Ian Sommerville, Software Engineering, 9th Edition CH23

1. Chapter 23 – Project planning
1
CS 425 December 6, 2012
Ian Sommerville,
Software Engineering, 9th
Edition
Pearson Education, Addison-Wesley
Note: These are a modified version of Ch 23 slides available from the
author’s site http://www.cs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~ifs/Books/SE9/

2. Topics covered
Project planning
 23.1 Software pricing
 23.2 Plan-driven development
 23.3 Project scheduling
 23.4 Agile planning
 23.5 Estimation techniques
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3. Project planning
 Project planning involves breaking down the work into parts and assign
these to project team members, anticipate problems that might arise, and
prepare tentative solutions to those problems.
 The project plan, which is created at the start of a project, is used to
communicate how the work will be done to the project team and customers,
and to help assess progress on the project.
 ‫المشاكل‬ ‫توقع‬ ،‫المشروع‬ ‫فريق‬ ‫أعضاء‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫وتعيين‬ ‫أجزاء‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫العمل‬ ‫كسر‬ ‫على‬ ‫ينطوي‬ ‫المشروع‬ ‫تخطيط‬
‫المشاكل‬ ‫لتلك‬ ‫مؤقتة‬ ‫حلول‬ ‫وإعداد‬ ،‫تنشأ‬ ‫قد‬ ‫.التي‬
 ‫لفريق‬ ‫العمل‬ ‫إنجاز‬ ‫سيتم‬ ‫كيف‬ ‫التواصل‬ ‫على‬ ‫ويستخدم‬ ،‫المشروع‬ ‫بداية‬ ‫في‬ ‫إنشاؤه‬ ‫يتم‬ ‫الذي‬ ،‫المشروع‬ ‫خطة‬
‫المشروع‬ ‫في‬ ‫المحرز‬ ‫التقدم‬ ‫تقييم‬ ‫في‬ ‫والمساعدة‬ ،‫والعملء‬ ‫.المشروع‬
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4. Planning stages
 Planning is done:
 At the proposal stage, when you are bidding for a contract to develop or provide
a software system.
 During the project startup phase, when you have to plan who will work on the
project, how the project will be broken down into increments, how resources will
be allocated across your company, etc.
 Periodically throughout the project, when you modify your plan in the light of
experience gained and information from monitoring the progress of the work.
 ‫التخطيط‬ ‫:ويتم‬
 ‫البرمجيات‬ ‫نظام‬ ‫توفير‬ ‫أو‬ ‫لتطوير‬ ‫عقد‬ ‫على‬ ‫للحصول‬ ‫العطاءات‬ ‫تقديم‬ ‫عند‬ ،‫القتراح‬ ‫مرحلة‬ ‫.في‬
 ‫تقسيم‬ ‫سيتم‬ ‫وكيف‬ ،‫المشروع‬ ‫في‬ ‫سيعملون‬ ‫الذين‬ ‫لتخطيط‬ ‫لديك‬ ‫يكون‬ ‫عندما‬ ،‫المشروع‬ ‫التشغيل‬ ‫بدء‬ ‫مرحلة‬ ‫خلل‬
‫الخ‬ ،‫شركتك‬ ‫عبر‬ ‫الموارد‬ ‫تخصيص‬ ‫سيتم‬ ‫وكيف‬ ،‫الزيادات‬ ‫اسفل‬ ‫الى‬ ‫المشروع‬
 ‫العمل‬ ‫في‬ ‫المحرز‬ ‫التقدم‬ ‫رصد‬ ‫من‬ ‫والمعلومات‬ ‫المكتسبة‬ ‫الخبرة‬ ‫ضوء‬ ‫في‬ ‫خطتك‬ ‫تعديل‬ ‫عند‬ ،‫المشروع‬ ‫خلل‬ ‫.دوري‬
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5. Proposal planning
 Planning may be necessary with only outline software
requirements.
 The aim of planning at this stage is to provide
information that will be used in setting a price for the
system to customers.
 ‫التفصيلي‬ ‫المخطط‬ ‫البرامج‬ ‫متطلبات‬ ‫الوحيدة‬ ‫مع‬ ‫اللزم‬ ‫التخطيط‬ ‫يكون‬ ‫.قد‬
 ‫استخدامها‬ ‫سيتم‬ ‫التي‬ ‫المعلومات‬ ‫توفير‬ ‫هو‬ ‫المرحلة‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫في‬ ‫التخطيط‬ ‫من‬ ‫والهدف‬
‫للعملء‬ ‫لنظام‬ ‫سعر‬ ‫تحديد‬ ‫.في‬
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6. Software pricing
 Estimates are made to discover the cost, to the developer, of producing a
software system.
 You take into account: hardware, software, travel, training, and effort
costs.
 There is not a simple relationship between the development cost and the
price charged to the customer.
 Broader organizational, economic, political and business considerations
influence the price charged.
 ‫البرمجيات‬ ‫نظام‬ ‫إنتاج‬ ‫من‬ ،‫للمطور‬ ،‫التكلفة‬ ‫لكتشاف‬ ‫تقديرات‬ ‫إجراء‬ ‫.يتم‬
 ‫الجهد‬ ‫وتكاليف‬ ،‫والتدريب‬ ،‫والسفر‬ ،‫والبرامج‬ ‫الجهزة‬ :‫العتبار‬ ‫في‬ ‫تأخذ‬ ‫.كنت‬
 ‫العميل‬ ‫يدفعه‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫والسعر‬ ‫التطوير‬ ‫تكلفة‬ ‫بين‬ ‫بسيطة‬ ‫علقة‬ ‫هناك‬ ‫.ليست‬
 ‫يدفعه‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫السعر‬ ‫على‬ ‫تؤثر‬ ‫والتجارية‬ ‫والسياسية‬ ‫والقتصادية‬ ‫أوسع‬ ‫اعتبارات‬ ‫.التنظيمية‬
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7. Factors affecting software pricing
Factor Description
Market opportunity A development organization may quote a low price because
it wishes to move into a new segment of the software
market. Accepting a low profit on one project may give the
organization the opportunity to make a greater profit later.
The experience gained may also help it develop new
products.
Cost estimate
