This document summarizes research on the degraded peatland ecosystem of the Southern Pennines region in England. Peatlands provide important ecosystem services but degradation from factors like drainage, erosion, and overgrazing have negatively impacted plant communities and carbon storage. Restoration efforts aim to restore water levels and vegetation to recover ecosystem functions like carbon sequestration, but success varies depending on location and methods used. Further research is needed to fully understand impacts of degradation and most effective restoration approaches.

1. The Degraded Peatland Ecosystem of the Southern Pennines
Peatlandsholdsignificantimportance environmentally,ecologicallyandeconomically. Peatlands
containcarbon rich soilswhichinfluence dissolvedorganiccarbon(DOC) andparticulate organic
carbon (POC) flux throughoutgroundwaterandwaterways (Aitkenhead etal., 1999; Hope et al.,
2004); withDOC release causingincreasedatmosphericCO2,waterwaydegradationand fluctuating
soil acidity(Grand-Clemantetal., 2014). Furthermore, peatlandsoften holdhistorical significance,
playinghosttomacrofossilsandarchaeological artefactswhichprovide glancesintopast
environmental conditions(Waller&Early,2015).
Figure 1. Global peat distribution (UNEP 2009)
Over10% of the globespeatisfoundwithinthe UK(figure 1) which,accordingtothe IUCN 2014, has
an importantrole inprovidinglarge-scale,natural ecosystemsastheyare the onlyremaining,large
semi-natural habitatsinthe UK. One such habitatisthe SouthernPennineswhich coversanareaof
almost65,000 hectares(JNCC2004) andis comprisedof wetanddry heaths,blanketbogs,oak
woods, minormiresandquakingbogs. The site isapproximately7kmeastof Glossop withinthe Peak
DistrictNational Parkandis surroundedbytwomajorurbanisedareas,ManchesterandSheffield
(figure 2). Thisreportoutlines the sitesecosystemservicesandthe impactsof natural and
anthropogeniceventsonhabitats andecological cyclesacrossthisarea.

2. Figure 2. Area map ofthe Southern Pennines (Digimap 2016)
Under section28 of the wildlife andcountryside act1981, the SouthPennine Moorswere classified
as a site of special scientificinterest(SSSI)andSAC(Special Areaof Conservation)in1994 (Natural
England1994). Thisstatus alsoincorporatesanumberof individual siteswithinthe Moorspreviously
classifiedasSSSI. The Moorsdry heathlandusuallyoccursonitslowerslopesorwhere the peatis
thin.ItsuplandheathisdominatedbyHeather(Calluna vulgaris) growingalongside Crowberry
(Empetrumnigrum) andBilberry(Vacciniummyrtillus).Withinthe MoorsblanketbogsHare’s-tail
Cottongrass(Eriophorumvaginatum)isabundantwhereas Sphagnummossisingreatdecline.
Cloudberry(Rubuschamaemorous) isoftenfoundinabundance throughoutthe bogvegetation,
thoughnationallyitisuncommon. Large areasof bare peat occur across the bogsdue erosion
howeverthe cause of thisisdue to a numberof factorsincludingnatural subsidence due tothe site
beingover9000 years old(Shepherd etal., 2013).
The Moors provide anumberof ecosystemservices(seeFigure 3) thoughthese servicesare at
threatfrom a numberof factors.
