4363 Remediation of Brownfield Sites in Haliburton County
1. # 4363 Remediation of Brownfield Sites in Haliburton County
Environmental Haliburton!
Prepared by: Lynnette Grozelle
Date: April 2015
Supervisors: Heather Ross (EH!) Sharon Beaucage-Johnson (Trent University), Emma Horrigan
(U-links)
Course Code: FRSC 4890Y
2. 1
Abstract
Environmental Haliburton! requested information about the different types of
remediation techniques that are available for the brownfields in Haliburton County. Brownfields
soil sites are sites where contamination has occurred due to industrial or commercial land use.
Forestry and wood processing, mines, gravel pits, chemical plants, laundry mates, gas stations
and factories are all examples of building that can result in brownfield. The two main categories
of remediation methods that are compared are physical and biological. Physical techniques
include excavation, soil washing, geotextiles and soil vapour extraction. Biological techniques
include microbial, phytoremediation, mycoremediation, and seaweed. For each methods,
relative cost, time, ethics, availability, soil type and simplicity of the techniques were examined.
Cost and time are extremely variable depending on the method chosen, area of contamination
and soil composition. Most techniques work in of soils that are clay-like and are impractical for
solid, nonporous rock areas. All techniques are accessible, but the seaweed distribution sites are
not close to the Haliburton County. Ethics refers to how the method cleans the soil, excavation
is the least ethical, but it is also the simplest method, whereas the more ethical approach of
phytoremediation can take a long time.
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Acknowledgement
This report would not have been possible without the amazing support system pushing
me throughout the entire project. This project would not have been possible without Heather
Ross from Environment Haliburton!(EH!), who allowed me to expand on a previous project that
was completed in 2013 by Leslie Doyle. Without Heather Ross and EH! community members
ongoing concern and interest in Brownfield remediation and environmental issues, this project
would not have been created. I would like to thank Emma Horrigan of U-links for her quick
responses and helpfulness when brainstorming possible ways to get through the unexpected
road blocks that occurred throughout this project. I would like to thank my instructor Sharon
Beaucage-Johnson, from Trent University Forensic Science Department, for being so
understanding when I came to her with questions, even though it would have been easier to walk
the other way. I would like to thank Erin Stewart Eves, from the Academic Skills at Trent University
for helping me with the difficult task of creating a reasonable schedule for balancing all of my
classes, this project, and sleep. I would also like to extend a thank you to my roommate, Noelle
Sampson, who put up with me through all of my sleep-deprived days and helped me proof-read
this report.
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Key words
Environmental Haliburton, Brownfield, Bioremediation, Phytoremediation, Mycoremediation
Contaminated soil, Haliburton County, Heavy Metals
Glossary
Biochar: a form of charcoal that is produced from plant matter that has the ability remove
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Bio-remediation: biological techniques that can be used to help reduce or eliminate different
contaminants within the soil.
Brownfield: plots of land which are contaminated due to historical, industrial or commercial land
use practices, and are underutilized, derelict or vacant.
Cardiovascular: biologic system comprised of the heart and blood vessels.
Contamination: when contaminants that can be deemed harmful to the environment and/or
humans are present within the sample.
Dermatologic: refer to structure, function and diseases related to skin.
Heavy metals: metals, like lead and mercury, which can have a toxic effect when they are found
in high concentration.
Hydrocarbons: a chain of hydrogen and oxygen molecules, which have different properties
based on their structure.
Legislation: a law that has a set of enforceable rules and regulations that society must adhere
to.
Mycoremediation: the use of fungi to remove contaminants from the soil.
Remediation: actions that are taken to reverse or stop the environmental damage.
pH: a logarithmic scale that measures the acid base level of a solution, 7 in neutral, greater than
7 is basic and less than 7 in acidic.
Phytoremediation: use of plants to remove heavy metals from the soil.
Petroleum hydrocarbons: hydrocarbons that are found in oil, gasoline, diesel, penetrating
oils and a variety of other solvents, which can vary in toxicity.
Vermiculture: the use of worms to breakdown organic materials.
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Abbreviation
EH! – Environment Haliburton!
CEPA- Canadian Environmental Protection Act
CanSIS- Canadian soil information Service
U-links- U-links centre for community based research
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Introduction
Brownfield remediation is the process of cleaning the contaminated soil site referred to
as brownfield. These contaminated sites are caused by improper removal of chemicals or by
chemicals leaking into the soil (1). The longer the contamination occurs, the further it spreads.
The longer the contaminated soil sits before being properly cleaned the further the contaminants
sink into the ground. The Canadian Environment Protection Act, developed in 1999, outlines the
procedures that must be followed when an individual wants to build on a brownfield site (1). The
legislation dictates that the site must be remediated before anyone can start to build on the are.
Failure to comply with the legislation will result in fines. All costs for the remediation of the soil
falls to the developer, which can range depending on what remediation methods are used and
the overall size of the site (1). Brownfield can be the result of many different buildings and
industries such as, forestry and wood processing, mines, gravel pits, lumber yards, sawmills,
chemical plants, gas stations, laundromats and factories (1). Each site has different chemicals
that relate to the source of contamination ranging from heavy metal contaminates to petroleum
hydrocarbon. High concentration of heavy metals can be toxic to both humans and animals.
Petroleum hydrocarbon is found in petrol products such as oil, gasoline or other solvents (2).