uncertainty
If an organization is unsure of its cost estimate, it may
increase its price by a contingency over and above its
normal profit.
Contractual terms A customer may be willing to allow the developer to retain
ownership of the source code and reuse it in other projects.
The price charged may then be less than if the software
source code is handed over to the customer.
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8. Factors affecting software pricing
Factor Description
Requirements volatility If the requirements are likely to change, an organization
may lower its price to win a contract. After the contract is
awarded, high prices can be charged for changes to the
requirements.
Financial health Developers in financial difficulty may lower their price to
gain a contract. It is better to make a smaller than normal
profit or break even than to go out of business. Cash flow
is more important than profit in difficult economic times.
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9. Plan-driven development
 Plan-driven or plan-based development is an approach to software engineering where
the development process is planned in detail.
 Plan-driven development is based on engineering project management
techniques and is the ‘traditional’ way of managing large software development
projects.
 A project plan is created that records the work to be done, who will do it, the
development schedule, and the work products.
 Managers use the plan to support project decision making and as a way of measuring
progress.
 ‫التفاصيل‬ ‫في‬ ‫التنمية‬ ‫لعملية‬ ‫التخطيط‬ ‫تم‬ ‫حيث‬ ‫البرمجيات‬ ‫لهندسة‬ ‫نهجا‬ ‫خطة‬ ‫على‬ ‫القائمة‬ ‫التنمية‬ ‫أو‬ ‫خطة‬ ‫يحركها‬ ‫.هي‬
 ‫المشاريع‬ ‫لدارة‬ "‫"التقليدية‬ ‫الطريقة‬ ‫وهي‬ ‫الهندسية‬ ‫المشاريع‬ ‫إدارة‬ ‫تقنيات‬ ‫على‬ ‫الخطة‬ ‫باعتبارات‬ ‫المدفوعة‬ ‫التنمية‬ ‫ويستند‬
‫الكبيرة‬ ‫البرمجيات‬ ‫.وتطوير‬
 ،‫التنمية‬ ‫الزمني‬ ‫والجدول‬ ،‫ذلك‬ ‫نفعل‬ ‫سوف‬ ‫والذين‬ ،‫به‬ ‫القيام‬ ‫يتعين‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫العمل‬ ‫يسجل‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫المشروع‬ ‫خطة‬ ‫إنشاء‬ ‫يتم‬
‫العمل‬ ‫.ومنتجات‬
 ‫التقدم‬ ‫لقياس‬ ‫وكوسيلة‬ ‫المشروع‬ ‫القرارات‬ ‫اتخاذ‬ ‫لدعم‬ ‫خطة‬ ‫استخدام‬ ‫.مديري‬
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10. Plan-driven development – pros and cons
 The arguments in favor of a plan-driven approach are that early planning
allows organizational issues (availability of staff, other projects, etc.) to be
closely taken into account, and that potential problems and dependencies
are discovered before the project starts, rather than once the project is
underway.
 The principal argument against plan-driven development is that many early
decisions have to be revised because of changes to the environment in
which the software is to be developed and used.
 ،‫الموظفين‬ ‫)توفر‬ ‫التنظيمية‬ ‫القضايا‬ ‫يسمح‬ ‫المبكر‬ ‫التخطيط‬ ‫أن‬ ‫هي‬ ‫الخطة‬ ‫على‬ ‫القائم‬ ‫النهج‬ ‫لصالح‬ ‫الحجج‬
‫وتبعيات‬ ‫مشاكل‬ ‫أن‬ ‫واكتشف‬ ،‫وثيق‬ ‫بشكل‬ ‫العتبار‬ ‫في‬ ‫تؤخذ‬ ‫أن‬ (‫ذلك‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫وما‬ ،‫المشاريع‬ ‫من‬ ‫وغيرها‬
‫التنفيذ‬ ‫قيد‬ ‫هو‬ ‫المشروع‬ ‫هذا‬ ‫واحدة‬ ‫مرة‬ ‫من‬ ‫بدل‬ ،‫المشروع‬ ‫بدء‬ ‫قبل‬ ‫.المحتملة‬
 ‫أن‬ ‫يجب‬ ‫مبكر‬ ‫وقت‬ ‫في‬ ‫القرارات‬ ‫من‬ ‫العديد‬ ‫أن‬ ‫هي‬ ‫الخطة‬ ‫باعتبارات‬ ‫المدفوعة‬ ‫التنمية‬ ‫ضد‬ ‫الرئيسية‬ ‫والحجة‬
‫واستخدامها‬ ‫تطويرها‬ ‫ليتم‬ ‫البرنامج‬ ‫التي‬ ‫البيئة‬ ‫في‬ ‫التغييرات‬ ‫بسبب‬ ‫النظر‬ ‫.يعاد‬
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11. Project plans
 In a plan-driven development project, a project plan sets out the resources available
to the project, the work breakdown and a schedule for carrying out the work.
 Plan sections
 Introduction: objectives and constraints
 Project organization: team, people, roles
 Risk analysis: risks, probabilities, strategies to address risks
 Hardware and software: resource requirements
 Work breakdown: activities, milestones, deliverables
 Project schedule: dependencies among activities, people and time allocated
 Monitoring and reporting: mechanisms and reports
 ‫عمل‬ ‫وانهيار‬ ،‫للمشروع‬ ‫المتاحة‬ ‫الموارد‬ ‫من‬ ‫مشروع‬ ‫خطة‬ ‫وتحدد‬ ،‫الخطة‬ ‫باعتبارات‬ ‫المدفوعة‬ ‫التنمية‬ ‫مشروع‬ ‫في‬
‫العمل‬ ‫لتنفيذ‬ ‫زمني‬ ‫.وجدول‬
 ‫خطة‬ ‫أقسام‬
 ‫والمعوقات‬ ‫الهداف‬ :‫مقدمة‬
 ‫والدوار‬ ،‫والناس‬ ،‫فريق‬ :‫المشروع‬ ‫تنظيم‬
 ‫للمخاطر‬ ‫للتصدي‬ ‫استراتيجيات‬ ،‫والحتمالت‬ ‫المخاطر‬ :‫المخاطر‬ ‫تحليل‬

