Itisbelievedthatbythemiddleofthecenturywindpowerwouldsupplymorethan10%of
world’selectricity.
HYDROPOWER
Thewaterflowinginariveriscollectedbyconstructingabigdam wherethewaterisstored
andallowedtofallfrom aheight.Thebladesoftheturbinelocatedatthebottom ofthedam move
withthefastmovingwaterwhichinturnrotatesthegeneratorandproduceselectricity.Wecanalso
constructminiormicrohydalpowerplantsontheriversinhillyregionsfortheproductionofhydro
energyonasmallscale,buttheminimumheightofthewaterfallsshould10meters.Thehydropower
potentialofIndiaestimatedtobeabout4x10”Kw/hour.
Hydropowerdoesnotcauseanypollutionandtherearemultipurposeprojectionhelpingin
controllingfloodsusedforirrigationnavigationetc.
TIDALENERGY
Oceantidesproducedbygravitationforcesofsunandmooncontainenormousamountsof
energy.The‘hightide’and‘lowtidereferstotheriseandfallofwaterintheoceans.Duringhightide,
thesea–waterflowsintothereservoirofthebarrageandrunstheturbine,whichinturnproduces
electricity.Duringlowtide,whenthesea–levelislow,theseawaterstoredinthebarragereservoir
flowsoutintotheseaandagainturnstheturbinethebayoffundyCanadahaving17–18m high,
tideshasapotentialof5,000MWofpowergeneration.
GEOTHERMALENERGY
Theenergyproducedfrom thehotrockspresentinsidetheearthiscalledgeothermalenergy.
Theheatcomesfrom thefissionofradioactivematerialnaturallypresentintherockswecan
artificiallydrillaholeuptothehotrocksbyputtingapipeinitmakethesteam orhotwatergushout
throughthepipeathighpresencewhichrunstheturbineofageneratortoproduceelectricity.InUSA
andNewZealand,thereareseveralgeothermalplantsworkingsuccessfully.
BIOMASSENERGY
a) EnergyPlantations:Solarenergyistrappedbygreenplantsthroughphotosynthesisand
convertedintobiomassenergy.Fastgrowingtreeslikecotton,Leucaena,Sugarcane,Sweet
Sorghum,Potato,Ceraletcaresomeofimportantplantation.
b) Petro – Crops :Certain Latex containing plants like Jetropha (bio-disel)are rich in
hydrocarbonsandcanyieldoillikesubstanceunderhightemperatureandpressure.Thisoily
materialmaybeburnedindieselenginesdirectlyormayberefinedtoformgasoline.
c) Agriculturalandurbanwastebiomass:Cropresidue,bagasse(sugarcaneresidue)coconut
shells,peanuthulls,cottonstalksetcaresomeofthecommonagriculturalwasteswhich
produceenergybyburning.InBrazil30yearsofelectricityisobtainedfrom burningbagasse.
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3. Reducedflowsiltdeposition
4. Flashfloods
5. Saltwaterintrutionatrivermouth.
FOODRESOURCES
FoodistheChiefessentialmaterialswhichthebodyneedsforitswell-being.Theseessential
materialsarecalled“nutrients”humandietisnotrestrictedtoanyspecialcategoryoffood.
Mancaneatavarietyoffoods,ofplantandanimalorigin.
SourcesofFood:
1. Crops:Outofabout2,50,000speciesofplants,onlyabout3,000havebeentriedas
agriculturalcrops,only300aregrownforfood,andonly100areusedonalargescale.Ex:
wheat,rice,corn,potatoes,sorghum,sugarcane,bananasandcoconut.
2. LiveStock:Domesticatedanimalsareanimportantfoodsourcelikecattle,sheep,goats,
cameletc,.MeatandMilkaremainlyconsumedbymoredevelopednationsofNorthAmerica,
EuropeandJapanwhoconsumeabout80%ofthetotal.
3. Aquaculture:FishandSeafoodcontributeabout70millionmetrictonsofhighqualityprotein
totheworld’sdiet.
WORLDFOODPROBLEMS
Duringthelast50yearsworldgrainproductionhasincreasedalmostthreetimes,thereby
increasingpercapitaproductionbyabout50%.But,atthesametimepopulationgrowth
increasedatsucharateinlessdevelopedcountriesthatitoutstrippedfoodproduction.
Everyyear40millionpeople(fiftypercentofwhichareyoungchildrenbetween1to5years)
dieofundernourishmentandmalnutrition.Thismeansthateveryyearourfoodproblem is
killingasmanypeopleaswerekilledbytheatomicbombsdroppedonHiroshimaduring
worldwar–II.Thesestatisticalfiguresemphasizetheneedtoincreaseourfoodproduction
equaldistributionandalsotocontrolpopulationgrowth.
IndianScenario:AlthoughIndiaisthethirdlargestproducerofstaplecrops,anestimated300
millionIndiansarestillundernourished.IndiahasonlyhalfasmuchlandasUSA,butithas
nearlythreetimespopulationtofeed.TheworldFoodSummit,1996hassetthetargetto
reducethenumberofundernourishedtoJusthalfby2015.
