The document discusses key concepts related to motion, including: - Distance is the length between two points. Displacement implies an object has moved. - Speed refers to how fast an object is moving. It does not consider direction, while velocity does. - Average speed is total distance divided by time. Average velocity is displacement divided by time. - Instantaneous speed is an object's speed at a particular instant in time, as measured by a speedometer.

1. The word science comesfrom LatinwordScientia,whichmeans“knowledge”Science, refersto
the processof acquiringknowledge throughobservationsandexperimentation.
The word technologycomesfromtwoGreekwords,transliterated technoandlogos. TechNet
meansart, skill,craft,orthe way, manner,ormeansby whicha thingisgained....So,literally,
technologymeanswordsordiscourse aboutthe waythingsare gained.
Scientificattitudesare the mannerof viewingthingswhichare usuallymanifestedbycuriosityin
knowinghowandwhythingshappenbutare oftenpracticedwithanopenmindwhichwill
enable identificationof truthsthatwill governthe newlyfoundidea.Developingandpossessing
scientificattitudesare importantsince theylead toidentificationof factswhichhave been
carefullyverifiedtogetherandwhenthese factsare merelyaccepted,the oldtheorieswill
displacedanddiscarded.Scientificattitudesare the mannerof viewingthingswhichare usually
manifestedbycuriosity inknowinghow andwhythingshappenbutare oftenpracticedwithan
openmindwhichwill enable identificationof truthsthatwill governthe newlyfoundidea.
Developingandpossessingscientificattitudesare importantsince theyleadtoidentification of
facts whichhave beencarefullyverifiedtogetherandwhenthese factsare merelyaccepted,the
oldtheorieswill displacedanddiscarded.
Oceanology
The study of oceans
Genetics
The study of heredityandDNA
Physics
The study of motionandforce
Zoology
The study of animals
Astronomy
The study of stars
Marine biology
The study of plantsand animalsthatlive inthe ocean
Botany
The study of plants
Geology
The study of rocks and minerals
Physiology
The study of howlivingthingsfunction
Archeology
The study of past life
TenScientificAttitudes:
Communicative
Curious
Courage

2. Creative
Critical Thinker
Substancescanbe classifiedaselementsor
Compounds.
An elementisthe simplestformof matterthat
Has a unique setof properties.
Oxygenand hydrogenare twoof the more
Than 100 knownelements.
A compoundisa substance that
containstwoor more elements
chemicallycombinedinafixed
proportion.
An elementisasubstance thatcannot be chemically
decomposedintosimplersubstances.
An atomis the smallestparticle of anelementthatcantake
part inchemical reactions.
A compoundisa substance formedfromtwoor more
elementschemicallyjoined(bonded) together.
A compoundhasa definite chemical compositionandhence
specificformula.
A compoundhaschemical propertiesdifferentfromthe
propertiesof the elementsitcontains.
Moleculesare substancesformedwhentwoormore atoms
are chemicallyjoined(bonded).d
Carbon,oxygen,andhydrogenare chemically
combinedinthe compoundsucrose.
In everysample of sucrose,there are twice as
manyhydrogenparticlesasoxygenparticles.
The proportionof hydrogenparticlesinsucrose is
fixed.
Heatingisone of the processesusedtobreak
downcompoundsintosimplersubstances.
substance/(ˈsʌbstəns) /
noun
the tangible matterof whicha thingconsists

3. a specifictype of matter,espa homogeneousmaterial withadefinite
composition
the essence,meaning,etc,of a writtenorspokenthought
solidormeaningful quality
material density:avacuumhasno substance
material possessionsorwealthamanof substance
*Pure Substanceshave constantcomposition.
a substance made bymixingother
substancestogether.
the processof mixingorbeingmixed.
a combinationof differentthingsinwhich
the componentelementsare individually
distinct.
Mixture
The solute isthe substance thatis
beingdissolved,whilethe solventis
the dissolvingmedium.Solutionscan
be formedwithmanydifferenttypes
and formsof solutesandsolvents.
An unsaturatedsolutionisasolutionthat
containslessthanthe maximumamountof
solute thatiscapable of beingdissolved....If
more solute isaddedandit doesnotdissolve,
thenthe original solutionwassaturated.If
the addedsolute dissolves,then the
original solutionwasunsaturated.
Solutions:Characteristics
A solutionisahomogeneousmixture of twoormore substances.
The particlesof solute ina solutioncannotbe seenbythe naked
eye.
A solutiondoesnotallowbeamsof lighttoscatter.
A solutionisstable.
The solute froma solutioncannotbe separatedbyfiltration(or

