RES UNIT-2 PPT.pptx

M.SURESH M.Tech(NITW).,(Ph.D)
Associate Professor
EEE Department
RISE KRISHNA SAI PRAKASAM GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS
Vallur, Ongole, Prakasam (Dt), AP

RES- Course Outcomes
After the completion of the course the student should be able to:
M.SURESH, EEE Dept
CO No. Outcome BT Level
C413.1
Analyze solar radiation data, extraterrestrial
radiation, and radiation on earth’s surface.
Analyzing
C413.2 Design solar photo voltaic systems. Analyzing
C413.3
Develop maximum power point techniques in
solar PV and wind energy systems.
Analyzing
C413.4
Explain wind energy conversion systems, wind
generators, power generation.
Understanding
C413.5
Explain basic principle and working of hydro, tidal,
biomass, fuel cell and geothermal systems
Understanding
2

UNIT–II: Solar Photovoltaic Systems
• Solar photovoltaic cell, module, array
• construction
• Efficiency of solar cells
• Developing technologies
• Cell I-V characteristics
• Equivalent circuit of solar cell
• Series resistance – Shunt resistance
• Applications and systems
• Balance of system components
• System design: storage sizing – PV system sizing
• Maximum power point techniques:
• Perturb and observe (P&O) technique
• Hill climbing technique.
M.SURESH, EEE Dept 3

Introduction
• Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems convert solar energy directly into electrical
energy.
• Basic conversion device used is known as a solar photovoltaic cell or a
solar cell.
• Although other light sources may also produce photovoltaic electricity,
only sunlight based PV cells are considered.
• A solar cell is basically an electrical current source, driven by a flux of
radiation.
• Solar cells were first produced in 1954 and developed to provide power for
space satellites based on semiconductor electronics technology.
• considered seriously only after oil crisis of 1973 when a real need of
alternative energy sources was felt globally .
• Efficient power utilization depends not only on efficient generation in the
cell, but also on the dynamic load matching in the external circuit.

• Solar cell is the most expensive component in a solar PV system (60% of the
total system cost).
• Commercial photocells may have efficiencies in the range of 10–20% and
can approximately produce an electrical energy of about 1 kWh per sq. m
per day in ordinary sunshine.
• Typically, it produces a potential difference of about 0.5V and a current
density of about 200 A per sq. m. of cell area in full solar radiation of 1 kW
per sq. m.
• A typical commercial cell of 100 sq-cm area–thus produces a current of 2A.
• It has a life span in excess of about 20 years.
• As a PV system has no moving parts it gives almost maintenance free
service for long periods and can be used unattended at inaccessible
locations.
Introduction

• Major uses of photovoltaics have been in space satellites, remote radio
• communication booster stations and marine warning lights.
• These are also increasingly being used for lighting, water pumping and
medical refrigeration in remote areas especially in developing countries.
• Solar powered vehicles and battery charging are some of the recent
interesting application of solar PV power.
Introduction

• Major advantages of solar PV systems over conventional power systems
are:
• It converts solar energy directly into electrical energy without going
through thermal-mechanical link. It has no moving parts.
• Solar PV systems are reliable, modular, durable and generally maintenance
free.
• These systems are quiet, compatible with almost all environments,
respond instantaneously to solar radiation and have an expected life span
of 20 years or more.
• It can be located at the place of use and hence no or minimum
distribution network is required, as it is universally available.
Introduction

• It also suffers from some disadvantages such as:
• At present the costs of solar cells are high, making them economically
uncompetitive with other conventional power sources.
• The efficiency of solar cells is low.
• As solar radiation density is also low, large area of solar cell modules are
required to generate sufficient useful power.
• As solar energy is intermittent, some kind of electrical energy storage is
required, to ensure the availability of power in absence of sun.
• This makes the whole system more expensive.
Introduction