IMPACTSOFAGRICULTURE
1. TraditionalAgricultureanditsimpacts:
a. Deforestation:Theslashandburnoftreesinforeststoclearthelandforcultivationand
frequentshiftingresultinlossofforestcover.
b. SoilErosion:clearingofforestcoverexposesthesoiltowind,rainandstorms,thereby
resultinginlossoftapfertilelayerofsoil.
c. DepletionofNutrients:Duringslashandbeentheorganicmatterinthesoilgetsdestroyed
andmostofthenutrientsaretakenupbythecropswithinashortperiod,thusmakingthesoil
nutrientpoorareas.
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2. ModernAgricultureanditsimpacts:
a. Fertilizerrelatedproblems:Mostofthechemicalfertilizerusedinmodernagriculturehas
nitrogenphosphorusandpotassium(N.P.K)whichareessentialmacronutrientsexcessiveof
thesecausemicronutrientimbalance. Ex:Deficiencyofzincinsoil
b Nitrogenousfertilizersappliedinthefieldoftenleachdeepintothesoilandultimately
contaminatethegroundwaterwhenthenitratesinthewaterexceeds25mg/Ltheycause
“BlueBabySyndrome”(or)methaemoglobanemiawhicheffectstheinfants.
c. ExcessiveuseofNandPfertilizersintheagriculturalfieldsleadstoanotherproblem relaterto
waterbodiesknownas“Eutrophication”(formationofalgalbloom).Theyareoftentoxicand
affectthefoodchainofparticularwaterbodies.
3. PesticiderelatedProblems:Thefirstgenerationpesticideincludechemicalslikesulphar,
arsenic,lead(or)mercurytokillthepests.DBTdiscoveredbyPaulMuellerin1939.After1940,
alargenumberofsyntheticpesticidescameintousehaveanumberofsideeffectslike
i) Creatingresistanceinpests
ii) Deathofnon-targetusefulorganism
iii) Biologicalmagnification.
4 WaterLogging:Inadequatedrainagecausesexcesswatertoaccumulateandincreases
watertablelevel,underthistypeofconditions,pore-spacesinthesoilgetfullydrenchedwith
waterandthesoil-airgetsdepleted. Asthewatertableriserrootsofplantsdonotget
adequateairforrespiration. Mechanicalstrengthofthesoildeclinethecropplantsget
lodgedandcropfalls.
5. SalinityProblem:Salinesoilsarecharacterizedbytheaccumulationofsolublesaltslike
sodiumchloride,sodiumsulphate,calciumchloride,magnesiumchlorideetcinthesoilprofile.
Astheirelectricalconductivityismore,theP
++
usuallyexceeds8.0.Salinitycausesstunted
plantgrowthandlowercropyield.Themost-commonmethodforgettingridofsaltsisto
flushthemoutbyapplyingmoregoodqualitywatertosuchsoils
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ECOSYSTEMS
Theterm EcologywascoinedbyEarnstHeackelin1869.Itisderivedfrom theGreekwords
Oikos–home+logos–Study.Soecologydealswiththestudyoforganismsintheirnatural
homeinteractingwiththeirsurroundings. Thesurroundingsconsistofliving(biotic)and
physical(abiotic)components.
Anecosystem isagroupofbioticcommunitiesofspeciesinteractingwithoneanotherand
withtheirnon-livingenvironment.
StructureofanEcosystem:
1.BioticStructure:
a)Producers:ThesearemainlythegreenplantswhichcansynthesizetheirfoodbyutilizingCO2,
waterandsunlightknownas“Photosynthesis”.
b) Consumers:Allorganismswhichgettheirfoodbyfeedinguponotherorganismsarecalled
Consumerswhichareoffollowingtypes.
i.Herbivores:TheyfeeddirectlyonProducersandhencealsoknownasprimaryconsumers.
Ex:Rabbit,insects
ii.Carnivores:TheyfeedonotherconsumersalsoknownasSecondaryConsumers.ex:Frog,
Snake,bigFishetc.
iii.Omnivores:Theyfeedonbothplantsandanimals.Ex:humans,fox,birds.
iv.Detrivores:Theyfeedonthedeadorganisms’wastesoflivingorganisms.
ex:Earthworms
II.AbioticStructure:
Thephysicalandchemicalcomponentsofanecosystemconstituteitsabioticstructure.
a)PhysicalFactors:Thesunlightandshade,averagetemperature,rainfall,wind,Lattitude, soil
type,wateravailability.
b) ChemicalFactors:AvailabilityofMajoressentialnutrientslikecarbonnitrogenphosphorus,
potassium,hydrogen,oxygenandsulphur.
FunctionsofanEcosystem:
Majorfunctionsofanecosystemare:
i. Foodchain,foodwebsandedaphicstructure
ii. Energyflow
iii. Cyclingofnutrients(Biogeochemicalcycle)
iv. Primaryandsecondaryproduction
v. Ecosystemdevelopmentandregulatio
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FOODCHAINS
Thesequenceofeatingandbeingeateninanecosystemisknownasfoodchain.