Peatlandresource Ecosystem service
Carbon Sequestration
Carbon Storage
Atmospheric Filtration
Reduction Of CarbonDebt
Climate Regulation
Water Retention
Water Supply
FloodPrevention/Barrier
Water Filtration
Archaeological Preservation
Biodiversity
Aesthetic Value
Agricultural Grazing
Game Habitat (Grouse, Tetraoninae)
Tourism
Scientific Research
Semi-Natural Ecological Reserve
Figure 3. The ecosystem services provided by the Southern Pennines Peatland moors

3. Moorlandgrazingis the largestinstigatorof soil erosion andchangesinbiodiversity (Evans&Lindsay
2010; Grayson et al., 2010). Sheeptracksandsurface scarring occur wherever aheardtrample and
take shelter.These areasencourage soil deterioration,especially alonggullies (Evans2005). Grazing
severelyeffectsplantcommunitycomposition, asconstantovergrazing preventsseeddispersaland
coppice youngsaplings. Thoughconsumptionof some speciescan promote dispersali.e.Juniper
Juniperusspp (Thompson etal., 1995). Across the PeakDistrictand Cumbria,Heather hasdeclined
with36% in the early20th
centurydue to agricultural grazing.AsHeatherdeclines,agreaterdiversity
of more agriculturallyproductive species hasbeingfavoured i.e.grassesandsedges (Holden etal.,
2007).
Historically,moorlandshave beenburnttopromote Heatherregrowthalongside grassesandsedges
for grazing.Heatherhasalsobeen burntto restrictgrowth to an optimal heightforhighredgrouse
(Willow ptarmigan) densities,whichare huntedrecreationally (Shepherd etal., 2013). Burningis
unregulatedbyany law besides“noburning”dates.Consequently,burnshave contributedtowards
erosionwithinpeatland,asblanketbogsare encroacheduponto alleviate agricultural pressures
(Glaves&Haycock, 2005). Wildfirescoupledwithdeliberateburns,are strippingpeatlandsof crucial
soil pipelinescreatedbyHeather,whichsubsequentlydistortssoilhydrologyresultinginchangesin
waterquality andcarbon flux (Holden2005).Furthermore Holden etal, in 2014 foundthatfiresalso
decreasedmacropore flowandnear-surfacehydraulicconductivity, reducingnutrientavailability
and flux intovegetation.
Aciddecomposition induced widespreadlossof Lichenandchangesinspeciescomposition
throughoutpeatlandenvironments.Thisisdue to the base poorpeatsoilsvulnerability tochangesin
pH (Holden etal., 2007). The depositionof sulphurandnitrogeninpeatsoilshasledto declineinsoil
pH as basic elementssuchascalciumand magnesium leachintowaterways, which increasesheavy
metal solubilityinpeatsoils.Consequently, plantgrowthisstuntedwith reducedresilience,
ultimately promotingmore acidtolerantspecies (Rothwelletal., 2005). In the SouthernPennines
acid decompositionhashistoricallycausedadeclinein Sphagnumspp mossdue tothe abundance
atmosphericsulphurdioxide sequestrationintogroundwater duringthe Industrial Revolution
(Ferguson&lee 1983; Worral et al., 2003). Furthermore,erosionhasalso increase atmospheric
heavymetals assoil deposits are released due toexposureof bare peat(Rothwelletal., 2005:
Shotboltetal., 2006). Emissionlaws, have seenatmosphericsulphurdioxidedecreaseby60% over
the last twodecades(Fowleretal., 2005). Whilst,Atmosphericnitrogenhasincreasedcausing
significantchanges (viasequestration) inplantspeciescomposition throughoutpeatlands, as
nitrogenavailabilitypromotesnon-nativegrassspeciesinareaswhere Heatherwasonce dominant
(Holden etal., 2007).
90% of peatlandbogs,iswatersaturated withdecayingorganicmatter,restrictedinmovement by
tightrafts of vegetationsuchasSphagnummoss;unable toabsorbexcessive waterfromrainfall
(Ballardet al., 2012; Evans & Lindsay2010). Openditchdrainage wasusedto lowerthe watertable
to encourage vegetation growthforlivestockgrazing(Stewart&Lance 1983). The loweringof water
tablesproducessignificantlyhigherratesof erosionwithindrainedpeatland(Ballard etal.,2012;
Dixonet al., 2013) consequently causingincreasedlevelsof DOCandPOC flux withinrun-off (Worrall
et al., 2007). Drainage channelsare now incrementallyblockedinan attempttorestore watertable
levelsbyincreasing waterflowthroughoutadjacentpeatlands (Dixonetal., 2013). Howeverchanges
inhydrological regime,createdbydrainage,have significantlyimpacteduponadjacentvegetation

4. speciesandsoil structure;leadingtoa change in run-off responsewhendrainagechannelsare
blocked(Evans etal., 2005b). Coulson etal (1990) observedadecrease in Sphagnumspp moss
abundance whenthe watertable rapidlyincreased due tothe recolonisationof the Sphagnumpost
drainage implementation. Subsequently,the Sphagnumcannotrecolonisequickenoughinresponse
to the blockeddrains (Price &Whitehead,2001).Decliningsphagnummosscoupledwithreduction
inwater levelsseriouslyalterspeatbogbiogeochemical functionandinhibitspeatsabilityto
sequestercarbon,consequentlycausingchangesincarbonbalance (Clay etal., 2012).