4. mechanically).
It iscomposedof onlyone phase.
Type of Solution:
Example
Solute
Solvent
Gas dissolvedin
gas: dry air
Oxygen
nitrogen
Gas dissolved
inliquid:
carbonatedwater
carbon dioxide
water
Liquiddissolved
ingas: moistair
water
air
Liquiddissolvedin
liquid:vinegar
aceticacid
water
Soliddissolvedin
liquid:sweettea
sugar
tea
Quantitative Expressionsof Concentration

5. There are a numberof waysto expressthe relativeamountsof
solute andsolventinasolution.Whichone we choose touse
oftendependsonconvenience.Forexample,itissometimes
easiertomeasure the volume of asolutionratherthanthe mass
of the solution.
A rubyis a gemstone comprisedmostlyof aluminumoxide.Itscolor
comesfromthe additionof chromiumatomstothe crystal lattice.
Creative CommonsLicense
Mass percentor mass percentcompositionisameasurementof
concentration.Itisa measure of the ratio of the massof one part of a
molecule tothe massof the total molecule andexpressedasa
percentage.
Thisexample problemshowshowtodetermine the masspercent
compositionof eachelementof amolecule anddetermine which
elementmakesupmostof the molecule bymass.
WHAT IS A COMPOUNDMICROSCOPE?
A compoundmicroscope isahighpower(highmagnification) microscope
that usesa compoundlenssystem.A compoundmicroscope hasmultiple
lenses:the objective lens(typically4x,10x,40x or 100x) is compounded
(multiplied) bythe eyepiece lens(typically10x) toobtaina high
magnificationof 40x,100x, 400x and 1000x. Highermagnificationis
achievedbyusingtwolensesratherthanjusta single magnifyinglens.
While the eyepiecesandthe objective lensescreate highmagnification,a
condenserbeneaththe stage focusesthe lightdirectlyintothe sample.
A compoundmicroscope isan
uprightmicroscope thatusestwo
setsof lenses(acompoundlens
system) toobtainhigher
magnificationthan astereo
microscope.A compound
microscope providesa
two-dimensional image,while a
stereomicroscope providesa
three-dimensional image.
Microscopesare usedin
viewingthe specimensthatare
relativelyverysmall insize,they
are usedto viewthe cellular
structuresof organs, germs,and
bacteria,Theyplaya very
importantrole inthe laboratory

6. for the tissuesandorganisms
whichare toosmall to be seen
clearlywiththe nakedeye.
Microscope Rules
Your microscope slide shouldbe preparedwitha coverslip
overthe sample toprotect the objective lensesif theytouch
the slide.
Do not touchthe glasspart of the lenseswithyourfingers....
Alwayskeepyourmicroscope coveredwhennotinuse.
Alwayscarrya microscope withbothhands.
Microscope Rules:
Alwaysstartfocuswithlowpower.
Alwayscleanlensof microscope withlenspaper.
Alwayscarrythe microscope withtwohands:one handon the
arm and the othersupportingthe base.
Alwaysstore the microscope withthe lowesteye piece objective
inplace and the stage inthe lowestposition.
Alwaysuse the fine adjustmentknobtofocusonhighpower,
nevercoarse.
Unicellularorganismsare microscopic.
• Multicellularorganismscanbe seenbyournakedeye.
• Eukaryoticcell hastrue nucleuswhile prokaryoticcell hasnotrue
nucleus.
• Botheukaryoticandprokaryoticcellshave cell wall,ciliaand
flagella,
lysosome,plasmamembrane andchromosome.
• Bothplantcell and animal cell have nucleus,cytoplasm,
mitochondria,
golgi vesicles,golgi bodies,nucleolus,cell membrane,endoplasmic