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12. Project plan supplements
Plan Description
Quality plan Describes the quality procedures and standards that
will be used in a project.
Validation plan Describes the approach, resources, and schedule used
for system validation.
Configuration management plan Describes the configuration management procedures
and structures to be used.
Maintenance plan Predicts the maintenance requirements, costs, and
effort.
Staff development plan Describes how the skills and experience of the project
team members will be developed.
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13. The planning process
 Project planning is an iterative process that starts when you create an initial
project plan during the project startup phase.
 Plan changes are inevitable.
 As more information about the system and the project team becomes
available during the project, you should regularly revise the plan to
reflect requirements, schedule and risk changes.
 Changing business goals also leads to changes in project plans. As
business goals change, this could affect all projects, which may then
have to be re-planned.
 ‫بدء‬ ‫مرحلة‬ ‫خلل‬ ‫الولية‬ ‫المشروع‬ ‫خطة‬ ‫إنشاء‬ ‫عند‬ ‫يبدأ‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫تكرارية‬ ‫عملية‬ ‫هو‬ ‫المشروع‬ ‫تخطيط‬
‫المشروع‬ ‫.التشغيل‬
 ‫منها‬ ‫مفر‬ ‫ل‬ ‫خطة‬ ‫.تغييرات‬
 ‫إعادة‬ ‫يجب‬ ،‫المشروع‬ ‫خلل‬ ‫متوفرة‬ ‫تصبح‬ ‫المشروع‬ ‫وفريق‬ ‫النظام‬ ‫حول‬ ‫المعلومات‬ ‫من‬ ‫مزيد‬ ‫كما‬
‫خطر‬ ‫والتغيرات‬ ‫الزمني‬ ‫والجدول‬ ،‫المتطلبات‬ ‫لتعكس‬ ‫الخطة‬ ‫بانتظام‬ ‫.النظر‬
 ‫يمكن‬ ‫وهذا‬ ،‫العمل‬ ‫أهداف‬ ‫تتغير‬ ‫كما‬ .‫المشروع‬ ‫خطط‬ ‫في‬ ‫تغييرات‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫أيضا‬ ‫يؤدي‬ ‫العمل‬ ‫أهداف‬ ‫تغيير‬
‫التخطيط‬ ‫إعادة‬ ‫من‬ ‫بد‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ثم‬ ‫قد‬ ‫والتي‬ ،‫المشاريع‬ ‫جميع‬ ‫على‬ ‫تؤثر‬ ‫.أن‬ 13

14. The project planning process
14

15. Project scheduling
 Project scheduling is the process of deciding how the work in a project will be
organized as separate tasks, and when and how these tasks will be executed.
 You estimate the calendar time needed to complete each task, the effort required,
and who will work on the tasks that have been identified.
 You also have to estimate the resources needed to complete each task, such as the
disk space required on a server, the time required on specialized hardware, such as a
simulator, and what the travel budget will be.
 ‫تنفيذ‬ ‫سيتم‬ ‫وكيف‬ ‫ومتى‬ ،‫منفصلة‬ ‫ومهام‬ ،‫المشروع‬ ‫في‬ ‫العمل‬ ‫تنظيم‬ ‫بها‬ ‫سيتم‬ ‫التي‬ ‫الكيفية‬ ‫تحديد‬ ‫عملية‬ ‫هو‬ ‫المشروع‬ ‫جدولة‬
‫المهام‬ ‫.هذه‬
 ‫تحديدها‬ ‫تم‬ ‫التي‬ ‫المهام‬ ‫على‬ ‫سيعملون‬ ‫والذين‬ ،‫المطلوب‬ ‫والجهد‬ ،‫مهمة‬ ‫كل‬ ‫لنجاز‬ ‫اللزم‬ ‫الزمني‬ ‫الوقت‬ ‫تقدير‬ ‫.لك‬
 ‫على‬ ‫المطلوب‬ ‫والوقت‬ ،‫الخادم‬ ‫على‬ ‫المطلوبة‬ ‫القرص‬ ‫مساحة‬ ‫مثل‬ ،‫مهمة‬ ‫كل‬ ‫لكمال‬ ‫اللزمة‬ ‫الموارد‬ ‫لتقدير‬ ‫أيضا‬ ‫لديك‬
‫يكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫السفر‬ ‫ميزانية‬ ‫سوف‬ ‫وماذا‬ ،‫محاكاة‬ ‫جهاز‬ ‫مثل‬ ،‫المتخصصة‬ ‫.الجهزة‬
15

16. Project scheduling activities
 Split project into tasks and estimate time and resources required to complete
each task.
 Organize tasks concurrently to make optimal use of workforce.
 Minimize task dependencies to avoid delays
caused by one task waiting for another to complete.
 Dependent on project managers intuition and experience.
 ‫مهمة‬ ‫كل‬ ‫لكمال‬ ‫اللمزمة‬ ‫والموارد‬ ‫تقدير‬ ‫والوقت‬ ‫مهام‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫تقسيم‬ ‫.مشروع‬
 ‫العاملة‬ ‫القوى‬ ‫من‬ ‫المثلى‬ ‫التستفادة‬ ‫لتحقيق‬ ‫واحد‬ ‫وقت‬ ‫في‬ ‫المهام‬ ‫.تنظيم‬
 ‫لكمال‬ ‫آخر‬ ‫انتظار‬ ‫واحدة‬ ‫مهمة‬ ‫عن‬ ‫الناجمة‬ ‫التأخير؟‬ ‫لتجنب‬ ‫مهمة‬ ‫تبعيات‬ ‫.تقليل‬
 ‫والخبرة‬ ‫الحدس‬ ‫المشاريع‬ ‫مديري‬ ‫على‬ ‫.تعتمد‬
16

17. Milestones and deliverables
 Milestones are points in the schedule against which you
can assess progress, for example, the handover of the
system for testing.
 Deliverables are work products that are delivered to the
customer, e.g. a requirements document for the system.
 ،‫المثال‬ ‫تسبيل‬ ‫على‬ ،‫المحرمز‬ ‫التقدم‬ ‫تقييم‬ ‫يمكنك‬ ‫أتساتسها‬ ‫جدول‬ ‫في‬ ‫نقطة‬ ‫هي‬ ‫المعالم‬
‫للختبار‬ ‫النظام‬ ‫.تسليم‬
 ‫الوثيقة‬ ‫المثال‬ ‫تسبيل‬ ‫على‬ ،‫للعميل‬ ‫تسليمها‬ ‫يتم‬ ‫التي‬ ‫العمل‬ ‫منتجات‬ ‫هي‬ ‫النواتج‬ A
‫النظام‬ ‫.متطلبات‬
17