The present project was proposed by Environmental Haliburton! (EH!). EH! is a non-profit
organization that focuses on environmental issues within Haliburtion County, which includes the
township of Algonquin highlands, Municipality of Dysart et al, Municipality of Highlands East and
township of Minden Hills (3). Brownfield sites in rural areas, like Haliburton County, have been
ignored for years, due to the lack of information and access regarding the presence of
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brownfields and records of operations. EH! wants to have information available on the different
remediation techniques that are available for brownfields. In 2013, EH! was looking for
information on a specific method of remediation and with the help of Leslie Doyle, a former Trent
University student in environmental sciences, EH! acquired information on the production and
use of Biochar. EH! still wanted to explore for the other techniques that were available, which
initiated the start on another community based project; looking for general overview of the
different remediation techniques that are available.
The host and I agreed upon look at information from 1950s to the present day. This
guideline was established to allow a more detailed overview of a specific time frame, which was
an important factor because, as society evolves, the method used also evolves. The change in
methods and advancement in sciences resulted in companies that handled chemicals that were
deemed harmful by the government. A chemical that was commonly used in the 1960’s or 1970’s
is unlikely to be used in a more modern facility, where chemicals were outlawed or more effective
chemicals were developed. For example in 1999, Canada added new gasoline regulations,
enabled by the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, restricting the amount of lead and
phosphorus allowed in the gasoline imported into Canada to 5mg/L and 1.3mg/L respectively (4).
Prior to 1999, there were no limits regarding the concentration of lead and phosphate in the
gasoline for heavy machinery used for industrial practices.
There are three main research questions for the current project. The first question
considers what type of brownfield remediation techniques are available. These methods of
remediation can be separated into two main groups: physical techniques and biological
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techniques. Secondly, what technique is appropriate for each type of brownfield? To answer this
question, it is important to know what type of chemical is used at the site, as well as what the
soil types is at each location. The developer can then decide what technique they want to use
based on what method will be able to remove the specific type of contamination. Thirdly, what
are the positive and negative aspects of each technique? The main factors that will be researched
for each aspect include estimated cost, time, ethics, availability, soil type and simplicity of the
technique. The factors were chosen to help compare the many variations in the brownfield sites
and the remediation methods that are available.
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Methods
To gather information on brownfield remediation techniques, I first had to determine
what type of methods were available. I relied on the following materials: websites, journal
articles, and case studies.
The websites were sites mainly about brownfield remediation methods and government
websites. Online sources were found through Google searches and journal databases, such as
Science Direct, SciFinder, SpringerLink, GALE, Google scholar, Web of Science and Wiley Online
Library. All of the databases that were used are user-friendly sites available to Trent university
students that have environmental, biological and chemical related journal articles. Google
searches and journals about brownfield remediation resulted in reviews of two or more case
studies and documentation of brownfield remediation projects within major cities. The main
keywords I used were “brownfield”, “remediation”, “geotextiles”, “soil composition”, “soil
washing”, “toxic heavy metals”, “phytoremedation”, and “mycoremediation”.
Once a list of the different methods were recorded, I read each source and recorded what
contaminates were removed from the soil, the expected timeframe, and an outline of the
process. While reviewing the list of techniques, it was important to consider the type of
brownfield sites and the differences between each type. The next thing examined was a soil map
to determine what types of soil is present within Haliburton County between 1950 and 2015.
Through an internet search, I was able to locate the soil map, used from the Canadian soil
information service (CanSIS) to determine the soil composition of the area (5). All of the gathered
information was then put in an excel chart form to make it easier to organize and compile.
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After finishing this process, I researched the industrial history of the area. The history of
the area since the 1950’s was required knowledge in order to determine when different
brownfield sites were created and how long the industry was operational. The time frame of the
1950’s to the present was chosen to limit the scope of the project into a manageable undertaking.
The time of the site’s creation and the length of exposure to the contaminants are
important factors, as the information can help to better determine what type of chemicals might
have been used. Different chemicals result in different contaminates in the soil. The variation of
contaminates could cause one remediation technique to be more appropriate than others.
The historical information was mainly collected through history books about the area in
the Trent University library, Peterborough Public Library and archival information. The archival
data described industrial practices between 1884 and 1961. The titles for the hard copy
documents were found under the category “bioregionalism” in the Trent University Archives.
Within this category, I searched for which of the 24 boxes contained documents regarding the
industrial practices within the subject of interest. Through the use of the online Trent University
Archives, it was possible to look at a list of all titles of the documents in each box to determine
which boxes would be relevant. Out of the 24 boxes, box 1, 3, 7, 8 and 16 were examined, and
notes on the relevant articles were taken.
Once a brief history was complete, it was possible to look at the different types of
brownfields, as well the chemicals that were used. Each type of industrial building or facility that
could result in a brownfield was researched. Based on the history, it is possible to determine the
different types of chemicals that were used at each site. These findings can then be related to
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the different remediation methods. Based on the contamination that the method removes, it is
possible to determine if one method is more appropriate for a specific brownfield. After the
appropriate method is determined, the positive and negatives aspects for each technique were
examined. A selection of factors were examined to determine estimated cost, time, ethics,
availably, soil type and simplicity of the technique.
Case studies were utilized, as the studies often state the cost of the individual
remediation, what method or methods were used and the time of the remediation. A high cost
would be negative, because the developer would not want to spend a large amount of money to
clean the soil. Methods that take less time would be considered positive. The term “ethics” refers
to the cleanliness of the soil, and whether all of the soil is being cleaned or whether it is just the
surface of the soil being moved. The complete cleaning of soil would be positive, whereas moving
the soil would be negative. Availability is based on how easily a developer could get access to the
product or the required equipment for the technique. If a technique only works well on specific
soils that are not present in the area, it would be seen as negative. The last factor is the simplicity
of the technique, which considers how complicated the process is. If it required an abundance of
different steps or complex training, it would be seen as negative, whereas a technique that is
easy to understand and complete would be positive.