7. reticulum,vacuole andribosome
SpecificVocabulary
• Networkisanynetlike combinationof filaments,lines,veins,
passagesandthe like.
• Prokaryoticcell hasno"true nucleus".
• Rigidmeansfirmlyfixedorset.
• Sac isa cavity,bag(pouch) or receptacle,usuallycontainingfluid,
eitherclosedoropeningintoanothercavitytothe exterior.
• Stack meanstopile or arrange.
• Tubularhavingthe formor shape of a tube.
• Unicellularorganismisanorganismmade of single oronlyone cell.
What isa cell?
The cell (fromLatincella,meaning"small room") isthe
basicstructural,functional,andbiological unitof all
knownlivingorganisms.A cell isthe smallestunitof life
that can replicate independently,andcellsare oftencalled
the "buildingblocksof life".The studyof cellsiscalled
cell biology.
Typesof Cellsfoundinlivingthings
Livingthingsvaryintermsof the numberof cellstheyhave.
Some livingthingsare:
Multicellular- made upof manycells
ex.
Rabbit,Fish,Hibiscus,Hydra
Unicellular- made upof single cell
ex.
Paramecium,Amoeba,Bacteria,Yeast

8. Bioticcomponents,orbioticfactors,can be describedasanyliving
componentthataffectsanotherorganismorshapesthe ecosystem
CONCEPTS/GENERALIZATIONS
An abioticfactorisa non-livingpartof an ecosystemthatshapesits
environment.
What isan ecosystem?
It isan area or place where organismslive in
and interactwitheachother.
Macroecosystems- large biomesthatcoverlarge geographical
areas.Examplesare grasslandsandforests.
Macroecosystems- large biomesthatcoverlarge geographical
areas.Examplesare grasslandsandforests.
BioticFactors
Organisms- smallestunitof anorganization.
Species- agroupof similarindividuals
Populations-formedwhenspeciesgroupandinteractwitheachother.
Society- agroup where populationsbecomecloselyorganized.
Bioticcommunity- all the differentpopulations livingtogetherinamarea.
The livingfactorsare groupedintotwodistinctcategories.
Autotrophs
Heterotrophs
Make theirown
foodso theyare
calledproducers
Get theirfoodfrom
anothersource so
theyare called
consumers.
Photosyntheticautotrophs- are the chlorophyll-bearing

9. organisms.Mostlyplants.
Chemosyntheticautotrophs- the archaebacteriathatcan
extractinorganicmoleculesconvertingthemintohighenergyorganic
nutrients.Callingthe processchemosynthesis.
Herbivores- planteatinganimals.
Carnivores- meateatinganimals.
Omnivores- consumersof bothplantandmeat.
Decomposers- feedondeadremainsof plantsandanimals.
MUTUALISM-
INTERACTION WHERE BOTH
ORGANISMSBENEFIT FROM
THEIR ASSOCIATION.
One example isacarabao and
heron.The carabao givesthe
Herona free ride while the heroneatsoff
any pestsinthe carabaos fur.
Commensalism- one organism
benefitscalledacommensal while the other
organismisn'tharmednor benefitted.
One example isanorchidand a tree trunk.The
orchidhas space and securityfromthe tree
trunkto grow and receiveswateraswell while
the tree doesn'tbenefitfromthe association.
Parasitism- one organismbenefitswhile the otheris
harmed.The harmingorganismiscalleda parasite.The other
organismiscalledthe host.A killingparasite iscalleda
parasitoid.
One example istickonthe dog’sfur.The tickpillagesthe
bloodof a dog while bringingeithersicknessof=rdeathtoits
host.
Amensalism- isarelationshipwhere
one organismisinhibitedorkilledwhileThe
otherorganismisunaffected.The harming
organismsecretesatoxicmaterial thatharms
otherorganismsinan interactioncalled

10. allelopathy.
One example isthe blackwalnuttree also
KNOWN ASJUGLANS NIGRA
SECRETES THE CHEMICAL JUGLONE
THAT INHIBITSTHE GROWTH OF
NEARBY PLANTSIN ITS ROOT ZONE.
PREDATION- A RELATIONSHIP
WHERE ONEORGANISMBENEFITS
WHILE THE OTHER IS HARMED. THE
ONE THAT BENEFITSIS CALLED THE
PREDATORWHILE THE PREY IS THE
ONE HARMED.
EXAMPLES ARE RABBITSEATING A
CARROTAND BIRDSEATING
EARTHWORMS.
Competition- isaninteraction
betweenspecieswhere the survival of one
participatingorganismisloweredbythe
presence of another.
One example are deerfightingforfoodor
for partnersto mate with.Theyclashwith
theirantlersandultimatelydecidingthe
dominantone.
Coexistence- involvessharingof limited
resourcestoavoidactual fightingandexcessive
elimination.Anditcanbe dividedinto2
methods.
Character displacement-involvesachange of
behaviorof speciesandresource specialization.
Resource partitioning- involvessplittingupthe
nichesbetween2competingspecies.
CellularLevel
The cell isthe smallestunitof
biological organizationthatbiologists