Much like drainage channels,the formationof gulliesdue toerosionseriouslycontributestowards
transitionof POCintopeatlandstreams (Evans&Warburton 2007; Gran-Clementetal., 2013) as
identifiedatBleaklowPlateau(SouthernPenninesSSSI) (Evans&Lindsay2010). DOC andPOC
increase inwaterwayscontributestowardsoceaniccarbon,reduceswaterqualityandincreases
economiccostto watertreatmentcompanies (Wallageetal., 2006; Grand-Clementetal., 2013).
Bare peatsoilshave beenfoundlowconcentrationsof DOC,anexplanationispotentiallylinkedtoa
lack soil microbial communitiesinsymbiosiswithavegetative layer,drivingorganiccarbon
production (AguilarandThibodeaux,2005).Changesinsoil structure asa resultof erosionand the
growthof roughvegetation,altersthe hydrological response of soils;impedingitswaterretention
properties (Coulsonetal.,1990). Thusflow rate and velocityof run-off ingullies issignificantly
increased incomparisontoSphagnummoss bogs(Holdenetal.,2008); greatlycontributingtowards
floodrisks .
Intensive restorationalsoincludesthe limingandseedingof sites. RestorationeffortsonBleaklow
Plateaubare peaterosion doindicate improvementsincarbon sequestration.However, due to
differencesinlocationandmethodology;restoration isnotalwaysbeneficial long-term(Dixonetal.,
2014). Seedingareasof bare peatlandwithmixednon-native lawngrasses(Agrostisspp,
Deschampsia flexuosa,Festuca ovina) (Clay etal., 2012) isconsideredbeneficial tocarbon
sequestrationandretentionasitavoidscarbonlossfromsoil, byincreasingtransitionof
atmosphericcarbonintosoil andacts as a long-termcarbonstore (Worral et al.,2011). Furthermore,
non-native grass,outperformbogspeciesincarbonsequestrationabilitiesforashortperiodwhilst
the re-vegetative isestablished. Thoughonce established, bogspecies productionisgreater
therefore mixedgrassrestoration isnotlong-termresolutionforbare peat erosion (Worral etal.,
2011). Some restorationefforts nowspread Sphagnummossinanattempttore-establishthe
speciesasthe dominantvegetationacrosspeatland(Moorsforthe future partnership,2012).
Howeverthe successof thispractice isvarieddependingonsite locationandavailablewatertable.

5. The damage done to ecosystemservice inthe SouthernPennines bypeatlanddegradationisclear
(Figure 4).