• Solar Cell:
• The basic cell structure of a typical N-on-P, bulk silicon cell is shown in Fig.(1).
• The bulk material is P-type silicon with thickness 100-350 microns, depending
on the technology used.
• A thin layer of N-type silicon is formed at the top surface by diffusing an
impurity from Vth group to get a PN junction.
• The top active surface of the N layer has an ohmic contact with metallic grid
structure to collect the current produced by impinging photons.
• The metallic grid covers minimum possible top surface area (less than 10 per
cent of the total area) to leave enough uncovered surface area for incoming
photons.
• Similarly, the bottom inactive surface has an ohmic metallic contact over the
entire area.
• These two metallic contacts on P and N layers respectively form the positive
and negative terminals of the solar cell.
• In addition to basic elements, several enhancement features are also included
in the construction.
• For example, providing antireflective coating, textured finish of the top surface
and reflective, textured rear surface, to capture maximum photons and direct
them toward the junction.
SOLAR CELL, MODULE, AND ARRAY CONSTRUCTION

Fig(1): Construction of bulk silicon cell

• Solar PV Module:
• A bare single cell cannot be used for outdoor energy generation by itself.
• It is because
 the output of a single cell is very small and
 it requires protection against dust, moisture, mechanical shocks and outdoor
harsh conditions.
• Workable voltage and reasonable power is obtained by interconnecting an
appropriate number of cells.
• Cells from same batch are used to make PV module.
• This is done to ensure that mismatch losses are minimal in the module.
• The electrically connected cells are encapsulated, typically by using two
sheets of ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) at either side.
• Theses layers are arranged as shown in Fig.(2) and hermetically sealed to
make it suitable for outside applications for 20-30 years without
environmental degradation.
• This assembly is known as solar module – a basic building block of a PV
system.
• Most common commercial modules have a series connection of 32 or 36
silicon cells to make it capable of charging a 12-V storage battery.

Fig(2): PV module details

• 1. Cell Mismatch in a Module:
• In a module, a number of cells are interconnected, it is very important that
these cells should match as closely as possible.
• That means Voc, Isc, Vm and Im (or fill factor) for all cells must be exactly
same.
• Any mismatch in the characteristics of these cells leads to additional
mismatch loss.
• Therefore, peak power of the combination is always less than the sum of
individual peak power of the cells.
• Only under ideal case when all cells are exactly identical that the resultant
peak power would be equal to arithmetic sum of that of its constituents.
• This is elaborated as follows.
• When two cells with mismatched characteristics are connected in series
and load is applied, both cells are bound to carry same current.
• The composite characteristics of the combination can be obtained by
adding the individual output voltage of the cell corresponding to a
common current, for all operating points, as shown in Fig.(3).

Fig(3): Composite characteristic of two cells in series

• At a particular operating point, while one cell may be operating at peak power,
the other may not.
• Thus peak power of the combination is always less than the sum of individual
peak power of each cell.
• This is also clear from the shape of composite characteristics, which has lower
fill factor.
• Also if such a combination is short circuited, equal and opposite voltages V1¢
and V2¢ are produced by individual cells and therefore, one cell will be
generating power while the other will be dissipating it.
• Had the two cells been perfectly matched no power would be generated or
dissipated.
• Similar conclusion may be drawn by considering a parallel combination of two
mismatched cells.
• Here the voltages of the cells are bound to be equal, but the currents will be
different and hence the maximum power points.
• The conclusion may be generalized for more than two cells connected in series
or in parallel.
• It can also be shown that larger the number of cells in a module more would
be the possibility and quantum of mismatch loss.
• To reduce mismatch losses, modules are fabricated from cells belonging to
same batch.
• Also cell sorting is carried out to categorize cells having matched parameters
with specified tolerance.

• 2. Effect of Shadowing
• Partial shadowing may have serious consequences and may completely
damage a module due to creation of hot spot.
• Let us examine the operation of a module under the conditions of:
 partial shadowing of a cell in an open circuited, series string of cells and
 complete shadowing of one cell in a short circuited, series string of cells.
• When a cell is partially shadowed, the shadowed portion will not produce
any power but the remaining portion will remain active and produce power.
• The generated voltage by illuminated portion will forward bias the parallel
rectifier corresponding to shadowed portion as shown in Fig.(4).
• If shadowed area is relatively small, the large circulating current through it
will result in excessive heating of the shadowed portion.
• The phenomenon is known as hot spot effect and may completely damage
the module for prolonged partial shadowing.