The information was compiled into a general overview of the different methods. When
this was finished, the overview was developed into a brochure designed for the general public,
who do not have a strong science back ground. This means that all the information must be
simplified and streamlined to ensure that the average reader will understand the topic. The
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brochure must also have websites listed that would allow the reader to learn more about a topic
of interest if the reader desired more information.
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Results
Most of the results are summarized into three tables that can be found in the appendix A
and the rest are discussed in the discussion section of the paper.
Soil vapour extraction, soil washing, bioremediation, phytoremediation and
mycoremediation are appropriate remediation methods for soil that was contaminated by
petroleum hydrocarbons (6). All of the remediation can be performed on site, except for
mycoremediation remediation, which has to be performed off site (6). Mycoremediation is the
use of fungi to remediate soil and water. Fungi spores have to be added and packed into
biodegradable plastic before the fungi can be used. Packing the fungi spores is best to be done
off site and delivered to the site for application. Bioremediation and phytoremediation can also
be used on groundwater that has been contaminated by petroleum hydrocarbons (6). Each of
the techniques are discussed further in the discussion section of the paper.
Table 1 documents the different heavy metals that are associated with the different types
of brownfields. The list is organized in alphabetical order by the chemical abbreviation, expect
for nitrate, carbon monoxide and tetrachloroethylene which are a combination of different
elements. For each of the heavy metals a brief statement of the toxic effects can be found beside
the chemical name. Tetrachloroethylene is a chemical that uses used laundromats. All of the
chemicals listed can be harmful to the environment, animal and human. The toxic effects listed
affect both humans and animals when the contaminants are found in high concentration (7-10).
The toxic metals enter the body through ingestion or inhalation by the unsuspecting victims. The
effects can range from a dermatologic to paralytic and can even result in death (7-10).
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For Phytoremediation, all of the plants that are available for heavy metals are summarized
into table 2, which can be found in the appendix A (11-14). The list is ordered alphabetically based
on the scientific name. Common plant has a common name(s) are also listed for easier
identification. N/A means that no common name was found in relation to the scientific name or,
in the case of Spartina Plant, is an entire plant family of plants. The metal are titled using the
chemicals’ abbreviation, Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), Cr (chromium), Zn (zinc), Cd (Cadmium), Hg
(mercury), Ag (silver), Pb (lead), Mn (Manganese), As (arsenic) and Se (Selenium). All of the metals
are toxic to animals and humans when present in high concentrations.
There are three types of fungi that are used for mycoremediation: endomycorrhical
(ECM), ericoid mycorhizal fungi (ERM), and Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas (VAM) (6). All ECM
fungi help protect plants from the high toxicity effects caused by the oversaturation of heavy
metals and reduces the heavy metals aluminum and magnesium (6). ECM soils prefer acidic,
nutrient-deprived soil (6). The ERM fungi help to remove a variety of contaminates from the soil.
The VAM fungi are used to help reduce the amount of toxic metals, like cadmium, magnesium
and zinc (6). All of the remediation fungi that were found during the literature review are
summarized into table 3 of the appendix A. The list is organized alphabetical by scientific family
name or species name. To the right of the scientific name is the common name; if N/A is used
under the common name section, it is because there was no common name found for the fungi.
The metal section refers to the different toxic heavy metals that the fungi remediate; , Ni (nickel),
Cu (copper), Cd (Cadmium), Cr (chromium), Zn (zinc), As (arsenic), Hg (mercury), Co (cobalt), Pb
(lead). Fe (iron), Mn (Manganese), U (Uranium), Ag (silver), As (arsenic), and Al (aluminum). The
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last section looks at chemicals that are found in gas and oil. All of the metals and chemicals in gas
and oil are toxic to the environment, animals and humans (6, 15, 16).
Discussion
Before the individual methods are examined, the overall process of remediation was
researched and the history of the area was researched, as well. After two months of looking for
the history of the area, I was unable to locate any information related to the time frame of the
project. I searched for the history of Haliburton online, in the Peterborough Library, Trent
University Library and the Trent University Archives without success. The archives had reports of
previous papers that were completed under the bioregionalism course at Trent University, but
only a few of the papers reported on the industrial building in the Haliburton County. The only
helpful information that was relevant to the project was information from Statistics Canada that
was dated from 1961 and 1986. The statistics only gave information about the number of people
that were employed in the different field and not specific information about which companies
the employees were from (17). In 1961, there was a total population of 8928. From that 8928, 65
worked in the forestry industry and 153 worked as miners (17). In 1986, it only listed 285 people
working in forestry, and there was no statistic given for the number of people working as miners,
but it did say that there was iron mining (17). In the archives there was also a business directory
which did not have a year of printing documented. It lists 16 gas stations, 5 buildings under
laundry services, 23 manufacturing buildings, 3 quarries, and 48 trucking and logging places (18).
Some of the companies under trucking and logging that are listed were Manuary Sawmill, Sawyer
Canoe Company, Hunter Lumber, GW Martin Lumber, Wilberforce Planning, Wilberforce Veneer,
Wilberforce Wood components and North Steel (18).