Peatlandresource Ecosystem service PeatlandDegradation Degradation Impacts Economic impacts
Carbon
Sequestration
Carbon Storage Erosion/VegetationLoss Stored Carbon Released Increased Restoration Cost
AtmosphericFiltration
Erosion/Heavy Metal
Release/Vegetationloss Air Quality Determination Increased MedicalCost
Reduction OfCarbon
Debt
Erosion/VegetationLoss
Carbon Emissions Increased Increased Regulatory Cost
ClimateRegulation Erosion/VegetationLoss ClimateChange Escalated Increased Political Cost
Water Retention
Water Supply Erosion/DOC and POCFlux Reduction In Usable Water Increased Importation Cost
Flood
Prevention/Barrier
Erosion/Gully
Formation/Drainage Increased Flood Risk Increased Prevention Cost
Water Filtration Vegetation Loss Water Quality Determination Increased TreatmentCost
Archaeological
Preservation
Erosion/Vegetation
Loss/AcidDecomposition
Artefact/Sample
Decomposition FinancialInvestment Loss
Biodiversity
Aesthetic Value Erosion/Vegetationloss Loss ofValue Housing Profit Loss
AgriculturalGrazing
Erosion/Acid
Decomposition/Vegetation
Loss
Reduced/Depleted Grazing
Vegetation AgriculturalProfit Loss
Game Habitat
(Grouse)
Vegetation Loss
PopulationDecline Recreational ProfitLoss
Tourism Erosion/VegetationLoss Un-TraversableTerrain Tourism Profit Loss
ScientificResearch
Erosion/Vegetation
Loss/AcidDecomposition
Unstable/Dangerous Site
Conditions AcademicProfit Loss
Semi-Natural
EcologicalReserve
Vegetation Loss
Loss OfSemi-Natural
Ecosystems Increased Restoration Cost
Figure 4. The impacts and costs ofpeatland degradation based on finding ofthis investigation
However, due to the varyingdefinitionsandclassificationsof peatbogsandmoorland,thereare no
clearresource mapswhichcomprehensivelydepictpeatdepthandlocationatbothregional and
national levels.Thereforethe extentof peatlanddegradationnationally isnotclear.To rectifythis
issue greaterresearchisneededtoestablishthe relationshipsbetweenspecificpeatbogtypesand
the ecosystemservicestheyprovidethroughoutthe UK (Lindsay etal., 2014)
Climacticchange (suchas drought,heavyrainfall andchangingtemperature)impactsuponseasonal
variationin DOCconcentration.Forexample DOCconcentrationsare notably higherdue to
heterotrophicrespirationindroughtconditions (Fenneretal., 2005). As global temperature isdue to
increase by2°C by 2050 (Rogelj etal., 2015) there isa concern that the rate of dissolvedorganic
carbon release willincreasewithtemperature throughoutpeatlands(Freeman etal., 2001). Thus
future impactsof climacticchange require furtherinvestigation toencourage earlyprevention.
Withthe above inmind,keyquestions shouldbe addressed.TowhatextentdoesUKpeatland
degradationdisruptnatural biogeochemical carboncycles? Whatrestorationeffortsefficiently
restore carbon sequestrationandrestore waterlevelswithminimal risktoecosystemsandhuman
factors?And whateffortsshouldbe prioritisedinorderto supportreductionof netcarbon dioxide
emissions by85%by 2050?

6. Word count 1637
References
Aitkenhead,A.,Hope,D.,Billet,F.(1999). The relationshipbetweendissolvedorganiccarbonin
streamwaterand soil organiccarbon poolsat differentspatial scale. HydrolProcess,Vol 13:1289–
1302.
Aguilar,L.,Thibodeaux,L.(2005).Kineticsof peat soil dissolvedorganiccarbonrelease frombed
sedimenttowater.Part1. Laboratory simulation. Chemosphere,Vol58: 1309–1318
Ballard,C.,McIntyre,N.,Wheater,H. (2012). Effectsof peatlanddrainage managementonpeak
flows. Hydrology and earthsystem science,Vol 16: 2299-2310
Coulson,J.,Butterfield,J.,Henderson,E.(1990). The Effectof OpenDrainage Ditchesonthe Plant
and Invertebrate Communitiesof Moorlandandon the Decompositionof Peat,J. Applied ecology,
Vol 27: 549–561
Clay,G., Dixon, S.,Evan,M., Rowson,J.,Worrall,F.(2012). Carbondioxide fluxesandDOC
concentrationsof erodingblanketpeatgullies. Earth surfacesprocessesand landforms,Vol 37:562-
571
Digimap.(2016). Map of the Southern Pennines. [Online] [Accesson07/01/2015]
<http://digimap.edina.ac.uk/roam/os>
Dixon,S.,Qassim,S.,Rowson,J.,Worrall,F.,Evans,M., Boothroyd,T.,BonnA. (2014). Restoration
effectsonwatertable depthsandCO2 fluxesfromclimatically marginal blanketbog.