Fig(4): Partial shadowing of a cell

• A short-circuited, series string of (n + 1) cells with one cell completely shadowed is shown in Fig.
(5).
• Here the voltages produced by n illuminated cells add up and appears as reverse bias voltage of
nV volts across the shadowed cell.
• As long as peak inverse voltage (PIV) of the shadowed cell is more than the reverse bias, no
current will flow.
• If, however, the PIV is less than total reverse voltage appearing across the shadowed cell, current
will flow through the string, dissipating large power in the shadowed cell, leading to possible
damage of the module.
• The chances of damage to the shadowed cell, due to excessive heating, increase with the
number of cells in the string.
• If the string supplies a load instead of being short-circuited, the chances of damage still persist
through to a lesser extent.
• The damage due to shadowing can be avoided by connecting a bypass diode across the affected
cell as shown in Fig.(6).
• This bypass diode would allow an alternative path for the load current.
• During healthy operation, the bypass diode has no role as the cell voltage would keep it reverse
biased.
• Even so, its use would result some loss because of finite reverse leakage current through it.
• It is neither practical, nor required to incorporate a bypass diode across each cell in a module.
• It has been the international practice to provide a bypass diode for every 18 crystalline silicon
solar cells in a series string.
• Thus, the internationally standard module with 34–36 cells would contain two bypass diodes
placed inside its terminal box. M.SURESH, EEE Dept 19

Fig(6): Shadowed cell and bypass diode connection

Solar PV Panel:
• Several solar modules are connected in series/parallel to increase the
voltage/current ratings.
• When modules are connected in series, it is desirable to have each module’s
maximum power production occur at the same current. When modules are
connected in parallel, it is desirable to have each module’s maximum power
production occur at the same voltage.
• Thus while interconnecting the modules; the installer should have this information
available for each module.
• Solar panel is a group of several modules connected in series-parallel combination
in a frame that can be mounted on a structure. Fig.(7) shows the construction of
module and panel.

Fig(7): Cell, module and panel

• Fig(8) shows a series-parallel connection of modules in a panel.
• In parallel connection, blocking diodes are connected in series with each
series string of modules, so that if any string should fail, the power output
of the remaining series strings will not be absorbed by the failed string.
• Also bypass diodes are installed across each module, so that if one module
should fail, the output of the remaining modules in a string will bypass the
failed module.
• Some modern PV modules come with such internally embedded bypass
diodes.

Energy demand-2021-WORLD
Fig(8): A typical panel: Series-parallel connection of modules

• Solar PV Array
• In general, a large number of interconnected solar panels, known as solar
PV array, are installed in an array field.
• These panels may be installed as stationary or with sun tracking
mechanism.
• It is important to ensure that an installed panel does not cast its shadow
on the surface of its neighboring panels during a whole year.
• The layout and mechanical design of the array such as tilt angle of panels,
height of panels, clearance among the panels, etc., are carried out taking
into consideration the local climatic conditions, ease of maintenance, etc.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic and the Solar Cell I-V Curve
• The Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves shows the current and
voltage (I-V) characteristics of a particular photovoltaic ( PV ) cell,
module or array.
• It gives a detailed of its solar energy conversion ability and
efficiency.
• Knowing the electrical I-V characteristics (more importantly Pmax) of
a solar cell, or panel is critical in determining the device’s output
performance and solar efficiency.
• PV solar cells convert the suns radiant light directly into electricity.
• With increasing demand for a clean energy source and the sun’s
potential as a free energy source.
• PV cells are made almost entirely from semiconductor silicon which
absorbs the photons from sunlight.
• The photons hit the sillicon atoms releasing electrons causing an
electric current to flow to an external load.

• The main electrical characteristics of a PV cell or module are
relationship between the current and voltage produced on a typical
solar cell I-V characteristics curve.
• The intensity of the solar radiation (insolation) that hits the cell
controls the current (I), while the increases in the temperature of the
solar cell reduces its voltage (V).
• Solar cells produce direct current (DC) electricity and current times
voltage equals power,.
• I-V curves provide the information required to configure a solar
system so that it can operate as close to its optimal peak power point
(MPP) as possible.

