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"Christianity Brought to Life: Works of the Early Renaissance Masters of the Netherlands"
Leanna Schafer
Honors in Art
April 5, 2015

Christianity has altered mankind’s lifestyles, cultural norms, rituals, and expectations all
through the power of belief and ideas. In this research I will be focusing on the influence of
Christianity in the works of Jan Van Eyck and Robert Campin, also referred to as The Master of
Flémalle, and their specific works, The Ghent Altarpiece, or The Adoration of the Lamb, 1432,
and The Annunciation, 1432, during the Early Renaissance in the Netherlands.
The Northern Renaissance is generally dated between 1400 and 1600.1 The areas of the
Netherlands, known today as Holland, and Flanders, or Belgium, and the city of Flemalle,2 were
located outside of Italy and therefore separate from the Italian Renaissance taking place. These
areas developed their own style, unique from that of Italy. Whereas Italian artists classicized
their settings, the Northern artists modernized. Scenes of everyday life were mixed with
religious, specifically Christian, stories and characters to create a more relatable story for their
viewers. Northern artists, most famously Jan van Eyck, became inspirations to Italians, proving
the area’s valuable contribution to the arts. It was the North’s extreme attention to detail, rooted
in their tradition of miniaturist paintings, a tradition Van Eyck participated in directly, which
captured the eye of Italian artists.3 Examples of the inclusion of daily life in Flemish works can
be seen in both The Ghent Altarpiece and The Annunciation.
Altarpieces
The Ghent Altarpiece and The Annunciation are examples of a polyptych and triptych.
Historically, triptychs and polyptychs as well as diptychs, two hinged panels, have been used for
religious purposes, containing scenes for meditation during prayer at home or at church. The
image in the center would contain the most detail and be the most important.4 A polyptych is a
grouping of four or more panels arranged together to form one painting while a triptych is three

panels. The panels are joined together by one or more hinges, depending on the size of each
panel.5 When complete, the result is a singular scene or idea divided slightly by the space of each
panel, creating a defined separation within the piece, usually further defined by frames. These
separations may be utilized by the artist to create different scenes within the one painting. The
division may be used to represent a door, a wall, or different worlds as we will see examples of
in both The Ghent and The Annunciation.
Polyptychs and triptychs can be either mounted on a wall or stand on their own, balanced
when opened. Too large for home use, polyptychs were reserved for church use while the much
smaller diptych would be placed in the home. Much like a hinged picture frame today, the
personal diptych would contain a portrait on each panel, the sitter in prayer or holding a symbol
of their faith. Such portraits were commissioned to be in the home as validation of a person’s
piety, suggesting to visitors the devotion of the family.6 This tradition would be comparable to
having a crucifix in your home, seen by visitors and a reminder to you of your faith.
The Northern Renaissance was a time of rebirth and reinvention for artists like Van Eyck
and Campin. Today, Italy is thought of as the central location of the Renaissance but it was
Germany and the Netherlands whose artistic achievement flourished during this period. It was
the Low Countries’ handling of oil paints and attention to detail that set Flemish art apart from
their Italian neighbors7. Van Eyck excelled in the medium, rising to legendary fame as the
inventor of oil painting, although its use has been dated back to ancient times, temporarily
forgotten until Van Eyck’s rediscovery of the mixture. Paint mixed in Italy and Greece used
olive oil as a binder for pigments, resulting in long drying times and the unavoidable mixing of
layers. Van Eyck’s “rediscovery” of the medium was actually an alteration of oils, switching
from olive oil to a siccative oil, allowing for faster drying time when exposed to dry heat.8

The differences between oil paints and tempera, pigments mixed with egg yolk, is not
only the drying time but their shine. Oil paint allowed artists like Van Eyck to add incredible
details to paintings, rendering the image more lifelike than ever before seen in the art world.
Jewels now shimmered, mirrors showed acute reflections, and dew glistened in the sun. This
attention to detail and naturalism was what brought fame to the Netherlands during the 15th
century.
The importance of religion, specifically Christianity, is evident in Flemish painting
during the Renaissance. It was the Flemish artists’ spirituality that fueled their desires to recreate
the perfect image of nature; spirituality overlooked by observers today, drowned out by our
preference for esthetics.9 Flemish artists used their talent for naturalism and applied it to scenes
of religion, combining their artistic abilities with their beliefs. This combination of religion and
naturalism is what separates Flemish paintings from other Early Renaissance pieces. As Barbra
Lane states in The Altar and the Altarpiece,
“…painters from Robert Campin to Memling were able to bring the miracles of church
doctrine to life more concretely and vividly than any previous artists. They portrayed traditional
subjects in realistic settings that created a new intimacy for the worshipper.10”
Devout artists aspired to depict religious events in modern settings to make the scenes
more relatable to the viewer. To do this they included everyday objects and places, recognizable
to the audience.11 This is why images of the apostles are seen in 15th century Flanders or why
Mary and Joseph are depicted in a Flemish home instead of in the Middle East. This conscious
decision to place otherworldly beings into domestic, “modern” settings comes from the
Netherlandish movement Devotio Moderna. Benjamin Lloyd proposed that this is the case