Biogeochemistry,Vol 118: 159-176
Evans,R. (2005). Curtailinggrazing-inducederosioninasmall catchmentanditsenvirons,the Peak
District,central England. Applied Geography, Vol 25:81-95
Evans,M., Allott,T.,Holden,J.,Flitcroft,C.,Bonn,A.(2005b). Understanding gully blocking in deep
peat.Moors for the Future,Castleton
Evans,M and Lindsay,J.(2010). The impactof gullyerosiononcarbonsequestrationinblanket
peatlands. Climateresearch, 1-11
Evans,M and Warburton,J. (2007). The Geomorphology of Upland Peat:Erosion,Formand
LandscapeChange.Blackwell:Oxford.
Fenner,N.,Freeman,C.,Reynolds,B.(2005).Observationsof aseasonallyshiftingthermal optimum
inpeatlandcarbon-cyclingprocesses;implicationsforthe global carboncycle andsoil enzyme
methodologies. SoilBiology Biochemistry, Vol 37:1814–21.
Ferguson,N.andLee,J. (1983). Past and presentsulphurpollutioninthe southernPennines.
AtmosphericEnvironment,Vol 17:1131–1137

7. Fowler,D.,Smith,R.,Muller,J.,Hayman,G.,Vincent,K.(2005). Changesinthe atmospheric
depositionof acidifyingcompoundsinthe UK between1986 and2001. EnvironmentalPollution, Vol
137: 15–25
Freeman,C.,Evans,C.,Monteith,D.,Reynolds,B., Fenner,N.(2001).Exportof organiccarbon from
peatsoils.Nature,Vol 412: 785.
Glaves,D andHaycock, N. (2005). ‘Defra Review of the Heather and GrassBurning Regulationsand
Code’- SciencePanel Assessmentof theEffectsof Burning on Biodiversity,Soils and Hydrology.
DEFRA.
Grand-Clement,E.,Anderson,K.,Smith,D.,Luscombe,D.,Gatis,N.,Ross,M., Brazier,R. (2013).
Evaluatingecosystemgoodsandservicesafterrestorationof marginal uplandpeatlandinSout-West
England. journalof applied ecology, Vol 50: 324-334
Grand-Clement,E.,Luscombe,D.,Anderson,K., Gatis,N.,Benaud,P.,Brazier,r.(2014). Antecedent
conditionscontrol carbonlossanddownstreamwaterqualityfromshallow,damagedpeatlands.
Science of the total environment, Vol 493 961-973
Grayson,R., Holden,J.,Rose,R.(2010). Long-termchange instormhydrographsinresponse to
peatlandvegetationchange. Journalof hydrology,Vol 389:336-343
Holden,J.(2005). Peatlandhydrologyandcarboncycling:whysmall scale processmatters.
PhilosophicalTransactionsof theRoyalSociety A, Vol 363: 2891–2913
Holden,J.,Kirkby,M.,Lane,S.,Milledge,D.,Brookes,C.,Holden,V.,McDonald,A.,(2008).Factors
affectingoverlandflowvelocityinpeatlands. WaterResourcesResearch,Vol 44:1010-1029
Holden,J.,Shotbolt,L.,Bonn,A.,Burt,T., Chapman,P.,Dougill,A.,Fraser,E.,Hubacek,K.,Irvine,B.,
Kirkby,M.,Reed,M., Prell,C.,Stagl,S.,Stringer,L.,Turner,A.,Worrall,F.(2007). Environmental
change in moorland landscapes. Earthsciencereviews,Vol 82: 75-100
Holden,J.,Wearing,C.,Palmer,S.,Jackson,B.,Johnston,K.,Brown,L.(2014). Fire decreasesnear-
surface hydraulicconductivityandmacropore flow inblanketpeat. Hydrologicalprocesses, Vol 28:
2868-2876
Hope,D., Palmer,S.,Billett,M.,Dawson,J.(2004). VariationsindissolvedCO2andCH4 ina first
orderstreamand catchment:an investigationof soil–streamlinkages. HydrolProcess,Vol 18:3255–
3275.