18. The project scheduling process
18

19. Scheduling problems
 Estimating the difficulty of problems and hence the cost of developing a solution
is hard.
 Productivity is not proportional to the number of people working on a task.
 Adding people to a late project makes it later because of communication
overheads.
 The unexpected always happens. Always allow contingency in planning.
 ‫الثابت‬ ‫هو‬ ‫حل‬ ‫تطوير‬ ‫تكلفة‬ ‫وبالتالي‬ ‫المشاكل‬ ‫صعوبة‬ ‫.تقدير‬
 ‫المهمة‬ ‫على‬ ‫يعملون‬ ‫الذين‬ ‫الخشخاص‬ ‫من‬ ‫عدد‬ ‫مع‬ ‫متناتسبة‬ ‫ليست‬ ‫.النتاجية‬
 ‫التصالت‬ ‫العامة‬ ‫النفقات‬ ‫بسبب‬ ‫لحق‬ ‫وقت‬ ‫في‬ ‫يجعلها‬ ‫أواخر‬ ‫مشروع‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫أخشخاص‬ ‫.إضافة‬
 ‫التخطيط‬ ‫في‬ ‫للطوارئ‬ ‫دائما‬ ‫تسمح‬ .‫دائما‬ ‫يحدث‬ ‫متوقع‬ ‫غير‬ ‫هو‬ ‫.ما‬
19

20. Schedule representation
 Graphical notations are normally used to illustrate the project schedule.
 These show the project breakdown into tasks. Tasks should not be too
small. They should take about a week or two.
 Bar charts are the most commonly used representation for project
schedules. They show the schedule as activities or resources against time.
 ‫للمشروع‬ ‫الزمني‬ ‫الجدول‬ ‫لتوضيح‬ ‫عادة‬ ‫الرتسومية‬ ‫الرمومز‬ ‫.وتستخدم‬
 ‫حوالي‬ ‫يستغرق‬ ‫أن‬ ‫ينبغي‬ .‫جدا‬ ‫صغيرة‬ ‫تكون‬ ‫ل‬ ‫المهام‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يجب‬ .‫المهام‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫المشروع‬ ‫انهيار‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫تظهر‬
‫أتسبوعين‬ ‫أو‬ ‫.أتسبوع‬
 ‫عن‬ ‫الزمني‬ ‫للجدول‬ ‫تظهر‬ ‫أنها‬ .‫للمشروع‬ ‫الزمنية‬ ‫للجداول‬ ‫اتستخداما‬ ‫الكثر‬ ‫تمثيل‬ ‫هي‬ ‫البيانية‬ ‫الرتسوم‬ ‫خشريط‬
‫الزمن‬ ‫مع‬ ‫الموارد‬ ‫أو‬ ‫.النشطة‬
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21. Tasks, durations, and dependencies
Task Effort (person-
days)
Duration (days) Dependencies
T1 15 10
T2 8 15
T3 20 15 T1 (M1)
T4 5 10
T5 5 10 T2, T4 (M3)
T6 10 5 T1, T2 (M4)
T7 25 20 T1 (M1)
T8 75 25 T4 (M2)
T9 10 15 T3, T6 (M5)
T10 20 15 T7, T8 (M6)
T11 10 10 T9 (M7)
T12 20 10 T10, T11 (M8)
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22. Activity bar chart
22

23. Staff allocation chart
23

24. Gantt Chart, CPM and PERT
 Gantt chart
http://www.vertex42.com/ExcelTemplates/excel-gantt-
chart.html
 CPM
http://www.vertex42.com/ExcelTemplates/critical-path-
method.html
24

25. Example: Web-site Gantt chart, phases & Tasks
25
http://webstyleguide.com/wsg3/1-process/2-development-team.html

26. Gantt Chart
26

27. CPM
27

28. Example
Activity Duration Preceded
A 8 -
B 4 -
C 5 A
D 6 A
E 2 B
F 2 C
G 4 D, E
28
Find the CP
Max
ES
Min
LS
Slack = EF - ES

29. 23.4 Agile planning
 Agile methods of software development are iterative approaches where the software
is developed and delivered to customers in increments.
 Unlike plan-driven approaches, the functionality of these increments is not planned in
advance but is decided during the development.
 The decision on what to include in an increment depends on progress and on the
customer’s priorities.
 The customer’s priorities and requirements change so it makes sense to have a
flexible plan that can accommodate these changes.
 ‫الزيادات‬ ‫في‬ ‫العمل ء‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫وتسليمها‬ ‫البرنامج‬ ‫تطوير‬ ‫تم‬ ‫حيث‬ ‫متكررة‬ ‫النهج‬ ‫هي‬ ‫البرمجيات‬ ‫تطوير‬ ‫رخشيق‬ ‫.طرق‬
 ‫التنمية‬ ‫خلل‬ ‫تقرر‬ ‫ولكن‬ ‫مقدما‬ ‫الزيادات‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫من‬ ‫وظيفة‬ ‫مخطط‬ ‫غير‬ ‫كان‬ ،‫الخطة‬ ‫على‬ ‫القائم‬ ‫للنهج‬ ‫.وخلفا‬
 ‫العمل ء‬ ‫أولويات‬ ‫وعلى‬ ‫التقدم‬ ‫على‬ ‫يعتمد‬ ‫الزيادة‬ ‫في‬ ‫تضمينها‬ ‫ينبغي‬ ‫ما‬ ‫بشأن‬ ‫.قرار‬
 ‫التغييرات‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫اتستيعاب‬ ‫يمكنها‬ ‫مرنة‬ ‫خطة‬ ‫هناك‬ ‫تكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫المنطقي‬ ‫فمن‬ ‫لذلك‬ ‫تتغير‬ ‫العمل ء‬ ‫ومتطلبات‬ ‫.أولويات‬
29