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The type of soil that was present in the area was examined based on the CanSIS. There
are many different rocks present in the Haliburton County: mafic to ultramafic plutonic rock,
felsic plutonic rock created from gneisses and migmatites, metavolcanic and metasedimentary
rocks (5). The different rock types have similar drainage properties because of the structures of
the rocks. All of the rocks are formed by a mix of recrystallized melted rock and unmelted rock,
making a very solid structure with only a few pathways for water to travel and drain. There are
also four different soil thicknesses throughout the Haliburton County. Class four is less than 1.5m
of soil, class three has between 1.5-3m of soil, class two has between 3-6m of soil and class one
is greater than 6m of soil (19). The level of soil will dictate the amount of soil that can be
contaminated. The level of soil is important because the methods of remediation that are listed
are for the remediation of contaminated soil.
The Ontario government website, outlines the processes that needs to be followed before
the commencing of the site. Before a developer can build on the land, an environmental risk
assessment must be performed (1, 20). The assessment is performed by an unbiased 3rd party
looks at the condition on the site in respect to the contaminant’s effects on plants, animals, and
humans. If the amount of any one contaminant is higher than the standards from the Ministry of
Environment and Climate Change, then the site has to be remediated. The cost of the risk
assessment and remedation are the developer’s reasonability. Before the developer can build on
the property, the contaminants must meet the standards that are approved by the Ministry of
Environment and Climate Change (1). There are multiple methods that a developer can choose
from to remediate the soil. The remedation methods can be simplified into two sections: the
physical and the biological. The physical are based on physical methods like washing, vapour
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extraction, removal or physical intervention of the soil, whereas the biological methods are based
on biological components, like chemicals that are naturally found in the environment.
Physical Remediation Methods
Excavation
Excavation is the most basic method that is available for the remediation of brownfields.
The method requires city permits and the knowledge of the gas, water and electrical lines that
run through the site. It also require heavy machinery to dig and remove the soil. The heavy
machinery include a loader backhoe, excavator and dump trucks to remove the soil from the site.
Once the soil is removed it is then sent to either a dump or a treatment center where it can be
cleaned of the contaminants and reused (21). The dirt that was removed can then be replaced
with new soil or can replaced with the treated soil (21). The choice of how the soil is replaced
depends on the decision of the developer. The choice might be influenced by personal ethic or
the company’s ethics or the cost. The method of excavation is often combined with other
methods like soil vapour extraction or soil washing. This method is commonly used for gas
stations and manufacturing areas.
There are a few benefits to using excavation as a remediation method. It can be used for
any site, though it would be highly inappropriate to use it for mines or gravel pits. The purpose
of excavating would be counterintuitive when it comes to the remediation of gravel pits and
mines because they are already dug out sections of land. The other benefit to the method is that
it removes the contaminants from the site. Unfortunately, it does not remove the contaminants
from the soil itself. The method can range in cost based on the size of the site and the depth of
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the contamination that needs to be removed from the site. The cost is determined by the time it
takes to remove the soil. The larger the site, the longer the removal of the soil takes and the more
expansive the remediation becomes. Another factor that can affect both the time and the cost
of excavation is whether or not all of the contaminants were successfully removed by the
excavation of the soil. If not enough contaminated soil was removed, it is possible that the site is
still not remediated to condition standards that are accepted by the Ontario government (1). If
the site was still in need of further remedation, it would result in a second remediation method
to be used or a second excavation to conduct. The second excavation would cost more than the
first, as the soil would have to go deeper or wider in order to remove the contaminants that were
missed by the first excavation.
Geotextiles
Geotextiles are fabrics that can be permeable or impermeable. The different structures
allow for the fabric to be used in a variety of different ways: filtering, protection, reinforcement
or draining (22). Based on the purpose of the geotextile, the cost can vary. For example, if the
land that is being developed is close to the waterway and there is a risk of the contaminants
spreading to the water. Geotextiles that are designed to protect can be used to stop
contaminates from passing through and entering the water. It also can be used to filter out the
contaminants, so that the wash can be sent to be treated. Geotextiles are ideal for stopping the
spread of contamination to new soil or water. The fabrics also have various applications that it
can be used for, like stopping erosion and helping protect the soil in landfills.
One of the benefits of geotextiles is the fact that there are many types of fabric that have
a variety of uses. It helps to stop the contaminants from spreading into the waterways, can act
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as a barrier between contaminate and clean soil or can be used to filter the contaminants from
the soil (22). There are a number of websites and distributors that sell geotextiles. This method
has a range of costs, depending on the specific type of geotextile that is going to be used and
how much of it is required. The main problem with the method is that the soil must be excavated
in order for the geotextile to be used, meaning that this method has to be combined with
excavation in order to use it. The excavation of the soil then affects the time that is required for
the method, affecting the cost. Overall, the method behind geotextiles is basic and is simple to
install, but it is more practical to use before the start of contamination than it is after
contamination has occurred, unless it is used to stop the spread on the contaminants.
Soil Washing
Soil washing is the process of physically washing the soil. The method requires a conveyer
belt that allows the soil to pass through the machine that rinses the soil with water in an attempt
to clean the soil (23). The machine can also use a chemical that will help to strip contaminants
from the soil. The treatment of the soil can happen either on or off site (23).
There are three positives to the method: it is simple, it is readily available in the Haliburton
area and it can be used for any brownfield in the Haliburton County. A negative to the method is
the fact that the contaminated soil has to be excavated and fed into the machine. This method
has to be used in conjunction with executive in order to be used. The time span of the
remediation can only go as fast as the slowest moving part of the method, which could be the
speed of the conveyer belt or the speed the soil is added to the machine. The other negative to
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the method is the fact that the liquid waste from the method has to be cleaned, meaning that
the waste water needs to be sent to a secondary treatment center that handles waste water (23).