11. consideralive.
All true cellsare surroundedbya
plasma(cell) membrane,carryout
complex chemical reactions,andare at least
potentiallycapable of self reproduction.
Tissue Level
and similarcellsthatcarryout a
specificsetof functions.
Organ Level
Organs are groups of tissues
organizedtogethertocarry out
a particularsetof functions.
Organs typicallyhave several
kindsof tissue.
Organ SystemLevel
Multicellularorganisms,especiallyanimalstypically

12. are organizedintoorgansystems,groupsof organs
that functiontogethertocarry outbroad setsof
functions.Forinstance anorgan systeminhumans
isthe digestivesystem.
Some of the organsin the digestivesystemare the
stomach,liver,small intestine,pancreas.
OrganismLevel
The organismor individual isthatlevel
of biological organizationthathasits
owndistinctexistence asacomplex,
self reproducingunit.
We are multi-cellularorganismsinthat
we are made of many highlyspecialized
cellswhichcannotexistindependently
of othercellsinthe organism
PopulationLevel
A populationisgroupof freelyinteracting
and breedingindividualsof the same
species.Forexample,all the bull frogsin

13. a pond can be consideredapopulationof
bullfrogs.Typicallypopulationsare
subdividedinto
smallergroups:apack of wolves,pride
of lions,colonyof ants.
A pack of wolves
CommunityLevel
differentspecieslivingandinteractingtogether
ina distinctarea.(e.g:all the speciesina
pond)
Ecosystems(Biomes)
groupsof speciesandthe abiotic
(non-living) componentsof the
environmentwithwhichthe living
creaturesinteract.Examplesof
ecosystems include forests,prairies,
deserts.

14. Biosphere
and above the Earth's surface where life
exists.Livingthingscanbe foundwell
intothe atmosphere,the deepestpartsof
the ocean,and at leastinsome areas,
microbeslive inrockseveral kilometers
belowthe surface of the earth.
Motionthe actionor processof movingor beingmoved.
Distance the lengthof the space betweentwopoints.
The word displacementimpliesthatanobjecthas moved,orhas beendisplaced. Displacement
isdefinedtobe the change inpositionof an object.
Speedisa scalar quantitythatrefersto"how fast an objectismoving."Speedcanbe thoughtof
as the rate at whichan objectcoversdistance.A fast-movingobjecthasa highspeedand covers
a relativelylarge distance inashortamountof time....Anobjectwithno movementatall hasa
zerospeed.
An objectistravellingata steadyor constantspeedwhenitsinstantaneousspeedhasthe same
value throughoutitsjourney.Forexample, if acar istravellingata constantspeedthe reading
on the car's speedometerdoesnotchange.
Average speedisdefinedasthe total distance travelledbythe time takenwhereasaverage
velocityisdefinedasthe displacementbythe time taken.Since speedisascalar quantity,the
average speedisalsoconsideredasascalar quantitywhile velocityisavectorquantity.
The speedometergivesthe recordof speedforeachinstantof time.Thisgivesthe illustrationof
instantaneousspeed.Instantaneousspeedisthe speedof aparticle inthe movementatany
desiredinstantof time.
The velocityof an objectisthe rate of change of itspositionwithrespecttoaframe of
reference,andisafunctionof time....Velocityisaphysical vectorquantity;bothmagnitudeand
directionare neededtodefine it.