specifically in the placement of Christ and Mary in Van Eyck’s Ghent Altarpiece,12 “As he [Jan
van Eyck] builds up a world with paint, as he uses paint to resemble gems and reflective
surfaces, it is inevitable within the logic of that image that this world, and with it, Van Eyck the
painter, will be represented in his image.13”
The Ghent Altarpiece
The Ghent Altarpiece was commissioned by Joos Vijd, also spelt Jodocus Vydts,14 a
wealthy townsman.15 Historically, there has been debate on which Van Eyck brother produced
much or all of the altarpiece’s paintings. Hubert, Jan’s elder brother, was a successful and
popular painter at the time. It is plausible that it was he who taught Jan to paint but due to a
limited supply of records, we unfortunately know little about Hubert16. Luckily for Jan we have a
number of signed paintings, court documents and letters praising his talent.
Court painter for Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, Jan van Eyck would have been a
much busier man than his brother, Hubert.17 Hubert’s availability may have been the reason he
was approached by the Vijds to create their great altarpiece. The frame of the polyptych included
this definitive inscription, unseen until a controversial cleaning in 1823 at the Kaiser Friedrich
Museum in Berlin;18
“The painter, Hubert van Eyck, than whom none was greater, began [this
work], and his brother Jan, second in art, completed the weighty task, at the
request of Joos Vijd. On the sixth of May he [Vijd] begs you by means of this
verse to take care of [i.e on the 6th of May he places in your charge]what came
into being.19”
Hubert worked on the altarpiece up to his death in 1426, six years before his brother Jan
would complete the magnificent work.20 The many years Jan labored on the paintings could be

why much credit is given to the younger Van Eyck. Jan was left to finish his older brother’s
legacy, as Hubert lay buried under the floor of the very church his triumphant work stands in.21
Joos and his wife, both of whom can be seen in prayer on the outside of the altarpiece,
founded the westernmost chapel on the south side of the east end of the choir of St. John’s
Church in Ghent, today known as St. Bavo’s Cathedral. Their family coat of arms can still be
seen today in the keystones of the vaulting of the chapel and of the adjacent ambulatory. Vijd
may have commissioned the chapel and eventually the altarpiece to atone for his father’s
embezzlement. During a period of intense religious piety, the afterlife was a constant worry. The
Vijds had no children to pray for their souls once they departed from this world, therefore the
chapel and lavish altarpiece would carry on their piety post-mortem. The Vijd’s devout Christian
beliefs about the afterlife and redemption for a father’s wrongs, coincides with the altarpiece’s
theme of judgment, purity and atonement.22
The Ghent was commissioned specifically for the Vijd’s chapel of St. John’s Church,
connecting physical realities with the spiritual realm. When viewed in the chapel, the painting is
brought to life by the light streaming in from the window. When the altarpiece is closed, the
floor of the Virgin’s room, the statues and the Vijds are lit from the right, their light source being
the chapel’s window, giving the feeling of an extension of the chapel, rather than a painting.23
The same effect is seen when the altarpiece is opened. The figure of Adam, looking much more
like a breathing human than a body painted onto canvas, faces the window and therefore has a
gleam in his eye and light on his face. Eve, who stands with her back to the light source, has no
highlight in her eyes.24

The Ghent Altarpiece consists of twelve oak panels which form the scenes of the
polyptych when both opened and closed. When closed, the altarpiece consists of Old Testament
prophets foreseeing Christ’s redemption for the world and the Annunciation. In the top four
registers we have prophets and sibyls, those who predicted the coming of Jesus Christ. Prophet
Zechariah, in the left register, points to his own writings on the coming of a savior, sibyls
Erythraean and Cumaean sit in the middle two registers, and Micah looks down on the prophecy
being fulfilled. Each figure sits inside their own niche, creating space and depth with shadow and
light. Surrounding the four figures are scrolls confirming the coming of God’s son, Christ.25
Micah looks down on the Annunciation, a familiar Christian scene. Mary’s room and the
view of the street are examples of Devotio Moderna, placing the real and spiritual in the same
realm. Mary and Gabriel occupy a Flemish living space and the town seen out the window
consists of square crenellations, a show of the town’s loyalty to Papal authority, and a church
steeple, further advocating the town’s piety. Among the houses people can be seen going about
their day in the town as birds fly high above them. The inclusion of these details would most
likely not be seen considering the immense size of the altarpiece. The lavabo, an attribution to
Mary’s purity, is in the panel to the left of the Virgin. All elements bring this scene into that of a
Flemish setting, not of one authentic to Christ’s birth in the Middle East. The placement of Mary
into a then modern Flemish house contrasts the idea of an otherworldly Virgin; rather she is
visited by the angel in the same type of home many of the church goers looking at this altarpiece
would have resided in.26
Mary, in the far right panel, is being visited by the Angel Gabriel, in the left panel.
Gabriel holds lilies, another symbol of the purity and innocence of Mary, the young woman who
will birth the son of God without sexual relations. Gabriel’s message to the Virgin is delicately