30. Agile planning stages
 There are two stages in agile planning:
 Release planning, which looks ahead for several months and
decides on the features that should be included in a release of a
system.
 Iteration planning, which has a shorter term outlook, and focuses
on planning the next increment of a system. This is typically 2-4
weeks of work for the team.
 ‫رخشيقة‬ ‫التخطيط‬ ‫في‬ ‫مرحلتين‬ ‫:هناك‬
 ‫تدرج‬ ‫أن‬ ‫ينبغي‬ ‫التي‬ ‫الميزات‬ ‫على‬ ‫وتقرر‬ ،‫أخشهر‬ ‫لعدة‬ ‫تتطلع‬ ‫والتي‬ ،‫عنهم‬ ‫الفراج‬ ‫التخطيط‬
‫النظام‬ ‫عن‬ ‫الفراج‬ ‫.في‬
 ‫القادمة‬ ‫الزيادة‬ ‫التخطيط‬ ‫على‬ ‫ويركز‬ ،‫المدى‬ ‫أقصر‬ ‫توقعات‬ ‫لديها‬ ‫والتي‬ ،‫التكرار‬ ‫التخطيط‬
‫عادة‬ ‫هو‬ ‫هذا‬ .‫للنظام‬2-4‫للفريق‬ ‫العمل‬ ‫من‬ ‫أتسابيع‬ .
30

31. Planning in XP
31

32. Story-based planning
 The system specification in XP is based on user stories that reflect the features that
should be included in the system.
 The project team read and discuss the stories and rank them in order of the amount
of time they think it will take to implement the story.
 Release planning involves selecting and refining the stories that will reflect the
features to be implemented in a release of a system and the order in which the
stories should be implemented.
 Stories to be implemented in each iteration are chosen, with the number of stories
reflecting the time to deliver an iteration (usually 2 or 3 weeks).
 ‫في‬ ‫النظام‬ ‫مواصفات‬ ‫ويستند‬ XP ‫النظام‬ ‫في‬ ‫تدرج‬ ‫أن‬ ‫ينبغي‬ ‫التي‬ ‫السمات‬ ‫تعكس‬ ‫التي‬ ‫المستخدم‬ ‫قصص‬ ‫.على‬
 ‫سيستغرق‬ ‫المر‬ ‫ان‬ ‫يعتقدون‬ ‫كانوا‬ ‫الوقت‬ ‫مقدار‬ ‫حيث‬ ‫من‬ ‫الترتيب‬ ‫في‬ ‫وتصنيفها‬ ‫قصص‬ ‫ومناقشة‬ ‫قراءة‬ ‫المشروع‬ ‫فريق‬
‫القصة‬ ‫.لتنفيذ‬
 ‫النظام‬ ‫عن‬ ‫الفراج‬ ‫في‬ ‫تنفيذها‬ ‫سيتم‬ ‫التي‬ ‫السمات‬ ‫تعكس‬ ‫أن‬ ‫شأنها‬ ‫من‬ ‫التي‬ ‫القصص‬ ‫وصقل‬ ‫اختيار‬ ‫الفراج‬ ‫التخطيط‬ ‫ويشمل‬
‫القصص‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫تنفذ‬ ‫أن‬ ‫ينبغي‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫.والترتيب‬
 ‫)عادة‬ ‫التكرار‬ ‫لتقديم‬ ‫الوقت‬ ‫تعكس‬ ‫التي‬ ‫القصص‬ ‫من‬ ‫عدد‬ ‫مع‬ ،‫تكرار‬ ‫كل‬ ‫في‬ ‫تنفيذها‬ ‫سيتم‬ ‫التي‬ ‫القصص‬ ‫اختيار‬ ‫ويتم‬2‫أو‬3
‫.)أسابيع‬ 32

33. 23.5 Estimation techniques
 Project schedule estimation is difficult.
 Organizations need to make software effort and cost estimates. There are two types
of technique that can be used to do this:
 Experience-based techniques The estimate of future effort requirements is based
on the manager’s experience of past projects and the application domain.
Essentially, the manager makes an informed judgment of what the effort
requirements are likely to be.
 Algorithmic cost modeling In this approach, a formulaic approach is used to
compute the project effort based on estimates of product attributes, such as size,
and process characteristics, such as experience of staff involved.
 ‫صعب‬ ‫أمر‬ ‫تقدير‬ ‫للمشروع‬ ‫الزمني‬ ‫.الجدول‬
 ‫للقيام‬ ‫استخدامها‬ ‫يمكن‬ ‫التي‬ ‫التقنية‬ ‫من‬ ‫نوعان‬ ‫هناك‬ .‫التكلفة‬ ‫وتقديرات‬ ‫البرمجيات‬ ‫جهد‬ ‫بذل‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫تحتاج‬ ‫المنظمات‬
‫:بذلك‬
 ‫السابقة‬ ‫المشاريع‬ ‫من‬ ‫المدير‬ ‫خبرة‬ ‫على‬ ‫المستقبل‬ ‫في‬ ‫الجهد‬ ‫متطلبات‬ ‫من‬ ‫التقدير‬ ‫ويستند‬ ‫التجربة‬ ‫على‬ ‫القائم‬ ‫تقنيات‬
‫الجهد‬ ‫متطلبات‬ ‫تكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يرجح‬ ‫ما‬ ‫مستنير‬ ‫حكم‬ ‫يجعل‬ ‫مدير‬ ،‫أساسا‬ .‫التطبيق‬ ‫.ومجال‬
 ‫سمات‬ ‫من‬ ‫تقديرات‬ ‫على‬ ‫بناء‬ ‫المشروع‬ ‫جهد‬ ‫لحساب‬ ‫رسمي‬ ‫نهج‬ ‫ويستخدم‬ ،‫النهج‬ ‫هذا‬ ‫في‬ ‫حسابي‬ ‫التكاليف‬ ‫نمذجة‬
‫المعنيين‬ ‫الموظفين‬ ‫تجربة‬ ‫مثل‬ ،‫العملية‬ ‫والخصائص‬ ،‫الحجم‬ ‫مثل‬ ،‫.المنتج‬
33