Soil Vapour Extraction
Unlike the other physical methods, soil vapour extraction has a complicated set-up. The
method involves the use of multiple tubes that reach from the contaminated saturated soil zone
to the air above. These tubes are used to monitor the level of contaminants that are present in
the vapour (24). Along with the tubes that reach above ground for monitoring vents, there is also
a system of tubes that are attached to a vacuum and sucks the soil vapour from the saturated
soil into a treatment center (24). These tubes are set in the saturated soil layer and can be
attached together either above or below ground (24).
This method is actually able to removes the contaminants from the site. It can also be
used for any of the brownfield sites that are in Haliburton County, as long as the soil is deep
enough for the tubes to effectively reach the soil. If the developer decides that they want the
system below ground, the top layer of soil that is not contaminated will have to be excavated so
that the pipe system can be installed. The top layer of soil can be reused to cover the pipes. The
underground connection is good because it means that the pipes can stay there, and if the new
development produces contaminants, then the vapour extraction can help remediate those
contaminants as well. The negative of the technique is that it can require some time to install
and to extract the vapour from the soil.
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Biological Remediation Methods
Microbial
Microbial remediation is a method that utilizes biological material to remediate soil. This
method includes Biochar, vermicular and a verity of microbes to clean the soil of contaminants
(25). Biochar is a plant- based charcoal that can draw out the contaminants in the soil. Biochar is
a relatively cheap method and can be easily produced for the Haliburton County to use (2).
Vermicular is the use of worms to remediate soil, intended for smaller scale remediation (25).
Other microbes that are used are yeast and bacteria that feed on the contaminants in the soil.
All of the methods involve the spreading of the produce on the soil and getting a good coverage
of the contaminated area.
A positive of microbial remediation it is that it relatively cheap in comparison to other
methods. The time span of the technique can vary depending on the size of the site. There are
multiple places to purchase the different materials that can be used for microbial remedation.
This remediation method can be used for any of the brownfield sites that are present in the
Haliburtion County. The only issue of microbial techniques is that not all contaminates are
removed by one type. Biochar is ideal for petroleum hydrocarbons not necessarily heavy metals.
This method can be combined with physical remedation techniques like soil vapour extraction to
achieve better results.
Phytoremediation
The premise of phytoremediation is the use of plants to remediate soil. There are a variety
of different heavy metals and chemicals that plants will absorb (11,12). The method takes
advantage of the plants’ root system, as the contaminants are absorbed through the root and
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are then stored by the plant. This method can be used for mines, gravel pits, gas stations, forestry
and wood processing sites.
There are many positive attributes for this technique, from being environmentally friendly
to the simplicity of the method. The concept of planting plants to clean the contaminants from
the soil is a basic and simple concept that is effective. The method is relatively cheap to
implement in comparison to other remediation methods (11). There are many plants that clean
the same heavy metals from the soil, allowing for the choice of plants that will be the most
appropriate based on the site remediation requirements. The problem with this method would
be that there are environmental conditions to each plant that have to be looked at before
deciding on which of the plants is most appropriate for the individual remediation site. The
environmental factors that have to be looked at before deciding which plant is appropriate for
the site is the soil type, soil pH, weather conditions, and the amount of soil that is present for the
plant to grow in (11,12). Another issue is the removal of the plants after the soil has been
remediated, to remove the contaminants from the environment and allow the developers to
build on the land. The plants have to be disposed of in an appropriate method that does not
allows the heavy metals to be reabsorbed by the soil and contaminate another area.
Mycoremediation
Mycoremediation is another method that takes advantage of a process that occurs in
nature. The process starts by collecting a form of food source for the fungi- generally hay or
straw is used (15,16). Once the food source is collected, it is stuffed into biodegradable plastic
tubes, or sometimes biodegradable fabric, to which the fungi spores are added (15,16). Generally
the production of the tubes that house the fungi are created off site. The tubes are then tied and
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taken to the contamination site. The creation of the tubes can be done on site, but the cultivation
of the fungi spores is general done off site (6). Table 3 in the appendix A lists the different types
of fungi available and what contaminants each removes from the soil or water (6).
Mycoremediation is often used in harbors to absorb the gasoline associated with boat engines
(6).
A benefit to the technique is that there is a range of fungi that can be used to remove the
same type of heavy metal from the soil, which allows the fungi that will grow best in the area to
be chosen, as each fungi has different growing conditions. Some of the fungi might be harder to
locate than others due to the country in which they originate from. A negative to the method is
that it will take some time to remove the contaminants that are deep in the soil. In some cases,
it would be beneficial to dig up the dirt in layers and systematically clean each layer with the
fungi.
Seaweed
The use of seaweed is a relatively new technique for treating brownfields. Not much
information can be gathered on the technique, as it is a newer method that has emerged. There
are biological processes in seaweed that allows for the absorption of heavy metals, there are
some companies that have utilized the proteins and chemical in the seaweed that are responsible
for the absorption and have created a liquid spray that can be sprayed onto the contaminated
site to remediate the soil (26). I was unable to find information regarding whether the method is
effective in removing petroleum hydrocarbons from soil or not.
A positive to the method is that it removes the heavy metal contaminates from the soil
(26). The compound spray that can be used has to be evenly sprayed onto the contaminated soil.
25. 24
The soil must also be moved and turned to allow the compound to dry and remove the
contaminants from the soil. The major problem with this method is that there are no distribution
sites located close to the Haliburton County. The only place that I found during my research was
a company based in the United Kingdom (27). The time of the method may vary because of the
closest distribution center and the shipping speed. Similarly, the cost may vary because, if it is
bought from the United Kingdom, the shipping cost and currency exchange rate would be high
(27). Additionally, excavation of the site is required in order to reach the contaminated soil and
to evenly spray or spread the compound on the site.