JNCC.(2004). UK SACdataform. Peterborough,Natura2000. UK90007021
Lindsay,R.,Birnie,R.,Clough,J.(2014). ‘IUCN UK committee peatlandprogramme briefingnote
no.1’. IUCN. Peatbog ecosystems:Key definitions.Universityof eastLondon,05/11/2014.
Moors for the Future Partnership.(2012). SphagnumProject.[Online] [Accesson06/01/2016]
<http://www.moorsforthefuture.org.uk/sphagnum-project>
Natural England.(1994) Designatesites view:South Penninemoors. [Online] [Accesson 03/12/2015]
<http://www.sssi.naturalengland.org.uk/citation/citation_photo/1007196.pdf>

8. Price,J andWhitehead,G.(2001). DevelopinghydrologicthresholdsforSphagnumrecolonizationon
an abandonedcutoverbog. Wetlands, Vol 21:32–40
Rogelj,J.,Reisinger,A.,McCollum, D.,Knutti,R.,Riahi,K.,Meinshausen,M.(2015). Mitigation
chociesimpactcarbon budgetsize compatiblewithlow temperaturegoals. Environmentalresearch
letters, Vol 10: DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/10/7/075003
Rothwell,J.,Robinson,S.,Evans,M.,Yan, J., Allott,T.(2005). Heavymetal release bypeaterosionin
the PeakDistrict,southernPennines,UK. HydrologicalProcesses, Vol 19: 2973–2989
Shepherd,M.,Labadz,J.,Caporn,S., Crowle,A.,Goodison,R.,Rebane,M.,Waters,R. (2013). Natural
Englandreviewof uplandevidence- Restoration of degraded blanketbog.Natural EnglandEvidence
Review,Number003
Shotbolt,L.,Huchinson,S.,Thomas,A. (2006). Determiningpastheavymetal depositionontothe
southernPenninesusingreservoirsedimentaryrecords. Journalof Paleolimnology, Vol35:305–322
Stewart,A.and Lance,A. (1983). Moor-draining:A review of impactsonlanduse. Journalof
Environmental Management,Vol 17:81–99
Thompson,D.,Macdonald,A.,Marsden,J., Galbraith,C. (1995) . UplandheathermoorlandinGreat
Britain:a reviewof international importance,vegetationchange andsome objectivesfornature
conservation. BiologicalConservation, Vol 71:63–178
Wallage,Z.,Holden,J.,McDonald,A.(2006). Drain blocking:Aneffective treatmentforreducing
dissolvedorganiccarbonlossandwater discolourationinadrainedpeatland. Scienceof theTotal
Environment,Vol 367: 811–821
Waller,Mand Early,R. (2015). Vegetationdynamicsfromacoastal peatland:insightsfromcombined
plantmacrofossil andpollendata. Journalof quaternary science,Vol 30: 779-789
Worrall,F.,Reed,M., Warburton,J.,Burt, T. (2003). CarbonbudgetforBritishuplandpeat
catchment. Sci Total Environ,Vol 312:133–146
Worrall,F.,Rowson, J.,Evans,M., Pawson,R.,Daniels,S.,Bonn,A.(2011). Carbonfluxesfrom
erodingpeatlands—thecarbonbenefitof revegetationfollowingwildfire. Earth Surf ProcLand,Vol
36:1487–1498
UNEP. (2009). The naturalfix?The role of ecosystemsin climate mitigation. Unitednations
environmentprogramme.UNEP-WCMC.Cambridge