• The graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical silicon
PV cell operating under normal conditions.
• The power delivered by a single solar cell or panel is the product of its
output current and voltage ( I x V ).
• If the multiplication is done, point for point, for all voltages from short-
circuit to open-circuit conditions, the power curve above is obtained for a
given radiation level.
• With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the
current will be at its minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its
maximum, known as the solar cells open circuit voltage, or Voc.
• When the solar cell is short circuited, that is the positive and negative leads
connected together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum (zero) but
the current flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum, known as the solar
cells short circuit current, or Isc.
• Then the span of the solar cell I-V characteristics curve ranges from the
short circuit current (Isc) at zero output volts, to zero current at the full open
circuit voltage (Voc).
• In other words, the maximum voltage available from a cell is at open circuit,
and the maximum current at closed circuit

• Of course, neither of these two conditions generates any electrical power,
but there must be a point somewhere in between were the solar cell
generates maximum power.
• However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for
which the power reaches its maximum value, at Imp and Vmp.
• The point at which the cell generates maximum electrical power and this is
shown at the top right area of the green rectangle.
• This is the “maximum power point” or MPP.
• Therefore the ideal operation of a PV cell (or panel) is defined to be at the
maximum power point.
• The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell is positioned near the bend
in the I-V characteristics curve.
• The values of Vmp and Imp can be estimated from the open circuit voltage and
the short circuit current: Vmp ≅ (0.8–0.90)Voc and Imp ≅ (0.85–0.95)Isc.
• Since solar cell O/P voltage & current both depend on temperature, the
actual O/P power will vary with changes in ambient temperature.

• Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in either series or
parallel combinations, or both to increase the voltage or current capacity
of the solar array.
• If the array panels are connected together in a series combination, then
the voltage increases and if connected together in parallel then the
current increases.
• The electrical power in Watts, generated by these different PV
combinations will still be, (P = V x I).
• The amount and intensity of solar irradiance controls the amount of O/P
current (I), and the operating temperature of the solar cells affects the
O/P voltage (V) of the PV array.

The Electrical Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Array
• Solar Array Parameters
Open-circuit voltage(VOC ):
• This is the maximum voltage that the array provides when the terminals are not
connected to any load (an open circuit condition).
• VOC is much higher than Vmp which relates to the operation of the PV array which
is fixed by the load.
• VOC depends upon the number of PV panels connected together in series.
Short-circuit current(ISC ) :
• The maximum current provided by the PV array when the output connectors are
shorted together (a short circuit condition).
• ISC is much higher than Imp which relates to the normal operating circuit current.
Maximum Power Point(MPP ):
• This relates to the point where the power supplied by the array that is
connected to the load (batteries, inverters) is at its maximum value, where
MPP =Impx Vmp.
• The maximum power point of a photovoltaic array is measured in Watts (W)
or peak Watts (Wp).

Fill actor(FF):
• The fill factor is the relationship between the maximum power that the
array can actually provide under normal operating conditions and the
product of the open-circuit voltage multiplied by the short-circuit current,
(VOCx ISC )
• This fill factor value gives an idea of the quality of the array and the closer
the fill factor is to 1 (unity), the more power the array can provide.
• Typical values are between 0.7 and 0.8.
Percent efficiency(%eff ):
• The efficiency of a photovoltaic array is the ratio between the maximum
electrical power that the array can produce compared to the amount of
solar irradiance hitting the array.
• The efficiency of a typical solar array is normally low at around 10-12%,
depending on the PV Type (mono crystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous
or thin film) of cell being used.
The Electrical Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Array

Equivalent Circuit of a solar cell
Equivalent circuit of a solar cell Symbol of a solar cell

• To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to create a
model which is electrically equivalent, and is based on discrete electrical
components whose behavior is well known.
• An ideal solar cell may be modelled by a current source in parallel with
a diode; in practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance and a series
resistance component are added to the model.
• The resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown.
• Characteristic equation
• From the equivalent circuit it is evident that the current produced by the
solar cell is equal to that produced by the current source, minus that
which flows through the diode, minus that which flows through the shunt
resistor:
• I = IL − ID − ISH
• Where I = output current (amperes)
IL = photo generated current (amperes)
ID = diode current (amperes)
ISH = shunt current (amperes).

• The current through these elements is governed by the voltage across them:
• Vj = V + IRS
• Where Vj = voltage across both diode and resistor RSH (volts)
V = voltage across the output terminals (volts)
I = output current (amperes)
RS = series resistance (Ω).
• By the Shockley diode equation, the current diverted through the diode is:
• Where I0 = reverse saturation current (amperes)
n = diode ideality factor (1 for an ideal diode)
q = elementary charge
k = Boltzmann's constant
T = absolute temperature
At 25°C, volts.

