CSMT 442 Cost and Estimating 2 Homework 2 `Siteworks

CSMT 442: Cost and Estimating 2
Homework 2 `Siteworks (20 points) Answer ALL Questions
1. A large stockpile of materials (5400CY) is to be transported
to a fill area. The contractor has a rubber-
tired front loader and a number of dump trucks for the job.
Based on a study of the job and knowledge of
the operators, time factors for various steps have been
determined and are given below along with cost
and capacity factors. Determine the optimum number of dump
trucks to assign to the job and duration
and cost of transporting the whole stockpile.
Front loader: cost per hour with operator $70
Total time to load truck 4 minutes
(not including position time)
Truck Cost per hour with driver $60
Positioning time 1 minute

Loading time 4 minutes
Travel to dump 6minutes
Dump time 2 minutes
Return travel 5 minutes
Truck capacity 6 CY

MOS 5425, Advanced Toxicology 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VIII
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
2. Summarize the principles of toxicology.
2.1 Discuss the toxicological effects of a carcinogen.
5. Examine toxic substances that pose a risk to human
population and the environment.
5.1 Discuss methods of exposure to carcinogens.
8. Evaluate risk assessment procedures related to chemical
carcinogenicity.
8.1 Explain the models for assessing cancer risks.

Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 21
2.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 15
Scholarly Activity
5
Unit Lesson
Chapter 21
5.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 15
Scholarly Activity
8.1
Chapters 15 and 23
Scholarly Activity
Reading Assignment
Chapter 15: Chemical Carcinogenesis, pp. 259-280
Chapter 21: Epidemiological Issues in Occupational and
Environmental Health, pp. 391-394

Chapter 23: Human Health Risk Assessment, pp. 425-440
Unit Lesson
Unit VIII is the second of a two-part discussion on toxic
substances and risk assessment. The last unit of this
course covers chemical carcinogens, environmental pollutants,
occupational toxicology, and toxicological
evaluation.
Chemical Carcinogens
According to the textbook, cancer is the second leading cause of
death in the United States. There are one
million newly diagnosed cases of cancer each year and 1.5
million deaths annually (Roberts, James, &
Williams, 2015). Many factors can contribute to the
development of cancer. Genetics, lifestyle choices, and
exposure to environmental factors can all play roles in initiating
cancer. Inherited genes at the present time
cannot be controlled, but the latter two factors, lifestyle choices
and environmental factors, can be controlled
to a certain extent to reduce the risk of developing cancer.
Lifestyle choices include diet, exercise, exposure
UNIT VIII STUDY GUIDE
Chemical Carcinogenesis, Epidemiology,
and Human Health Risk Assessment

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
to the sun, and use of tobacco. Infectious agents, radiation, and
xenobiotic chemicals can also induce cancer
(Roberts et al., 2015).
What is cancer? Cancer, or malignant neoplasm, is the
uncontrolled replication of cells that invade other
tissues and organs, often damaging and interfering with the
function of the organs that are invaded. Types of
cancer are often named for the site of origin. If the neoplasm
originated in the lungs and metastasized or
migrated to the liver, it is still considered lung cancer, although
the cancer would now be in the lungs and
liver. The xenobiotics that cause cancer are referred to as
carcinogens. The development of cancer is
referred to as carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis occurs in several
stages, which include initiation, promotion,
and progression of the tumor. Initiation is the conversion of a
normal cell to a mutated cancer cell. Promotion
is the replication of the initial mutated cell. Progression is the
conversion of preneoplasia to malignant (or
benign) neoplasm (Roberts et al., 2015).
There are many agents that are not classified as carcinogens but
are listed as potential carcinogens.
Carcinogens can be chemicals, viruses, hormones, radiation, or
solid-state materials (Roberts et al., 2015).
According to the textbook, carcinogens either initiate the
neoplastic growth in a tissue or increase the
incidence of background spontaneous neoplastic formation in

the target tissue (Roberts et al., 2015).
Carcinogens can be divided into two basic categories: genotoxic
and epigenetic (non-genotoxic) carcinogens.
In simple terms, genotoxic carcinogens directly alter the DNA,
causing mutations. Epigenetic carcinogens do
not alter the DNA but interfere with the expression of the DNA.
The authors discuss many chemical classes of
known carcinogens. These chemical classes include
polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) such as PAHs found
in charcoal broiled foods (that indeed refers to meat cooked on
the grill at a barbeque), cigarette smoke, and
diesel exhaust. In addition, many metals such as arsenic,
chromium, nickel, and lead are carcinogens
(Roberts et al., 2015).
Environmental Pollutants
Have you considered how environmental pollutants may affect
the normal, everyday individual? In large cities
such as Atlanta, cyclists who often ride in high traffic areas
ironically have to be concerned about their health.
This is due to the cyclists’ continual inhalation of air pollution
from passing vehicles. The burning of fossil fuels
is a major contributor to air pollution in many developed
countries (Roberts et al., 2015).
For many people, outdoor air pollutants come to mind when
environmental air pollutants are mentioned. What
about indoor pollutants? Have you ever worked in an older
office building and felt ill on Monday morning when
you returned to work from the weekend away from the building?
Perhaps every time you enter the building
you develop a non-stress related headache or other ailment.
Indoor air pollutants may be referred to as sick
building syndrome. Sick building syndrome can be caused by
many unidentified agents or environmental