painted across the angel’s panel into the next. The inclusion of the floating script is a very
medieval technique used as further explanation or detail. Its presence in such a vividly real scene
bridges the styles of the end of the medieval period and the beginning of the Renaissance. Mary
stands, arms crossed in a protective, humble gesture, on the opposite side of the room that is
formed by the four panels. The pages of her book are still settling from Gabriel’s entrance into
the room. Behind her on the windowsill, just barely visible, is a beautifully rendered glass vase
of water, reminding the viewer that like the clear liquid, Mary too is pure.27 Her body seems to
be swaying, maybe leaning back, in either shock or euphoria from the angel’s news. Mary gazes
upwards, guiding the viewers’ eye to the crowned dove resting on her head. The Holy Spirit is
physically with Mary, as the infant Jesus soon will become physically within her. Mary’s
response to Gabriel can be seen painted onto the panel as well. Interestingly, Mary’s response is
both backwards and upside down, sending the message back to Gabriel and up to God.
Below this holy scene, four figures occupy their own niches, seemingly in the basement
of Mary’s room. On the two ends we have the commissioning family, the Vijds. Joos is seen
kneeling on the left, his eyes straining upward to the figure next to him and the monumental
scene unfolding above him. He is dressed in rich red fabric, the folds spilling down into the
foreground, trimmed with fur. All of these elements label Joos as a man of wealth and status. His
wife kneels on the opposite end, dressed too in red with more excess cloth spilling into the
foreground.28
Close examination of this garment shows Van Eyck’s seamless rendering of the natural
world. The delicate fur trimmings are handled very differently from the heavy red folds of cloth,
testimonies to Van Eyck’s talent as an artist. Unlike other artists, Van Eyck does not perfect his

sitters. Joos’ skin is visibly aging, his cheeks sagging, veins and moles prominent. Such high
detail makes it difficult to remember that everything seen is constructed entirely from paint.
Between the Vijds are two grisaille statues, each housed within their own niche. These
pose an interesting comparison to the Vijds in that the prominent element differentiating one
from the other is the inclusion of color. Both statues respond to their admirers by looking down
in their direction, interacting like Micah does to the Annunciation occurring below his register,
bringing these “stone” statues to life.
St. John the Baptist, the patron saint of Ghent, can be identified on the left by his curling
hair and beard, the lamb he carries representative of his role in gathering Christ’s flock, and the
coarse fur garment peeking out from under his cloak.29 St. John the Evangelist is identified on
the right, blessing with his right hand and holding his symbol of the chalice and snakes in the
other. Additionally, both statues have names “carved” into their bases; “S. Johes Bad” and “S.
Johes Ewan.”
X-ray technology has allowed for a deeper look into the development of the
Annunciation. Before the completion of the register Mary’s room had arches dividing the space
like that of the niches seen below her. This would have altered the feeling of the “basement”
space occupied by the Vijds and the two statues, joining the two areas rather than separating
them. This decision to eliminate the arches in the Annunciation may have been due to the
amount of completed work Hubert had done before his passing. Left to finish what his brother
began Jan had the challenge of incorporating Hubert’s ideas with his own. Because some of the
sections may have had been finished or only partially done when Jan began his work on the
altarpiece, inconsistences or adjustments can be expected. The absence of the arches is one,