• By Ohm's law, the current diverted through the shunt resistor is:
• Where RSH = shunt resistance (Ω).
• Substituting these into the first equation produces the characteristic equation
of a solar cell, which relates solar cell parameters to the output current and
voltage:
• In principle, given a particular operating voltage V the equation may be solved
to determine the operating current I at that voltage.
• However, because the equation involves I on both sides in a transcendental
function the equation has no general analytical solution.
• Since the parameters I0, n, RS, and RSH cannot be measured directly, the most
common application of the characteristic equation is nonlinear regression to
extract the values of these parameters on the basis of their combined effect
on solar cell behavior.

• Open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current
• When the cell is operated at open circuit, I = 0 and the voltage across the
output terminals is defined as the open-circuit voltage.
• Assuming the shunt resistance is high enough to neglect the final term of
the characteristic equation, the open-circuit voltage VOC is:
• Similarly, when the cell is operated at short circuit, V = 0 and the
current I through the terminals is defined as the short-circuit current. It
can be shown that for a high-quality solar cell (low RS and I0, and high RSH)
the short-circuit current ISC is:

Characteristic Resistance
• The characteristic resistance of a solar cell is the cell's output resistance at
its maximum power point.
• If the resistance of the load is equal to the characteristic resistance of the
solar cell, then the maximum power is transferred to the load, and the
solar cell operates at its maximum power point.
• It is a useful parameter in solar cell analysis, particularly when examining
the impact of parasitic loss mechanisms. The characteristic resistance is
shown in the figure below.

• The characteristic resistance of a solar cell is the inverse of the slope of
the line, shown in the figure above as VMP divided by IMP .
• For most cells, RCH can be approximated by VOC divided by ISC:
• RCH is in Ω (ohms) when using IMP or ISC as is typical in a module or full cell
area. When using the current density (JMP or JSC) then the units of RCH are
Ωcm² (ohm cm²)
• The characteristic resistance is useful because it puts series and shunt
resistance in context.
• For example, commercial silicon solar cells are very high current and low
voltage devices.
• A 156 mm (6 inch) square solar cell has a current of 9 or 10 amps and a
maximum power point voltage of 0.6 volts giving a characteristic
resistance, RCH, of 0.067 Ω.
• A 72 cell module from the same cells has RCH = 4 to 5 ohm.
• A lead resistance of 30 milliohms has a negligible effect on a full module
but has a catastrophic effect on a single cell coupon.

• Series Resistance and Power Loss
• As long as the power loss is reasonable (<20%), the characteristic
resistance also allows for a conversion between the fractional power loss
and series resistance in Ω or Ω cm².
• Where f is the fraction power loss from 0 to 1.
• Rseries is in the same units as RCH, either or Ω or Ω cm².
• E.g. a typical solar cell has Rseries = 1 Ω cm², VMP = 0.650 V and JMP = 36
A/cm².
• The resulting RCH = 18 Ω cm² and the fractional power loss is 1/18 = 5.5%.

• Shunt Resistance and Power Loss
• Similarly, the shunt resistance is related to the power loss by:
• Where f is the fraction power loss from 0 to 1.
• Rshunt is in the same units as RCH, either or Ω or Ω cm².
• E.g. a typical solar cell has Rshunt = 10000 Ω cm², VMP = 0.650 V and JMP = 36
mA/cm².
• The resulting RCH = 18 Ω cm² and the fractional power loss is 18/10000 =
0.18%.

Effect of parasitic Resistances
• Resistive effects in solar cells reduce the efficiency of the solar cell by
dissipating power in the resistances.
• The most common parasitic resistances are series resistance and shunt
resistance.
• The inclusion of the series and shunt resistance on the solar cell model is
shown in the figure below.
Parasitic series and shunt resistances in a solar cell circuit.