Ex:Grass Grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk.Therearetwotypesoffoodchains.
1.Grazingfoodchain:Itstartswithgreenplantsandendswithcarnivores.
Ex:Grass Rabbit Snake
2.DetriousFoodChain:Itstartswithdeadorganicmatterwhichisconsumedbydecomposers.
Ex:Deadorganicmatter fungi bacteria(saprophytes)
Boththefoodchainsoccurtogetherinnaturalecosystems,butgrazingfoodchainusually
predominates.
FOODWEB
Isanetworkoffoodchainswheredifferenttypesoforganismsareconnectedatdifferent
trophiclevels,sothatthereareanumberofoptionsofeatingandbeingeatenateachlevel.
Foodwebsgivegreaterstabilitytotheecosystem.Inafoodchainifourspeciesbecomes
extinctthenthespeciesinthesubsequenttrophiclevelsarealsoaffected.Inafoodweb,onthe
otherhand,thereareanumberofoptionsavailableateachtrophiclevelsoifonespeciesisaffected,
itdoesnotaffectothertrophiclevels.
i) Grainetc Mouse Hawk
ii) Grainetc Mouse Snake Hawk
iii) Grass Insect Lizard Snake Hawk
iv) Grass Insect Sparrow Hawk
v) Grass Insect Sparrow Snake Hawk
Alltheabovefivegrazingfoodchainareinterlinkedwitheachotheratdifferentpoints,forms
afoodweb.Besidesthosegivenabovethefoodchainsmayalsohavecommenceslikeowls,vulture,
wolver,rabbits,manetc,andifso,thenthefoodmaybeevencomplex.
ECOLOGICALPYRAMIDS
Graphicrepresentationoftrophicstructureandfunctionofanecosystem. Startingwith
producersatthebaseandsuccessivetrophiclevelsformingtheapexisknownasanecological
pyramid.Theseareofthreetypes.
1. Pyramidofnumbers:Itrepresentsthenumberofindividualorganismsateachtrophiclevel.
Wemayhaveuprightorinvertedpyramid.
Frogs,bir
2. PyramidofBiomass:Itisbaseduponthetotalbiomass(drymatter)ateachtrophiclevelina
foodchain.Thiscanalsobeuprightorinverted.
Thepondecosystemshowsaninvertedpyramidofbiomass.Thetotalbiomassofproducers
ismuchlessascomparedtoherbivores.
3. PyramidofEnergy:Theamountofenergypresentateachtrophiclevelisconsideredforthis
typeofpyramid.Itgivesthebestrepresentationofthetrophicrelationshipsanditisalways
upright.
Ateverylevel,thereisahugelossofenergy(about90%)intheform ofheat,respirationetc.
fromproducerstotopcarnivores.
Hawks
Carnivores
Herbivores
Producers
Hyperparasites
Parasites
Herbivores
Producers
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ENERGYFLOWINANECOSYSTEM
Flowofenergyinanecosystem takesplacethroughthefoodchainanditisunidirectional.
TheflowofenergyfollowstwolawsofThermodynamics.
1
st
Law: Itstates thatenergycan neitherbe created norbe destroyed,butitcan be
transformedfromoneformtoanother.
2
nd
Law: Itstatesthatenergydissipatesasitisusedorinotherwords.Itsgetsconverted
fromamoreconcentratedtodispersedform.
EnergyFlowModels:
a. UniversalEnergyFlowModel:Astheflowofenergytakenplacethereisagraduallossof
energyateveryleveltherebyresultinginlessenergyavailableatnexttrophiclevel.
b. SingleChannelEnergyFlowModel:Theflowofenergytakesplaceinaunidirectionalmanner
throughasinglechannelofgreenplantstoherbivoresandcarnivores.
c. DoublechannelorY-shapedEnergyFlow Model:Innaturebothgrazingfoodchainand
detirousfoodchainoperateinthesameecosystem.However,sometimesitisthegrazing
foodchainwhichpredominates.Ithappensinmainecosystem.
ECOLOGICALSUCCESSION
Anorderlyprocessofchangesincommunitystructureandfunctionwithtimethrough
modificationinthephysicalenvironmentalsoknownasclimates.Therearetwotypesofsuccession.
A. Hydrosere:Thistypeofsuccessionstartsinawaterbodylikepond. Thecommunity
consistsofphytoplanktons,whicharefreefloatingalgae,diatomsetc.Graduallythereare
replacedbyrootedsubmergedplantsfollowedbyrootedfloatingplants.
B. Xerosere:Thisoriginatesonabarerockwhichlackswaterandorganicmatter. The
communityconsistsofCrustaceansandLichen.TheseLichensproduce weakacidsand
helpindisintegrationofrock,aprocessknownasweathering.Thencomesthecommunityof
mosses,followedbyherbs,shrubsandfinallytheforest
MAJORTYPESOFECOSYSTEMS
1. FORESTECOSYSTEM
Thedifferentcomponentsofaforestecosystemare:
AbioticComponent:
Thereareinorganicaswellasorganicsubstancespresentinthesoilandatmosphere,dead
organicdebris,litteraccumulation,temperatureclimate.Moreover,thelightconditionsaredifferent
duetocomplexstratification.