15. The average velocityof anobjectisits total displacementdividedbythe total time taken.In
otherwords,itis the rate at whichan objectchangesitspositionfromone place toanother.
Average velocityisavectorquantity.
In general,heattransferdescribesthe flow of heat(thermalenergy) due totemperature
differencesandthe subsequenttemperaturedistributionandchanges.The studyof transport
phenomenaconcernsthe exchangeof momentum, energy,andmassinthe form of conduction,
convection,andradiation.
Heat istransferredviasolidmaterial (conduction),liquidsandgases(convection),and
electromagneticallywaves(radiation).Heatisusuallytransferredinacombinationof these
three typesandseldomoccurson itsown.
Transparent(of a material or article) allowinglighttopassthroughso that objectsbehindcanbe
distinctlyseen.
"transparentblue water"
The definitionof translucentisallowinglighttopassthroughbut notshowingthe distinct
imagesonthe otherside.Anexample of translucentisafrostedglassvase....Frostedglass,for
example,istranslucenttovisible light.
Opaque notable to be seenthrough;nottransparent.
an instance of reflectingespecially:the returnof lightor soundwavesfroma surface.2 : the
productionof an image byor as if bya mirror.3a : the actionof bendingorfoldingback.b: a
reflectedpart:fold.
deflectionfromastraightpath undergone byalightray or energywave inpassingobliquely
fromone medium(suchas air) intoanother(suchas glass) inwhichitsvelocityisdifferent.
Latitude the angulardistance of a place northor southof the earth'sequator,or of the equator
of a celestial object,usuallyexpressedindegreesandminutes.
Longitude the angulardistance of aplace east or westof the Greenwichmeridian,orwestof the
standardmeridianof a celestial object,usuallyexpressedindegreesandminutes.
Map projectionisthe methodof transferringthe graticule of latitudeandlongitude onaplane
surface.It can alsobe definedasthe transformationof spherical networkof parallelsand
meridiansonaplane surface.Asyouknow that, the earth onwhichwe live inisnot flat.Itis
geoidinshape like asphere.
Global PositioningSystem
Answer.The Global PositioningSystem(GPS) tellsyouwhereyouare onEarth. GPS III Satellite

16. The atmosphere isthe blanketof gaseswhichsurroundsEarth.It isheldnearthe surface of the
planetbyEarth's gravitational attraction.Withoutthe atmosphere there couldbe nolife on
Earth. The atmosphere:...keepsthe climate onEarthmoderate comparedtothat of other
planets.
The Troposphere
Thisis the lowestpartof the atmosphere - the partwe live in.Itcontainsmostof our weather-
clouds,rain,snow.Inthispart of the atmosphere the temperaturegetscolderasthe distance
above the earthincreases,byabout6.5°C perkilometre.The actual change of temperature with
heightvariesfromdayto day,dependingonthe weather.
The Stratosphere
Thisextendsupwardsfromthe tropopause toabout50 km.It containsmuchof the ozone inthe
atmosphere.The increase intemperature withheightoccursbecause of absorptionof
ultraviolet(UV) radiationfromthe sunbythisozone. Temperaturesinthe stratosphere are
highestoverthe summerpole,andlowestoverthe winterpole.
The Mesosphere
The regionabove the stratosphere iscalledthe mesosphere.Here the temperature again
decreaseswithheight,reachingaminimumof about -90°C at the "mesopause".
The Thermosphere andIonosphere
The thermosphere liesabove the mesopause,andisa regioninwhichtemperaturesagain
increase withheight.Thistemperature increase iscausedbythe absorptionof energetic
ultravioletandX-Rayradiationfromthe sun.
The Exosphere
The regionabove about500 kmis calledthe exosphere.Itcontainsmainlyoxygenandhydrogen
atoms,but there are so fewof themthat theyrarelycollide - theyfollow "ballistic"trajectories
underthe influence of gravity,andsome of themescape rightoutintospace.
The Magnetosphere
The earth behaveslike ahuge magnet.Ittrapselectrons(negative charge) andprotons
(positive),concentratingthemintwobandsabout3,000 and 16,000 km above the globe - the

17. VanAllen"radiation"belts.Thisouterregionsurroundingthe earth,wherechargedparticles
spiral alongthe magneticfieldlines,iscalledthe magnetosphere.
Earth spinsaroundits axis,justasa topspinsaroundits spindle.Thisspinningmovementis
calledEarth's rotation.Atthe same time that the Earth spinson itsaxis,italsoorbits,or revolves
aroundthe Sun.Thismovementiscalledrevolution.
A satelliteisamoon,planetor machine thatorbitsa planetor star.For example,Earthisa
satellite because itorbitsthe sun....Usually,the word"satellite"referstoamachine thatis
launchedintospace andmovesaroundEarth or anotherbodyin space.Earth and the moonare
examplesof natural satellites.
Force of gravityis1/6 that f earthsinthe moon
The precise strengthof Earth's gravityvariesdependingonlocation.The nominal"average"
value at the Earth's surface,knownasstandard gravityis,bydefinition,9.80665 m/s2(about
32.1740 ft/s2).