• In most cases and for typical values of shunt and series resistance, the key
impact of parasitic resistance is to reduce the fill factor.
• Both the magnitude and impact of series and shunt resistance depend on
the geometry of the solar cell, at the operating point of the solar cell.
• Since the value of resistance will depend on the area of the solar cell,
when comparing the series resistance of solar cells which may have
different areas, a common unit for resistance is in Ωcm2.
• This area-normalized resistance results from replacing current with
current density in Ohm's law as shown below:
Effect of parasitic Resistances

Series Resistance
• Series resistance in a solar cell has three causes:
• firstly, the movement of current through the emitter and base of
the solar cell;
• secondly, the contact resistance between the metal contact and the
silicon; and
• finally the resistance of the top and rear metal contacts.
• The main impact of series resistance is to reduce the fill factor,
although excessively high values may also reduce the short-circuit
current.
Schematic of a solar cell with series resistance.

• where: I is the cell output current,
• IL is the light generated current,
• V is the voltage across the cell terminals,
• T is the temperature,
• q and k are Constants,
• n is the ideality factor, and
• RS is the cell series resistance.
• The formula is an example of an implicit function due to the appearance of
the current, I, on both sides of the equation and requires numerical
methods to solve.
Series Resistance

• The effect of the series resistance on the IV curve is shown below.
• To generate the plot the voltage across the diode is varied thereby
avoiding the need to solve an implicit equation.
• The effect of series resistance on fill factor. The area of the solar cell is 1
cm2 so that the units of resistance can be either ohm or ohm cm2.
• The short circuit current (ISC) is unaffected b the series resistance until it is
very large.
Series Resistance
Cell series resistance, RS = 2.0 Ω cm2

Series Resistance
Cell series resistance, RS = 0 Ω cm2

Series Resistance

• Series resistance does not affect the solar cell at open-circuit voltage since
the overall current flow through the solar cell, and therefore through the
series resistance is zero.
• However, near the open-circuit voltage, the IV curve is strongly affected by
the series resistance.
• A straight-forward method of estimating the series resistance from a solar
cell is to find the slope of the IV curve at the open-circuit voltage point.
• An equation for the FF as a function of series resistance can be
determined by noting that for moderate values of series resistance, the
maximum power may be approximated as the power in the absence of
series resistance minus the power lost in the series resistance.
• The equation for the maximum power from a solar cell then becomes:
•
Series Resistance

Shunt Resistance
• Significant power losses caused by the presence of a shunt resistance, RSH,
are typically due to manufacturing defects, rather than poor solar cell
design.
• Low shunt resistance causes power losses in solar cells by providing an
alternate current path for the light-generated current.
• Such a diversion reduces the amount of current flowing through the solar
cell junction and reduces the voltage from the solar cell.
• The effect of a shunt resistance is particularly severe at low light levels,
since there will be less light-generated current.
• The loss of this current to the shunt therefore has a larger impact.
• In addition, at lower voltages where the effective resistance of the solar
cell is high, the impact of a resistance in parallel is large.
Circuit diagram of a solar cell including
the shunt resistance.

• The equation for a solar cell in presence of a shunt resistance is:
• where: I is the cell output current,
• IL is the light generated current,
• V is the voltage across the cell terminals,
• T is the temperature,
• q and k are constants,
• n is the ideality factor, and
• RSH is the cell shunt resistance.
Shunt Resistance

• The effect of a low shunt resistance is shown in the animation below.
Shunt Resistance
Cell shunt resistance is: 10.0 ohm cm2

Shunt Resistance

Shunt Resistance
Cell shunt resistance is: 1 x 103 ohm cm2

Shunt Resistance

• The effect of shunt resistance on fill factor in a solar cell.
• The area of the solar cell is 1 cm2, the cell series resistance is zero,
temperature is 300 K, and I0 is 1 x 10-12 A/cm2.
Shunt Resistance

• In the presence of both series and shunt resistances, the IV curve of the
solar cell is given by;
• and the circuit diagram of the solar cell is given as;
Impact of Both Series and Shunt Resistance
Parasitic series and shunt resistances in a solar cell circuit.

Series Resistance, Rseries = 4 Ω cm2
Shunt Resistance, Rshunt = 10x 103 Ω cm2
Shunt Resistance, Rshunt = 100 Ω cm2

IV Curve animation
• https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/solar-
cell-operation/iv-curve

The photovoltaic effect
cell-operation/the-photovoltaic-effect

cell-operation/fill-factor
cell-operation/solar-cell-structure

RES UNIT-2 PPT.pptx

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