BioticComponents:
1. Producers:-Therearemainlytreesthatshow muchspeciesdiversitysuchasTectonia
grandis,shorearubustaandPinusbesidestreestherearealsopresentshrubsandaground
vegetation.
2. Consumers:-Thereareherbivoresincludeasants,flies,beetles,leafhopper,bugsand
spiders. Largeranimals like elephants,nilghai,deer,squirrels and mangooses etc.
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Carnivoreslikesnakes,birds,lizards,fox,lion,tigeretc.
3. Decomposers:-Therearewidevarietyofmicroorganism includingfungilikeAspergillus,
Fusarium,TrichodermabacterialikeBascillus,Clostridium,PsedomonasandActinocycetes.
2. GRASSLANDECOSYSTEM
Grasslandsoccupy,roughly19%oftheearth’ssurface.Thevariouscomponentsare
AbioticComponent:
Thesearethenutrientspresentinsoilandtheaerialenvironment.ThustheelementslikeC,
H,O,N,P,Setc.aresuppliedbyCarbondioxide,Water,Nitrates,PhosphatesandSulphatesetc.
presentinairandsoilofthearea.
BioticComponent:
1. Producers:TheyaremainlygrasseslikeCyanodon,Digitariaetcbesidesfewshrubs.
2. Consumers:Grazinganimalsascows,buffaloes,deers,sheep,rabbit,mouse,termitesand
millipedsetc.thatfeedontheleavesofgrasses,carnivoreslikefox,jackals,snakes,birdsetc.
3. decomposers:Themicrobesactiveinthedecayofdeadorganicmatterofdifferentforms
likefungiasspeciesofMucor,Aspergillus,Pencillium,Cladosporium,Rhizopus,Fusariumetc.
andsomebacterialikeactinomycetes. Theybeingbackthemineralsintothesoilthus
makingthemavailabletotheproducers.
3.DESERTECOSYSTEM
Desertsoccupyabout17%ofland,occurringintheregionwithanannualrainfalllessthan
25cm.
AboiticComponent:
EvaporationexceedsprecipitationTheatmosphereisverydryhencewhythesoilgetscooled
upquickly,makingthenightscool.Daytimewithextremetemperatures.
BioticComponent:
1. Producers:Thereareshrubs,especiallybushes,somegrasses.Theshrubshavewidespread,
branchedrootsystems.FewsucculentslikeCactialongwithLichensandXerophyticmosses
mayalsobepresent.
2. Consumers:Thesearereptilesandinsectsabletoliveunderxericconditionstherearealso
somenocturnalrodentsandbirds.
3. Decomposers:Theseareveryfew,asduetopoorvegetationandtheamountofdeadorganic
matteriscorrespondinglyless. Theyaresomefungiand bacterialmostlywhich are
thermophilic.
AQUATICECOSYSTEMS
1. PONDECOSYSTEM
AbioticComponent:Thechiefsubstancesareheat,lightPHvalueofwaterandthebasicinorganic,
organiccompoundssuchaswater,carbondioxide,oxygen,calcium,nitrogen,phosphates
aminoacids,humicacidsetc.
BioticComponent:
1. Producers:Thereareantotrophic,greenplantsandsomephotosyntheticbacteria. The
commonspeciesareTropa,Nymphaea,Hydrilla,Vallisneria,somefreefloatingformsas
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Azolla,salvinia,Wolfia,Eichhornia,Lemnaetc.alsooccurinthepond. Algae–Ulothrix,
spirogyra,Cladophora and Oedogonium,Volvox,Diatoms,Chlamydomonas,are some
flagellates.
2. Consumers:Mostofthemareherbivores(200planktons)likerotifers,protozoans–Euglena,
CrustaceanslikeCyclops.TherearesomeLargefishthatfeedonsmallerfish.
3. Decomposers:Thesearealsocalledasmicroconsumers.FungilikeRhigopus,Pencillium,
AlternariaandTrichodermaaremostcommondecomposersinwaterandmudofthepond.
2.OCEAN(MARINE)ECOSYSTEM
AbioticComponents:
ChemicalCompositionduetobeingsaline,otherphysico–chemicalpropertieslikedissolved
oxygen,lightandtemperature.
BioticComponent:
1. Producers:ThesearemainlyPhytoplankton’saresuchasdiatoms.Flagellatesandsome
microscopicalgae.Besidesthem,anumberofmacroscopicseaweeds,brownandredalgae
arealsopresent.
2. Consumers:Theseareherbivoreslikemollusks,smallfishcrustaceansetccarnivoreslike
Herring,Shad,andMackerelfish.Thereareotherhighercarnivoresfishlikecod,Haddock,
Halibutfish.
3. Decomposers:Themicrobesactiveinthedecayofdeadorganicmatterofproducersand
macroconsumersarechieflybacteriaandsomefungi.