History of the Area
There was no history found regarding the location in which the industries stood, how long
the building was standing for or even the type of products that where produced at the different
sites. Without the information about the industrial and commercial building, it is hard to estimate
the possible cost or time span for each technique. It is only possible to give estimates in respect
to the other remediation methods. In the past, there was no regulation or rules regarding the
documentation of the disposal or possible sources of contaminants. This lack of policy has
resulted in the situation that is currently occurring, where there are brownfield present and no
history recorded that can help people to locate them. This has resulted in making many people
unaware that their community has contained soil in areas that can cause a range of different
effects on not only the environment, but the animals and people that come in contact with it.
26. 25
Interesting Findings
When searching for brownfield remediation methods, I found a ‘Brownfield
Redevelopment Program’ for the municipality of Ottawa, ON. It allows companies that
rehabilitate a brownfield and redevelop the property to be eligible to apply for any of the five
remediation programs that they offer: ‘Rehabilitation Grant Program’, ‘Property Tax Assistance
Program’, ‘Environmental Site Assessment Grant Program’, ‘Project Feasibility Study Grant
Program’ and a ‘Building Permit Fee Grant Program’. The rehabilitation grant was designed to
help assist with the cost of the remediation of the site. The property tax assistances allow the
cancelation of the City and education property tax and allow the owner to instead spend the
money on continuing remediation of the property. The environmental site assessment has a
reimbursement of up to 50% of the site assessment completion cost. The feasibility study is
designed to help pay for a portion of the determining concept, structural analyses, evaluations
and market analysis for the site costs. The permit fee grant allows for a 30% decrease in the
building permit and is paid under the rehabilitation grant. All of the programs were designed to
give developers and investors the incentive to remediate brownfields. (28)
Further Research
Future research should be directed towards remediation of contaminated waterways.
Some of the methods examined in this project can work on waterways, but no in-depth research
was performed. I would recommend that phytoremediation and mycoremediation be examined
further. Both of the methods are very complex, and each plant or fungi that is used has it of
parameters that are required for them to grow. Parameters like soil pH, soil type, and
27. 26
environmental conditions each have its own elements that they are able to remove from the soil.
Each of the methods can be used for water or soil.
Another possible research topic would be to create a list of the brownfields that are
present in the Haliburton County. One of the major barriers that discovered while performing
research was the lack of history on the Haliburton County. Without the information on the
location of the brownfields, it is hard to determine what method is the best for each individual
site. The gaps in history need to be clarified and recorded before the study of remediation can
truly be applied to brownfield sites. The history would be beneficial to both the Haliburton
County and the developer looking at buying property. The information would allow developers
to have a better ability to assess the risk associated with purchasing the property (15). Knowing
the possible risk before paying the environmental site assessment that is required before building
or change the use of the land (1).
Conclusion
This project looked at eight remediation methods that are available and gave a general
overview for each. Before the remediation methods can be developed on an environmental site,
assessment must be completed. The assessment provides information requiring the type of
contaminants that are present in the soil, and what needs to be remediated before the site meets
the acceptable amount of conditions. The risk of the site contaminants considers the possible
damage the contaminants could have of plants, animals, and people given the concentration of
contaminants that are present at the site. These standards come from the Ministry of the
Environment and Climate Change (1). From the information provided by the report, the
developer can decide what method of remediation they would like to use based on the
28. 27
information that is presented to them. Some of the methods work well on their own, but most
of the methods are more effective when they are combined with other methods.
The three research questions that were explored throughout the project can help
developers understand the general facts available for each technique in a simple brochure. The
brochure that was created consists of a general background for each technique and the protocols
outlining the remediation of brownfields based on the Ontario government website. The
remediation of brownfields is dictated under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, and
failure to comply with the legislation will result in penalties (1). The brochure also outlines what
type of brownfield sites are present within the Haliburton County and which method might be
best for each type. The statement of which method is appropriate for each type of brownfield
site should be taken as a suggestion, and the requirement of the site should dictate which
method is appropriate for the site. The final choice of remediation method for any contaminated
site is decided by the developer, as it is their money being used and their opinion on what method
they see as ethical.
29. 28
References
1. https://www.ontario.ca/environment-and-energy/brownfields-redevelopment
2. Doyle, L. Identifying and remediating rural Ontario brownfields and the challenges and
opportunities for public involvement. 2013.
3. http://environmenthaliburton.ca/test/
4. Gasoline Regulations (SOR/90-247) last amended in 2010 http://laws-
lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-90-247/index.html, Retrieved Feb 20. 2015.
5. http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/
6. Singh H. Mycoremediation fungal bioremediation. 1st rev. ed. New Jersey: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 2006.
7. http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/periodic-chart.htm
8. Paz-Ferreiro J, Lu H, Fu S, Medez A, Gasco G. Use of phytoremediation and biochar to
remediate heavy metal polluted soils: a review. Solid Earth 2014;5:65-75.
9. Carter W, Harkins DK, O’Connor Jr R, Johnson D, Tucker P. Case Studies in environmental
medicine (CSEM): taking an exposure history. ATSDR Publication No. STSDR-HE-CS-2001-
0002, 2000.
10. http://www.epa.gov/airtoxics/hlthef/tet-ethy.html
11. Chibuike GU, Obiora SC. Heavy metals polluted soils: effect on plants and bioremediation
methods. Applied Environ Soil Sci 2014;Aug:1-12.