34. Experience-based approaches
 Experience-based techniques rely on judgments based on experience of
past projects and the effort expended in these projects on software
development activities.
 Typically, you identify the deliverables to be produced in a project and the
different software components or systems that are to be developed.
 You document these in a spreadsheet, estimate them individually and
compute the total effort required.
 It usually helps to get a group of people involved in the effort estimation and
to ask each member of the group to explain their estimate.
 ‫هذه‬ ‫في‬ ‫المبذول‬ ‫والجهد‬ ‫السابقة‬ ‫المشاريع‬ ‫من‬ ‫الخبرة‬ ‫على‬ ‫بناء‬ ‫الحكام‬ ‫على‬ ‫تعتمد‬ ‫التجربة‬ ‫على‬ ‫القائم‬ ‫تقنيات‬
‫البرمجيات‬ ‫تطوير‬ ‫أنشطة‬ ‫على‬ ‫.المشاريع‬
 ‫النظمة‬ ‫أو‬ ‫المختلفة‬ ‫البرامج‬ ‫ومكونات‬ ‫المشروع‬ ‫في‬ ‫إنتاجها‬ ‫يتم‬ ‫أن‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫إنجازها‬ ‫على‬ ‫التعرف‬ ‫يمكنك‬ ،‫عادة‬
‫تطويرها‬ ‫سيتم‬ ‫.التي‬
 ‫المطلوب‬ ‫الجمالي‬ ‫جهد‬ ‫وحساب‬ ‫حدة‬ ‫على‬ ‫منهم‬ ‫وتقدير‬ ،‫بيانات‬ ‫جدول‬ ‫في‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫توثيق‬ ‫.أنت‬
 ‫كل‬ ‫من‬ ‫واطلب‬ ‫الجهد‬ ‫تقدير‬ ‫في‬ ‫شاركوا‬ ‫الذين‬ ‫الشخاص‬ ‫من‬ ‫مجموعة‬ ‫على‬ ‫الحصول‬ ‫على‬ ‫يساعد‬ ‫ما‬ ‫عادة‬ ‫فإنه‬
34

35. Estimate uncertainty
35

36. 23.5.1 Algorithmic cost modelling
 Cost is estimated as a mathematical function of
product, project and process attributes whose
values are estimated by project managers:
 Effort = A ∗ SizeB
∗ M
 A is an organization-dependent constant (local practices), B reflects the
disproportionate effort for large projects (Complexity), lies between 1 and 1.5,
and M is a multiplier reflecting product, process, and people attributes.
 The most commonly used product attribute for cost
estimation is code size.
 Most models are similar but they use different values for A, B and M.
 ‫المشروع؟؟‬ ‫مديري‬ ‫قبل‬ ‫من‬ ‫القيم‬ ‫تقدر‬ ‫التي‬ ‫سمات‬ ‫وعملية‬ ‫ومشروع‬ ،‫المنتجات‬ ‫من‬ ‫رياضية‬ ‫وظيفة‬ ‫بوصفها‬ ‫تكلفة‬ ‫:ويقدر‬
 ‫جهد‬ = A * SizeB * M
 A ‫المحلية‬ ‫)الممارسات‬ ‫تنظيم‬ ‫على‬ ‫تعتمد‬ ‫ثابت‬ ‫،)هو‬ B ‫بين‬ ‫وتقع‬ ،(‫)التعقيد‬ ‫الكبيرة‬ ‫للمشاريع‬ ‫المتناسب‬ ‫غير‬ ‫جهد‬ ‫يعكس‬1
‫و‬1.5‫و‬ ، M ‫سمات‬ ‫والناس‬ ،‫العملية‬ ،‫المنتج‬ ‫يعكس‬ ‫مضاعف‬ ‫.هو‬
 ‫البرمجية‬ ‫التعليمات‬ ‫حجم‬ ‫هو‬ ‫التقدير‬ ‫لتكلفة؟‬ ‫استخداما‬ ‫الكثر‬ ‫المنتج‬ ‫.سمة‬
 ‫ل‬ ‫مختلفة‬ ‫قيم‬ ‫تستخدم‬ ‫ولكنها‬ ‫متشابهة‬ ‫نماذج‬ ‫معظم‬ A ،B ‫و‬M.
36

37. Estimation accuracy
 The size of a software system can only be known accurately when it is finished.
 Several factors influence the final size
 Use of COTS and components;
 Programming language;
 Distribution of system.
 As the development process progresses then the size estimate becomes more
accurate.
 The estimates of the factors contributing to B and M are subjective and vary
according to the judgment of the estimator.
 ‫ذلك‬ ‫من‬ ‫النتهاء‬ ‫يتم‬ ‫عندما‬ ‫بدقة‬ ‫فقط‬ ‫البرمجيات‬ ‫نظام‬ ‫حجم‬ ‫يعرف‬ ‫أن‬ ‫.يمكن‬
 ‫النهائي‬ ‫الحجم‬ ‫على‬ ‫تؤثر‬ ‫عوامل‬ ‫عدة‬ ‫وهناك‬
 ‫ومكوناتها؛‬ ‫المهود‬ ‫استخدام‬
 ‫البرمجة؛‬ ‫لغة‬
 ‫النظام‬ ‫.توزيع‬
 ‫دقة‬ ‫أكثر‬ ‫حجم‬ ‫تقدير‬ ‫يصبح‬ ‫ثم‬ ‫التنمية‬ ‫عملية‬ ‫تقدم‬ ‫.كما‬
 ‫في‬ ‫تسهم‬ ‫التي‬ ‫العوامل‬ ‫تقديرات‬ B ‫و‬ M ‫مقدر‬ ‫لحكم‬ ‫وفقا‬ ‫وتختلف‬ ‫ذاتية‬ ‫.هي‬
37