3. ESTUARINEECOSYSTEM
Anestuaryisasemi–enclosedcoastalbodyofwaterwhichhasaconnectionwithsea.Ex:-
rivermouths,coastalbays,tidalmarshesandwaterbodiesbehindbeaches.
AbioticComponent:
Thesearethetransitionzoneswhicharestronglyaffectedbytidalactionconstantmixingof
waterstirsupthesiltwhichmakesthenutrientsavailablefortheproducers. Therearewide
variationsinthestreamflow,tidalcurrents,temperatureandsalinity.
BioticComponent:
TheyhaveallthethreekindsofproducerslikeMacrophytes,MicrophytesandPhytoplanktons.
Therearemanymigratoryspeciesoffisheslikeeelsandsalmonswhichhalfofthelifeisspentin
freshwaterandhalfinsaltwater.
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BIODIVERSITYANDITSCONSEVATION
Definition:
Biodiversityrefersto“Thevarietyandvariabilityamongallgroupsoflivingorganismsandthe
ecosystemsinwhichtheyoccur”.Thiscanbesubdividedintothreelevelsas:
1. GeneticDiversity:Whenthegeneswithinthesamespeciesshowdifferentversionsdueto
newcombinations,itiscalledgeneticvariability.Ex:Allricevarietiesbelongtothespecies
Oryzasativa,butthereareseveralvarietiesofricewhichshowdifferinthecolour,size,shape,
aromaandnutrientcontent.Thisisthegeneticdiversityoftherice.
2. SpeciesDiversity:Thisisthevariabilityfoundwithinthepopulationofaspeciesorbetween
differentspeciesofcommunity.
3. Ecosystem Diversity:ThisisthevariabilityfoundinEcosystemsstructureandfunctions
alongwithvariationsinphysicalparameterslikemoisture,temperature,altitude,precipitation
etc.
BIOGEOGRAPHYOFINDIA
IthasbeenclassifiedintoTenbiogeographiczones. Eachofthesezoneshasitsown
characteristicclimate,soil,topographyandbiodiversity.
1. TransHimalayan–UpperRegion
2. Himalayan–NorthWest,West,CentralandEastHimalayan
3. Desert–Kutch,Thar,Ladakh
4. SemiArid–CentralIndia,Gujarath
5. WesternGhats–MalabarCoast,Mountains
6. DeccanPeninsula–South,Nagpur
7. GangeticPlains–Upperandlowergangeticplain
8. Nort–EastIndia–BrahmaputraValley,North–EasternHills
9. Islands–Andaman,Lakshadweep
10. Coasts–WestandEastCoast.
ValueofBiodiversity
Thevalueofbiodiversityintermsofitscommercialutility,ecologicalservices,socialand
aestheticvalueisenormous.
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1.CommercialValue:
a. Food:-Alargenumberofwildplantsareconsumedbyhumanbeingsasfooditsabout
80,000edibleplantspecies.
b. DrugsandMedicine:-About75% oftheworld’spopulationdependsuponplantsorplant
extractsformedicine.Ex:Penicillinusedasanantibioticisderivedfrom afunguscalled
Pencillium,Tetracyclinfrom Bacterium;Quininetocuremalariaisobtainedfrom thebarkof
Cinchonatree.
c. Fuel:-Ourforestshavebeenusedsinceagesforfuelwood.Thefossilfuelslikecoal,petrol
andnaturalgasarealsoproductsofbiodiversity.
d. Productiveuse:-Tusksofelephant,muskofdeer,silkworm,woolfrom sheepLacfrom Lac
insects,Rawmaterialforpulpandpaper.
2.SocialValue:
Thesearethevaluesassociatedwiththesocialvalue,customs,religionandspiritualaspects
ofthepeople.Ex:Tulsi,PeepalMango,Lotus,etc.theleaves,fruitsorflowersoftheseplantsare
usedinworshiportheplantitselfisworshipped.Manyanimalslikecow,snakearealsohavesocial
value.
3.EthicalValue:
Itisalsoknownasexistencevalue.Itinvolvesethicalissueslike“alllifemustbepreserved”
basedontheconceptof‘LiveandLetLive’.
4.AestheticValue:
Peoplefromfarandwidespendalotoftimeandmoneytovisitareaswheretheycan
enjoytheaestheticvalueofbiodiversityandthistypeoftourism isknownas‘eco-tourism’
anditisestimatedthattogenerateabout12billiondollarsofrevenueannually.
5.EcologicalServiceValue:
Itreferstotheservicesprovidebyecosystemslikepreventionofsoilerosion,
preventionoffloods,cyclingofnutrients,fixationofnitrogen,pollutantabsorption,cyclingof
water,theirroleascarbonsinks,reductionofthethreatofglobalwarmingetc.