12. Chaney RL, Malik M, Li YM, Brown SL, Brewer EP, Angle JS et al. Phytoremediation of soil
metals. Curr Opin Biotech 1997;8:279-84.
13. Leonardi V, Giubilei MA, Federici E, Spaccapelo R, Novotny C et al. Mobilizing agents
enhance fungal degradation of polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and affect diversity of
indigenous bacteria in soil. Biotechnol and Bioeng 2008;101(2):273-85.
14. Hemen S. Metal hyperaccumulation in plants: a review focusing on phytoremediation
technology. J Environ Sci Tech 2011;4(2):118-38.
15. Chen I, Ma H. Using risk maps to link value damage and rick as basis of flexible risk
management for brownfield redevelopment. Chemosphere 2013;90:2101-8.
16. Adenipekun CO, Lawal R. Uses of mushrooms in bioremediation: a review. Biotechnol Mol
Bio Review 2012;7(3):62-8.
17. http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/as-sa/98-312-x/98-312-
x2011003_1-eng.cfm
18. Haliburton County business directory compliment of Haliburton county development corporation-
financiers and consultants to independent business, box 29, Haliburton, Ontario K0M 1S0.
19. Hicks S, Jarrell E, Orr C. Potential arable soils Haliburton Highlands [thesis]. Lindsay (ON): Sir
Sandford Fleming College, 2010.
20. Province of Ontario. A practical guide to brownfield redevelopment in Ontario, Ontario:
Queen’s Printer, 2007.
30. 29
21. Suer P, Anersson-Sköld Y. Biofuel or excavation? –life cycle assessment (LCA) of soil
remediation options. Biomass and Bioenerg 2011; 35(2):969-81.
22. http://www.geotextile.com
23. Dermont G, Bergeron M, Mercier G, Richer-Laflèche M. Soil washing for metal removal: a
review of physical/chemical technologies and field applications. J Hazard Mater 2008;152:1-
31.
24. Modeling of in situ techniques for treatment of contaminated soil: soil vapor extraction,
sparging and bioventing. Lancaster(USA):Technomic Publishing Company, Inc, 1995.
25. http://earthrepair.ca/resources/bioremediation-types/microbial
26. Vijayaraghavan K, Joshi UM, Kamala-Kannan S. An attempt to develop seaweed-based
treatment technology for the remediation of complex metal-bearing laboratory
wastewaters. Ecol Eng 2012;47:278-83.
27. http://www.sea-chem.co.uk/bioremediation/development.html
28. http://ottawa.ca/en/brownfields-redevelopment-program
31. 30
Appendix A
Table 1. Heavy metals associated with Industrial or Commercial Buildings
Common Heavy Metals
Toxic Affects Sewage Waste
Water
Wood
Finishing
Auto
Repair
Laundromat Mining Gas
Station
Ag Silver Can affect lungs,
kidneys,liver,
cardiovascular
system and brain.
x
Al Aluminum Can affect nerves,
brain and kidneys.
x
As Arsenic Can affect the
brain, lungs and
circulatory system.
Long term exposure
can result in
several forms of
cancer.
x x x
B Boron Can affect the
stomach, liver,
kidney and brain.
x
Ba Barium Can affect
digestion,
circlatory, liver and
kidneys, brain and
nerve damage. High
values can cause
paralyses.
x
Be Beryllium Can affect the
respiration. x
Cd Cadmium Can affect the
kidney,
reproductive
organs, brain and
immune system.
x x x x x
Co Cobalt Can affect the eyes,
cardiac and
thyroid.
x
Cr Chromium Can affect the
circulatory, lungs,
dermatologic and
immune system.
x
Sources of Heavy Metals and Their Toxic Affects
Chemical Name
Source
32. 31
Common Heavy Metals
Toxic Affets Sewage Waste
Water
Wood
Finishing
Auto
Repair
Laundromat Mining Gas
Station
Cu Copper Can affect the
liver and kidneys.
x x
Hg Mercury Can affect the
kidneys,
dermatologic and
brain.
x
Mn Manganese Can affect the
kindneys,
circulatory,
brain. Can result
in birth defect.
x
Ni Nickel Can affect the
dermatologic,
lungs and
cardiovascular.
Can result in
birth defect.
x x x x
Pb Lead Can affect the
reproductive
system and
brain.
x x x x x
Sb Antimony Can affect the
lungs, liver,
cardiovascular
and digestive
system.
x
Se Selenium Can affect the
lungs,
cardiovascular
and digestive
system.
x
Sn Tin Can affect the
brain, liver,
bladder and
digestive system.
x
Sr Strontium Can affect the
lungs, and bone
growth.
x
Zn Zinc Can affect the
lungs and
digestive system.
x x x x
Sources of Heavy Metals and There Toxic Affects (Continued)
Chemical Name
Source
33. 32
Common Heavy Metals
Toxic Affects Sewage Waste
Water
Wood
Finishing
Auto
Repair
Laundromat Mining Gas
Station
NO3 Nitrate Can affect the
circulatory
system.
x x x
CO Carbon
Monoxide
Can affect the
circulatory
system.
x x x
C2Cl Tetrachloro
ethylene
Can affect the
kindey, liver
and immune
system.
x
Sources of Heavy Metals and There Toxic Affects (Continued)
Chemical Name
Source
The list is organized alphabetical by the chemical abbreviation, expect for nitrate, carbon monoxide and
tetrachloroethylene, which are a combination of different elements. Each abbreviation is accompanied
by the element or chemical name. For each of the chemicals listed, there is a brief description of the
harmful effects of a high concentration of the chemical on animals or humans. The symptoms can range
from dermatologic to paralytic and can even result in death (7-10).