factors within a building and in fact is a real condition. It is not
simply the Monday work blues.
Environmental toxicants can move through one medium to
another. It is not uncommon for air pollutants to
cross media to contaminate soil and water. Water contaminants
include pesticides, metals, fertilizers, and
even medications that are disposed of incorrectly by flushing
down the toilet or throwing in the trash can.
Occupational Toxicology
There once was an older gentleman who worked for a factory
for many, many years. He retired from his
position after more than 30 years of work at the same company.
Within five years of retirement, the
gentlemen was diagnosed with lung cancer. He fought the
cancer with the support of his family. This man had
a small pharmacy of drugs in his home. He took drugs to fight
the cancer and drugs to combat the side effects
of the cancer drugs. After almost two years of chemotherapy
and radiation, he lost his battle with cancer.
Within a few years of his death, it was revealed to his family
that more than 50% of former employees of the
company had developed lung cancer. This is a major topic of
concern for safety professionals.
Toxicants can enter the body by various means. Although we
aim to eliminate the possible exposure to
various pollutants in normal everyday life, some occupations do
not allow employees to totally avoid toxicants
in their work environment. It is vital for the health of
employees for these individuals to be protected from all
means of harmful exposure of the toxicants. Your textbook
discusses the effects of various toxicants if the
safe exposure limits are exceeded. Some effects of exposure

may be very minor, such as headaches, or can
potentially increase in range of severity from nausea to organ
damage and cancer.
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Epidemiological Studies
In simple terms, epidemiology is the study of the causes as well
as the effects of disease within a defined
population of people. Controlled laboratory experiments and
studies can tell us a great deal in terms of the
risk factors of an agent. On the other hand, human studies that
are less controlled address the everyday
factors and elements that humans encounter in association with
toxicants; human studies can expose various
risk factors. Epidemiological studies can reveal exactly what
occurs within the human body due to exposure to
an agent rather than extrapolating data from animal models to
suggest what could happen in humans. Human
studies are limited by what is ethical. Some studies are very
slow in gathering data because many
epidemiological studies make observances and collect data
rather than intentionally induce a disease state or
risk as in animal studies.

Environmental epidemiology examines populations that are
exposed to airborne, ingested, or dermally
absorbed agents. An study in Flint, Michigan, on the population
exposed to contaminated tap water that is
used in cooking, drinking, and bathing, is a good example of an
environmental epidemiological study.
Occupational epidemiology simply refers to studies that
examine a population that experiences exposure to
an agent in a work-related environment. An example of this
would be the emergency response workers who
were engaged in the rescue of people in New York during the
events of 9-11. Many of the emergency
response workers and volunteers experienced chronic health
issues that epidemiologists were able to trace
back to the exposure to airborne agents during that time.
Health Risk Assessment
Risk assessment utilizes scientifically collected data of the
hazardous properties of a chemical and duration of
exposure to determine the level of harm the agent poses to the
population (Roberts et al., 2015). There are
basic steps to risk assessment that every student should know.
These four steps include hazard identification,
dose-response assessment, exposure assessment, and risk
characterization (Roberts et al., 2015). Hazard
identification is simply assessing the increased health risk
caused by exposure to an agent. Dose-response
assessment is relating the concentration and duration of
exposure to adverse effects. Factors that can alter a
response such as health issues, sex, age, and lifestyle may also
be examined in conjunction with the dose-
response assessment of an agent (Roberts et al., 2015).
Exposure assessment identifies what population,
routes of exposure, concentration, and duration of exposure are

encountered. Risk characterization is
compiling the information from the previous steps to determine
the likelihood of the hazards developing in the
population (Roberts et al., 2015). The textbook goes into detail
about each step of risk assessment. Take
some time to read and understand the process; however, do not
get caught up in the details of the
mathematical formulas for calculating risks and concentration
of exposure.
Pay special attention to the information in the textbook, but
utilize it as a springboard to investigate the
subject matter of occupational and environmental toxicology
further and learn as much as you can. It is
important to be up to date on the latest information, not only
while obtaining your degree, but throughout your
career. New equipment for personal protection against toxicants
are always being developed as well as
technology to measure levels to toxic exposure. Congratulations
on completing the last lesson. Let’s make
this unit your best!
Reference
Roberts, S. M., James, R. C., & Williams, P. L. (Eds.). (2015).
Principles of toxicology: Environmental and
industrial applications (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Suggested Reading
In order to access the following resource, click the link below.
The following article outlines some occupational toxicology
issues that face the oil and gas industry. While
some concerns get attention, many dangers in the industry
remain that do not receive the attention they
deserve, and the article highlights some recommendations for
worker protection.
Johnson, D. (2015). Industrial hygiene practices are often
overlooked on oil and gas fields. ISHN, 49(11).
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CSMT 442 Cost and Estimating 2 Homework 2 `Siteworks

CSMT 442 Cost and Estimating 2 Homework 2 `Siteworks

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