HOTSPOTSOFBIODIVERSITY
Areaswhichexhibithighspeciesrichnessaswellashighspeciesendemism aretermedas
hotspotsofbiodiversity.Theterm wasintroducedbyMyers(1988).Thereare25suchhot
spotsofbiodiversityonagloballeveloutofwhichtwoarepresentinIndia,namelythe
EasternHimalayanandWesternGhats.
a. EasternHimalayas:Therearenumerousdeepandsemi–isolatedvalleysinSikkimwhichare
extremelyrichinendemicplantspecies.Inanareaof7298km
2
ofSikkim about4250plant
speciesarefound.
b. WesternGhats:Itextendsalonga17,000Km2stripofforestsinM.H.,Karnataka,Tamilnadu
andKeralahavingrichplantspecies,amphibions,Lizards.Itisreportedthatonly6.8%ofthe
originalforest’sareexistingtoday,whiletheresthasbeendeforestedordegraded.
THREATSTOBIODIVERSITY
Humanactivityisthemajorthreattobiodiversityandfollowingarethechiefcausesof
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extinctionofspeciescausedbymantofulfillitsneeds.
1. Habitatdestruction.
2. Habitatfragmentation–Habitatoccupiedwideareasarenowoftendividedupintopiecesby
roads,fields,towns,canals,powerlinesetc.
3. Habitatpollution.
4. Introductionofexoticspecies.
5. Diseases
6. ShiftingorJhumcultivation.
ENDANGEREDSPECIESOFINDIA
TheinternationalunionforconservationofNatureandNaturalResources(IUCN)publishes
theRedDataBookwhichincludesthelistofendangeredspeciesofplantsandanimals.InIndia,
nearly450plantspecies150mammals,150Speciesofbirdsareidentifiedasendangered.
a. Reptiles:Gharial,GreenSeaTurtle,Tortoise,Python.
b. Birds:GreatIndianBastard,Peacock,Pelican,SiberianWhiteCrane.
c. Mammals:Wolf,RedFox,SlothBear,RedPanda,Tiger,Leopard,Hyena,Lion.
d. Plants:SpeciesofOrchids,MedicinalplantslikeRauvolfiaSerpentina,thesandalwood
Santalum,Cycasetc.
1. Extinct:Aspecieswhenitisnotseeninthewildfor50yratastreach.
2. Endangered:Aspecieswhenitsnumberhasbeenreducedtoacritical
levelorwhosehabitatshavebeenreduced.
3. Vulnerable:Acategoryofaspeciespopulationisfacingcontinuous
declineduetooverexploitation.
4. Rare:Specieswhicharenotendangeredorvulnerableatpresentbut
arearisk.
CONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITY
Theenormousvalueofbiodiversityduetotheirgenetic,commercial,medical,aesthetic,
ecologicalandoptionalimportanceemphasizestheneedtoconservebiodiversity.Therearetwo
typesofapproachesbiodiversityconservation.
1.In–situConservation(Withinhabitat):
Thisisachievedbyprotectionofwildfloraandfaunainnatureitself.Theseinclude
a. BiosphereReserves:Conservesomerepresentativeecosystemsaswholeforlongterm.
b. NationalPark:Is an area dedicated forthe conservation ofwild life along with its
environment. Ex:-Khaziranga– Assam – Rhino,Ghir– Gujarat– Lion,Bandipur–
Karnataka–Elephant,JimCorbett–U.P.–Tiger
c. WildlifeSanctuaries:Arealsoprotectedareaswherekilling,hunting,shootingorcapturingof
wildlifeisprohibited.Ex:Hazaribagh–Bihar–Tiger,Leopard,NalSarovarBird–Gujarat–
WaterBirdsSanctuary.
II.Ex–SituConservation(Outsidehabitats)
Thisisdonebyestablishmentofgenebanks,seedbanks,zoos,botanicalgardens,culture
collectionsetc.InIndiawehavefollowingimportantgenebank/seedbankfacilities.
i. NationalBureauofPlantGeneticResources(NBPGR)–New Delhi–hereagriculturaland
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horticulturalcropsandtheirwildrelativesarepreservedbycryo–preservationofseeds,
pollenetc.byusingliquidnitrogenatatemperatureaslow as-196
0
C.Ex:Rice,Tomato,
Onion,Carrot,Chilli,Tobaccoetc.
ii. NationalBureauofAnimalGeneticResources(NBAGR)locatedatKarnal,Haryana. It
preservesthesemenofdomesticatedanimals.
iii. NationalFacilityforplant–tissueculture,repository(NFPTCR)forthedevelopmentofa
facilityofconservationofvarietiesofcropplants/treesbytissueculture.