38. All algorithmic models have similar problems:
1. It is often difficult to estimate Size at an early stage in a project, when only the
specification is available. Function-point and application-point estimates (see later)
are easier to produce than estimates of code size but are still often inaccurate.
2. The estimates of the factors contributing to B and M are subjective. Estimates vary
from one person to another, depending on their background and experience of the
type of system that is being developed.
1. ‫والتقديرات‬ ‫نقطة‬ ‫وظيفة‬ .‫متاح‬ ‫مواصفات‬ ‫فقط‬ ‫عندما‬ ،‫المشروع‬ ‫في‬ ‫مبكرة‬ ‫مرحلة‬ ‫في‬ ‫الحجم‬ ‫تقدير‬ ‫الصعب‬ ‫من‬ ‫يكون‬ ‫ما‬ ‫غالبا‬
‫دقيقة‬ ‫غير‬ ‫الحيان‬ ‫من‬ ‫كثير‬ ‫في‬ ‫تزال‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ولكن‬ ‫حجم‬ ‫رمز‬ ‫تقديرات‬ ‫إنتاج‬ ‫من‬ ‫أسهل‬ ‫هي‬ (‫لحقا‬ ‫)انظر‬ ‫نقاط‬ ‫.تطبيق‬
2. ‫في‬ ‫تسهم‬ ‫التي‬ ‫العوامل‬ ‫تقديرات‬ B ‫و‬M ‫معارفهم‬ ‫على‬ ‫اعتمادا‬ ،‫آخر‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫شخص‬ ‫من‬ ‫تختلف‬ ‫التقديرات‬ .‫موضوعية‬ ‫غير‬
‫تطويره‬ ‫يتم‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫النظام‬ ‫نوع‬ ‫من‬ ‫.وخبراتهم‬
38

39. 23.5.2 The COCOMO model
Constructive Cost Model
 An empirical model based on project experience.
 Well-documented, ‘independent’ model which is not tied to a specific
software vendor.
 Long history from initial version published in 1981 (COCOMO-81 - Basic)
through various instantiations to COCOMO 2.
 COCOMO 2 takes into account different approaches to software
development, reuse, etc.
 ‫المشروع‬ ‫الخبرة‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫تستند‬ ‫تجريبي‬ ‫.نموذج‬
 ‫معينة‬ ‫برامج‬ ‫بائع‬ ‫مرتبطة‬ ‫ليست‬ ‫والتي‬ "‫"مستقل‬ ‫نموذج‬ ،‫موثقة‬ ‫.حسنا‬
 ‫عام‬ ‫في‬ ‫نشرت‬ ‫التي‬ ‫الولية‬ ‫النسخة‬ ‫من‬ ‫طويل‬ ‫تاريخ‬1981 (COCOMO-81 - ‫خلل‬ ‫من‬ (‫الساسية‬
‫ل‬ ‫التجسيدات‬ ‫مختلف‬COCOMO 2.
 COCOMO 2 ‫الخ‬ ،‫الستخدام‬ ‫وإعادة‬ ،‫البرمجيات‬ ‫لتطوير‬ ‫المختلفة‬ ‫الطرق‬ ‫العتبار‬ ‫بعين‬ ‫يأخذ‬
39

40. Basic CoCoMo
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COCOMO
COCOMO applies to three classes of software projects:
 Organic projects - "small" teams with "good" experience working with "less than rigid"
requirements
 Semi-detached projects - "medium" teams with mixed experience working with a mix
of rigid and less than rigid requirements
 Embedded projects - developed within a set of "tight" constraints. It is also
combination of organic and semi-detached projects.(hardware, software,
operational, ...)
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COCOMO
 ‫وينطبق‬ COCOMO ‫البرمجيات‬ ‫مشاريع‬ ‫من‬ ‫فئات‬ ‫ثل ث‬ ‫:إلى‬
 ‫جامدة‬ ‫من‬ ‫"أقل‬ ‫متطلبات‬ ‫مع‬ ‫العمل‬ ‫في‬ ‫الخبرة‬ "‫"جيدة‬ ‫مع‬ "‫"صغيرة‬ ‫فرق‬ - ‫العضوية‬ ‫"مشاريع‬
 ‫من‬ ‫وأقل‬ ‫الجامدة‬ ‫الصارمة‬ ‫المتطلبات‬ ‫من‬ ‫مزيج‬ ‫مع‬ ‫العمل‬ ‫مختلطة‬ ‫تجربة‬ ‫مع‬ "‫"المتوسط‬ ‫فرق‬ - ‫شبه‬ ‫منفصلة‬ ‫مشاريع‬
 ‫وشبه‬ ‫العضوية‬ ‫المشاريع‬ ‫من‬ ‫مجموعة‬ ‫أيضا‬ ‫هو‬ ‫بل‬ ."‫"ضيقة‬ ‫القيود‬ ‫من‬ ‫مجموعة‬ ‫ضمن‬ ‫وضعت‬ - ‫يتجزأ‬ ‫ل‬ ‫جزءا‬ ‫المشاريع‬
‫والتشغيلية‬ ‫والبرامج‬ ‫)الجهزة‬ .‫منفصلة‬ ،...) 40

41. Basic COCOMO
 The basic COCOMO equations take the form
 Effort Applied (E) = ab(KLOC)b
b [ person-months ]
 Development Time (D) = cb(Effort Applied)d
b [months]
 People required (P) = E/ D [count]
where, KLOC is the estimated number of delivered lines (expressed in thousands ) of
code for project. The coefficients ab, bb, cb and db are given in the following table:
Basic COCOMO Calculator
http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis525/js/f00/kutcher/kutcher.html
‫المعادلت‬ COCOMO ‫شكل‬ ‫تأخذ‬ ‫الساسية‬
‫التطبيقية‬ ‫جهد‬ (E) = ‫)كلوك‬ ‫ب‬ ‫)أ‬ BB [‫أشهر‬ ‫]الشخص‬
‫لتطوير‬ ‫اللزم‬ ‫الوقت‬ (D) = CB (‫ديسيبل‬ [‫]شهرا‬ (‫التطبيقية‬ ‫جهد‬
‫المطلوبة‬ ‫الناس‬ (P) = E / D [‫]العد‬
‫إعطاء‬ ‫يتم‬ ،‫ب‬ ‫ب‬ ،‫أب‬ ‫معاملت‬ .‫للمشروع‬ ‫البرمجية‬ ‫التعليمات‬ ‫من‬ (‫)بآلف‬ ‫تسليمها‬ ‫للخطوط‬ ‫التقديري‬ ‫العدد‬ ‫هو‬ ‫كلوك‬ ،‫حيث‬
CB ‫التالي‬ ‫الجدول‬ ‫في‬ ‫:وديسيبل‬
41