34. 33
Table 2. Phytoremediation Plant List
Scientific Name Common Name Ni Cu Cr Zn Cd Hg Ag Pb Mn As Se
Alyssum wulfenianum Madwort x
Arabidopsis thaliana Thale Cress x x
Arabis gemmifera N/A x x
Arabis paniculata Salt Bush or
Toothbrush Tea x
Arobiodopsis halleri N/A x
Asparagus racemosus Satavar or
Shatamull
x
Atriplex halimus subsp.
Schweonfurthii
N/A
x
Azolla Pinnata Water Velvet or
Feathered Mosquitofern x x
Berkheya coddii N/A x
Brassica juncea Mustard Green x x
Brassica napus Rapeseed x
Chengiopanax
sciadophylloides
Koshiabura
x
Crotalaria Juncea Sunn Hemp x x
Cynodon dactylon Bahama Gras or
Devil's Grass x x
Helianthus annuus Sunflower x
Hemidesmus indicus Anatmoola or
Ananta-mula x
Iberis intermedia Brassicaceae x
Ipomea alpina morning glories
x
Lemna gibba Fat Duckweed x
Lemna minor Duck Weed x x
Myriophyllum
heterophyllum
Two-leaf Watermilfoil
x
Pelargonium sp. Omeo Stork's-bill x
Phytoloacca americana American Pokeweed x
Plants Metals
Plants for Heavy Metal Remediation
35. 34
Scientific Name Common Name Ni Cu Cr Zn Cd Hg Ag Pb Mn As Se
Pistis stratiotes Water Cabbage or
Nile Cabbage x x x x x x x x
Potamogeton crispus Curled Pondweed x
Potentilla griffithii N/A x x
Psychotria gabriellae Psychotria Douarrei x
Pteris vittata Chineses ladder brake or
Chinese brake x x x x
Rorippa globosa Globe Yellowcress x x
Sebertia acuminate Sapotaceae x
Sedum alfredii Broadleaf Stoncrop x x x
Sesbania drummondi Rattlebush or
Poison Bean
x
Sorghum sudanense Johnsongrass x
Spartina Plants N/A x
Tamarix smyrnensis N/A x x
Thlaspi caerulescens Alipine Penny-cress x x x x
Thlaspi praecox Wulfen Tlaspi Precoce x x x
Typha Cattail x x x
Plants for Heavy Metal Remediation (Continued)
Plants Metals
The list of plants that can be used for phytoremediation (11-14). The list is ordered alphabetically based
on the scientific name. If the plant had a common name(s) they are list to back plant identification easier.
N/A means that no common name was found in relation to the scientific name or, in the case of Spartina
Plant, is an entire plant family of plants. The metal are titled using the chemicals abbreviation, Ni (nickel),
Cu (copper), Cr (chromium), Zn (zinc), Cd (Cadmium), Hg (mercury), Ag (silver), Pb (lead), Mn (Manganese),
As (arsenic) and Se (Selenium). All of the metals are toxic to animals and humans when present in high
concentrations.
36. 35
Table 3 Mycoremediation Fungi List
Scientific Name
Common
Name Ni Cu Cd Cr Zn As Hg Co Pb Fe Mn U Ag Al
Petroleum
Hydrocardon Crude Oil
Amanita
muscaria
Fly Agaric
or Fly
Amanita
x
Amanita
pantherina
N/A
x
Aspergillus niger N/A
x x x x
Aspergillus
terreus
N/A
x x x
Cortinarius
semisanguineus
Red-gilled
Cortinarius x x
Funalia trogii N/A x x x
Glomus
aggregatum
N/A
x x x x
Glomus
caledonium
N/A
x x
Glomus
mosseae
Endomycorr
hizal fungus
x x x
Lentinus
squarrosulus
N/A
x
Mucor rouxii N/A x x x
Neurospora
crassa
N/A
x x
Phanerochaete
chrysosporium
White-rot
Fungus x x x x x x x
Phanerochaete
flavido-alba
N/A
x
Phanerochaete
pulmonarius
Lung Oyster
or Phoenix
Mushroom
x
Phomopsis sp. N/A x x x x x
Pleurotus
ostreatus
Oyster
mushrooms
x x
Rhizopus
arrhizus
N/A
x x x x x x
Russula spp. N/A x x
Sacccharomyces
cerevisiae
N/A
x x x x x
Fungi Remediation
Fungi Metals Gas and Oil
37. 36
Scientific
Name
Common
Name Ni Cu Cd Cr Zn As Hg Co Pb Fe Mn U Ag Al
Petroleum
Hydrocardon Crude Oil
suillus spp N/A x x
Trametes
versicolor
Turkey Tail
x x x x
Fungi Remediation (Countined)
Fungi Metals Gas and Oil
List of the different fungi that can be used for brownfield remediation. The list is organized alphabetically
by scientific family name or species name. To the right of the scientific name is the common name. If N/A
is used under the common name section it is because there was no common name found for the fungi.
The metal section refers to the different toxic heavy metals that the fungi remediate; , Ni (nickel), Cu
(copper), Cd (Cadmium), Cr (chromium), Zn (zinc), As (arsenic), Hg (mercury), Co (cobalt), Pb (lead). Fe
(iron), Mn (Manganese), U (Uranium), Ag (silver), As (arsenic), and Al (aluminum). The last section reviews
chemicals that are found in gas and oil. All of the metals and chemicals in gas and oil are toxic to the
environment, animals and humans (6, 15,16).