S.BALACHANDAR
M.Sc,M.Tech(PhD)NETSET
QUESTIONBANK
BasicsofEnvironmentalStudies
1. Writeabouttheimportanceofeducationonenvironmentalissuesandconcerns.
2. Describethemultidisciplinarynatureofenvironmentalstudies
3. Writeadetailednoteontheroleofvariousorganizationsinthefieldoftheenvironmentand
theircontributiontobettermanagementofresources
4. Discusstheimportanceofnaturewithrespecttothefollowingstatements.
a. Thereisanurgentneedtoprotectalllivingspecies.
b. Natureprovidesuswithvariousoptionsonhowweutilizeitsgoodsandservices
5. DiscusstheimportanceofEnvironmentalstudieswithrespecttothefollowingstatements.
a. Weliveinaworldwherenaturalresourcesarelimited.
b. Greenspacesandgardensarevitaltothepsychologicalandphysicalhealthofcitydwellers
6. Explainbrieflyaboutthefollowingcomponentsofenvironment.
a)Atmosphere b)Lithosphere
c)Hydrosphere d)Biosphere
7. Explaintheneedforstudentsfromallcoursestobeawareofenvironmentalissues.
8. WritebrieflyaboutthescopeofEnv.Studies.
9. Discussthevalueofnaturewithrespecttothefollowingstatements.
a. Atruewildernessexperienceisanincrediblelearningexperience.
b. Thebeautyofnatureencompasseseveryaspectofthelivingandnon-livingpartof
ourearth
10. Whatistherole-playedbythefollowingindividualenvironmentalthinkers?
a)IndiraGandhi b)Sunderlalbahuguna
c)SPGodrej d)AnilAgarwal
11. Whatarethefactorsleadingtotheincreasedresourceconsumptiononearthinrecentyears?
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12. Whatistheroleofscienceandengineeringintheprotectionofenvironment?
13. Knowledgeabouttheenvironmentisnotanend,butratherabeginning,explain.
14. Discusstheimpactofmanonenvironmentmentioningthemajorenvironmentalissues.
15. Examinetherelationshipbetweenenvironmentandecosystem.
16. Whatdoyouunderstandbybioticandabioticpartsofnature?Explaintheinteractionand
interdepency
ofthese
17. WriteashortnotesonEnvironmentalimpactAssessment.
18. Whatismeantbyhabitat?
19. Giveabriefaccountofhumaninterferencewiththeenvironment
20. DefinethetermEnvironmentincontextofhumanbeing.
21. Brieflydescribetheneedofpublicawarenessabouttheenvironment
22. Differentiatebetweenclimateandmicroclimate
23. Whymineralwaterbottlesshouldnotbeusedforlongerperiods?
24. WhatisanESP?
25. WhatdoyoumeanbyEnvironmentalBiotechnology?
NaturalResources
1. Writeabriefnoteon
a)Non-renewableresources b)Renewableresources
c)Jointforestsmanagement. D)Floodsasaseriousenvironmentalhazard
2. Writebrieflyabouttheunequalconsumption pattern ofthedeveloped and developing
countries
3. Explainthecommoncoursesandenvironmentalimpactsofdeforestation.
4. a. WriteashortnoteonthemineralresourcesofIndia.
b. Listthepossiblesocialimpactsofminingonlocalcommunities.
5. Explainthebenefitsandassociatedproblemsbyconstructionofdams.
6. Comparethevariouskindsofalternativeenergyresourcesavailableonthisearth.
7. Differentiatebetweenrenewable,non-renewableandsustainableresourcesofenergy
8. Enumeratethemethodsofpreventionofsoilerosion.
9. Definethetermdesertification,whataretheeffortstopreventthesame.
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10. Explainthecausestheoccurrenceoflandslides.
11. Explaintheimpactsoftimberextraction.
12. EnvironmentaldamagescausedbymininglastlongaftertheminehasclosedExplain.
13. ListtheproblemsassociatedwiththeChemicalfertilizersandpesticides.
14. Withaneatsketchexplaintheworkingofafuelcell.
15. Explainthepossiblecontributionsofindividualstowardsenergyconservation.
16. Discussthevarioustypesoflanddegradationwithitscausesandsolutions.
17. Whatiswaterlogging?Whatareitseffectsontheenvironment?
18. Discusstheuseofbioenergyasanon-conventionalsourceofenergy.
19. Discusstheroleplayedbythenon-conventionalenergyresourcestowardstheprotectionof
the environment.
20. Whatissoil?Explainitscompositionandformation?
21. Discussindetailthewatercycle
22. Writeaboutsustainablewatermanagement.
23. WhatisTaungyasystemofagroforestry?
24. Whatisresidenttimeofwaterintheair
25. Whatisminespoil?
26. Whatismeantbyenergyplantation?
27. Namethebasicresourcesoftheearthmentionedinourancientliterature?
28. Howtheworld’snaturalresourcesclassified?
29. Explainwhysoilresourcesareimportantforhumanwelfare?
30. Whatarethemainsourcesofenergyintheworldtoday?
31. Whatisanaquifer?Describeitstypes.
32. Whatareenvironmentalimpactsofgroundwaterusage?
33. Whataretheimpactsofovergrazingonagriculture?
34. Discusstheimpactsofmodernagricultureoncropproduction
35. Whatismining?Describedifferentmethodsofmining?
36. Explainthevalueofmineralresourcesasnaturalrecourses?
37. Giveanaccountofwatercrisisandconflictsoverwater
38. ExplainaboutEutrophication?
39. DefinePedology.
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40. Howcanmineralrecoursescanbepreserved?