42. Basic COCOMO Coefficients
SW Project ab bb cb db
Organic 2.4 1.05 2.5 0.38
Semi-detached 3.0 1.12 2.5 0.35
Embedded 3.6 1.20 2.5 0.32
42
http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis525/js/f00/kutcher/kutcher.html
Online Calculator:

43. Intermediate COCOMO
http://sunset.usc.edu/research/COCOMOII/cocomo81_pgm/cocomo81.html
 Intermediate COCOMO computes software development
effort as function of program size and a set of 15 "cost
drivers" ; effort adjustment factor (EAF) from 0.9-1.4
 The Intermediate Cocomo formula now takes the form:
 E=ai(KLoC)(bi)
.EAF EAF= multiplication of factors
 The coefficient ai and the exponent bi are given in the
next table.
43
SW Project ai bi
Organic 3.2 1.05
Semi-detached 3.0 1.12
Embedded 2.8 1.20

44. COCOMO 2 models
 COCOMO 2 incorporates a range of sub-models that produce increasingly detailed
software estimates.
 The sub-models in COCOMO 2 are:
 Application composition model. Used when software is composed from existing
parts.
 Early design model. Used when requirements are available but design has not
yet started.
 Reuse model. Used to compute the effort of integrating reusable components.
 Post-architecture model. Used once the system architecture has been designed
and more information about the system is available. 17 multiplier
 COCOMO 2 ‫مفصلة‬ ‫متزايد‬ ‫نحو‬ ‫على‬ ‫البرنامج‬ ‫تقديرات‬ ‫تنتج‬ ‫التي‬ ‫الفرعية‬ ‫النماذج‬ ‫من‬ ‫مجموعة‬ ‫على‬ ‫.يشتمل‬
 ‫في‬ ‫الفرعية‬ ‫النماذج‬ COCOMO 2 ‫:هي‬
 ‫القائمة‬ ‫الجزاء‬ ‫من‬ ‫البرنامج‬ ‫يتكون‬ ‫عند‬ ‫تستخدم‬ .‫التطبيق‬ ‫تكوين‬ ‫.نموذج‬
 ‫بعد‬ ‫تبدأ‬ ‫لم‬ ‫التصميم‬ ‫لكن‬ ‫الشروط‬ ‫تتوفر‬ ‫عندما‬ ‫استخدامها‬ .‫مبكر‬ ‫وقت‬ ‫في‬ ‫نموذج‬ ‫.تصميم‬
 ‫للستخدام‬ ‫قابلة‬ ‫مكونات‬ ‫لدمج‬ ‫جهد‬ ‫لحساب‬ ‫تستخدم‬ .‫استخدامها‬ ‫إعادة‬ ‫.نموذج‬
 ‫هو‬ ‫النظام‬ ‫حول‬ ‫المعلومات‬ ‫من‬ ‫ومزيد‬ ‫النظام‬ ‫بنية‬ ‫تصميم‬ ‫تم‬ ‫وقد‬ ‫واحدة‬ ‫مرة‬ ‫تستخدم‬ .‫المعمارية‬ ‫الهندسة‬ ‫بعد‬ ‫ما‬ ‫نموذج‬
.‫متاح‬17‫مضاعف‬
44

45. COCOMO 2 estimation models
45

46. Development Effort Estimates
B
nominal (Size)APM ×=
PM ： Person Months
A ： constant =+-2.5
Size ： Size of software development
units ＝ KSLOC （ units of thousands of source lines of code ）
B ： scale factor (Driver)

47. Scaling Drivers
∑×+= iw0.010.91B

48. Guide or model

49. Adjusting Nominal Effort
• Early Design Model
• Post-Architecture Model






×= ∏=
7
1
nominaladjusted PMPM
i
iEM






×= ∏=
17
1
nominaladjusted PMPM
i
iEM

50. 50
product reliability and complexity (RCPX), reuse required (RUSE),
platform difficulty (PDIF), personnel capability (PERS),
personnel experience (PREX), schedule (SCED), and
support facilities (FCIL).

51. 51
Function Points and code size

52. 52

53. 53

54. 54

55. Language Value
Machine Code 640
Assembly, Basic 320
First Generation 320
Assembly, Macro 213
C 128
Fortran77 107
Second Generation 107
Procedural 105
Cobol 85, ANSI 91
High Level 91
Pascal 91
Modula 2 80
Report Generator 80
Third Generation 80
Ada 83 71
Fortran 95 71
Basic, ANSI 64
Lisp 64
Prolog 64
C++ 53
Java 53
Ada 95 49
AI Shell 49
Basic, Compiled 49
Forth 49
Language Value
Simulation Default 46
Database Default 40
Access 38
Visual C++ 34
APL 32
Basic, Interpreted 32
Object Oriented 29
Visual Basic 5.0 29
Perl 21
UNIX Shell 21
Fourth Generation 20
PowerBuilder 16
HTML 3.0 15
Query Default 13
Spreadsheet Default 6
Fifth Generation 5
USR_1 1
USR_2 1
USR_3 1
USR_4 1
USR_5 1
Default Multiplier values per Language

56. 56
Example

57. 57
Solution

58. Key points
 The price charged for a system does not just depend on its
estimated development costs; it may be adjusted depending on the
market and organizational priorities.
 Plan-driven development is organized around a complete project
plan that defines the project activities, the planned effort, the activity
schedule and who is responsible for each activity.
 Project scheduling involves the creation of graphical representations
the project plan. Bar charts show the activity duration and staffing
timelines, are the most commonly used schedule representations.
 The agile planning game involves the whole team in project
planning. The plan is developed incrementally and, if problems
arise, is adjusted. Software functionality is reduced instead of
delaying delivery of an increment.
58

59. Key points
 Estimation techniques for software may be experience-
based, where managers judge the effort required, or
algorithmic, where the effort required is computed from
other estimated project parameters.
 The COCOMO II costing model is an algorithmic cost
model that uses project, product, hardware and
personnel attributes as well as product size and
complexity attributes to derive a cost estimate.
59