41. Whatistheglobalenergyconsumptionpattern?
42. Whataretheprosandconsofnuclearpower?
43. Howcanweimproveenergyefficiency?
44. Whyarefossilfuelsnon-renewable?
45. Whataretheprospectsofgettingmorehydropower?
Ecosystems
1. Whatdoyouunderstandbyfoodchainainanecosystem
2. Howdoesacomplexfoodwebprotecttheecosystemfromdegradation?
3. Explainthesignificanceofpresentingbalanceinvariouskindofecosystemsillustratewith
examples.
4. Describethestructureandfunctionsofecosystems.
5. Defineecosystemandlistcomponentsofanecosystem.
6. Brieflyexplainthemannerinwhichecosystemsaredestroyedbyhumanactivities.
7. Writeadetailednoteontheforestecosystem,bringingoutitsfunctions
8. Explaintheroleofproducesconsumersanddecomposersinanecosystem.
9. Discusstheenvironmentalfactorsaffectingtheperformanceofanaquaticecosystem.
10. Describehow youwouldmethodicallyrecordtheelementsandresourcesinan
ecosystemandassessitsfunctioning.
11. Describetheenergyflowinanecosystem
12. Whatarebiogeochemicalcycles?Howdoesnitrogencirculationoccursinnature
13. Whatarethebasicdifferencesofcommunity,ecosystemandbiome?
14. Whatisanecologicalsuccession?Mentionitstypes.
15. Brieflyexplainanaquaticecosystem.
16. Whatdoyoumeanbybiomagnification?
17. Explaintheconceptofecologicalpyramid
18. Explainthefunctioningofahydrologicalcycle
19. WhatisDetrius?
20. Whattypeofecologicalpyramidisalwaysupright?
21. Whatarepioneerspecies?
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22. Whatisxerosereandhydrosome?
23. Whythedecomposerswerecalledasmicroconsumers?
24. Explaintheconceptoffoodchain.
25. Whatdoyoumeanbyclimax?
26. Givethesilentfeaturesofpondecosystem
27. Whatisgrasslandecosystemandwhataretheactivitiesingrassland?
28. Explaintheprocessofsuccessioninanewlyformedpond
29. Whatistherole-playedbyautographsinananyecosystem
30. Whatistheprimarysourceofenergyforalllivingorganisms?
31. Howareecosystemsclassified?
32. Howdoesanecosystemgetestablished?
33. Whatarecyclesinecosystems?
34. Howaredifferentbiomesdistributedintheworld?
35. WhataretheimportanttypesofforestsinIndia?
36. Whatarecoralreefs?
37. Whyareestuariesandcoastalwetlandsimportant?
Biodiversityanditsconservation
1. Writeabriefnoteonbiodiversityandecosystemdiversity.
2. Explaintheevolutionofdiversespeciesinanecosystem
3. Whyisitnecessarytomaintainbiodiversity?
4. Whatarethedifferentservicesthatarecontributedinvariouswaysbybiodiversity?
5. Whatdoyouunderstandbyendemicandendangeredspecies?How aretheycategorized
givesomeexamplesofsuchspeciesinIndia.
6. ListsomecommonplantandanimalspeciesofIndia.
7. Whatis‘in-situ’and‘ex-situ’conservationofbiodiversity?Explainbrieflyabouteach
8. Whatdoyouunderstandbytheterm biodiversity?Writebrieflyaboutthedifferentkindsof
diversityinorganisms
9. Whatisanintegratedprotectedareasystem?How dothesecontributetopreservationof
biodiversity?
10. ListthebiogeographicallyzonesofIndia.
11. DefinethetermHotspotinBiodiversity.
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12. DiscussthestatusofIndiaasamegadiversenationofbiodiversity
13. ExplaintheeffortstakentowardsconservationofbiodiversityinIndia.
14. Isbiotechnologyathreattobiodiversity?Substantiateyouranswerwithexamples.
15. Whatarenationalparks?NamefewsuchparksinIndia
16. WhatisCryopreservation
17. Whatarebotanochemicals
16. DefineExoticspecies
17. NamethetwohotspotsofIndia
18. ExpandIUCNandWWF
19. Whatisthemajorcauseofextinctionofspecies?
20. NamethemostrichbiodiversityplacesofIndia
21. NametheplantswhichyielddrugforMalariaandCancer
22. Whatistheimpactofaltitudeandlatitudeonthedistributionofbiodiversity?
23. Differentiatebetweennationalparksandsanctuaries
24. Giveanytwosignificancesofconservationofbiodiversity
25. Whatismeantbyspeciesrichness?
26. WhatismeantbyAlphadiversity?
27. Whichwerecalledasrarespecies?
28. Discussthevaluesofbiodiversity
29. Whatistherole-playedbyBiospherereserve
30. WhatdoyoumeanbyRedBook?
31. Describethebenefitsofbiologicaldiversity
32. Howmanyspeciesarethereinthisworld?
33. WhatisthelevelofbiodiversityinIndia?
34. Whatwillbetheimpactofbiodiversitylost?
35. WhatactionshavewetakentoconserveIndia’sbiodiversity?