another being the size of Mary and Gabriel. The two holy figures seem to be squished into the
room, their heads near touching the ceiling. When compared to the figures visible when the
altarpiece is opened, Mary and Gabrielle are given much less room to reside in. The elimination
of the arches and the size of their bodies in comparison to the figures of the Vijds and Adam and
Eve, each who occupy a niche, it is possible Mary and Gabriel were meant to be enclosed in their
own spaces as well.30
When opened, The Ghent explodes into a multitude of colors, people, jewels and
devotional metaphors. Here, a brief overview of the opened panels will follow, considering the
magnitude of information available on these works.
The opened altarpiece can be divided into four main sections. First, let us divide the piece
into two, and focus on the top registers. Bookending this top section, furthest away from Christ
in the center, are Adam on the left and Eve to the right. The traditional characters of sin and
human mortality, Adam and Eve are nude and physically set apart from their holy neighbors,
each inside their own niches such as those seen on the front of the altarpiece. It is worth noting
the darkness of these alcoves in comparison to the bright blue skies elsewhere on the adjacent
panels; Adam and Eve will never again be in the light of God. These figures are expertly
rendered, Adam’s face and hands tanned from sun exposure, his foot stepping out of the picture
plane, carrying him into our reality. Eve’s abdomen bulges and her breasts swell, reminding
viewers of her role as mother to humanity. Just above Adam and Eve’s niches are grisaille scenes
of Cain and Abel, the extension of Original Sin.31
Next to both Adam and Eve are choirs of angels, some singing while others play
instruments. These panels would mirror the hymns of praise being sung during the mass taking

place in front of the altarpiece. Karel van Mander pointed out the incredible detail of being able
to tell which angel is singing high and which is signing low, the girls’ faces twisted and
contorted as they aim to hit their appropriate notes.32
Center and arguably the most impressive figure in the altarpiece is Christ as King,
flanked by Mary and St. John the Baptist. The tiled floor sets these three figures apart from all
other spaces, even the adjacent panels of choirs. Mary is seated to Christ’s right, magnificently
crowned in gold and flowers, bridging her humanity, seen in the Annunciation on the front, with
her divinity as Christ’s mother.33 St. John points towards Christ, but does not look out at the
viewers, rather towards Adam, perhaps showing the original sinner, and all like him, the path to
redemption.
Christ enthroned commands the viewer’s attention as he stares directly into the real
world, onto his followers gathered at St. Bavo’s Cathedral. This image of Christ evokes the First
Epistle of St. Peter; “For the eyes of the Lord are over the righteous.34” The savior wears a multi-
teared papal crown, highly decorated, with a king’s crown at his feet, signifying his place as
King of kings. All three of the holy figures react to the natural light coming in through the Vijd
Chapel window, like the figures of Adam and Eve. This depiction of Christ is one of the first
examples of the new Renaissance idea of God as a forgiving creator, rather than the medieval
belief in a vengeful deity. 35An appropriate depiction for Joos’ attempt at redemption for his
father’s sins. Included on the tapestry behind Christ’s blessing hand is an image of a pelican. The
bird was said to pick at its own flesh to provide food for its young if hunting was not possible.
The pelican is a quite literal comparison to Christ’s sacrifice for God’s children.36

Directly below the blessing Savior is the most famous of all the panels, the one in which
the altarpiece is named for, The Adoration of the Lamb. This holy scene takes place in Paradise,
surrounded by a multitude of vegetation not naturally found together on Earth.37 The detail in
this single panel alone is immense. The scene stretches as far back as a viewer’s eye can strain,
into mountain ranges, cities and vast blue skies, again stemming from Jan’s talent in miniatures.
At the top of the Lamb panel, directly underneath Christ’s crown of kings, floats the Holy Spirit,
its light shining down onto the sacrificial lamb, the symbol of Jesus as sacrifice. The lamb stands
proud, strong despite its pierced chest from which the blood of Christ flows. Like Christ
enthroned, the lamb stares out to those gathered at St. Bavo’s, reminding the faithful of Jesus’
ultimate sacrifice. Surrounding the sacrificial altar, angels hold the symbols of Christ’s passion;
the cross, crown of thorns, and the scourge and the column where he was flagellated.38
The followers of Christ, divided into four groups spanning the bottom five registers of the
altarpiece, would have been a discussion piece for church goers. In the crowd of figures they
would be able to spot their patron saint or have a visual reference to the sermon taking place.39
Inscriptions on each panel’s frame identify the four groups. Left to right, they are the Just
Judges, the Knights of Christ, the Holy Pilgrims and the Holy Hermits, respectfully.40
The wonder of the Adoration of the Lamb would have only been seen on special feast
days, religious holidays, or holy days when the church opened the altarpiece to the congregation.
The Ghent Altarpiece remained closed throughout the year except to those wealthy enough to
pay to see the inside of the altarpiece.41 A church record from 1502 shows that the altarpiece was
opened only four times per year.42 Because the altarpiece was created for its chapel its central
themes on both the outside and inside panels reflect the masses being held in St. Bavo’s
Cathedral.

When closed, the central theme of the altarpiece is that of the Annunciation. This well-
known Christian story carries a wide range of teachings and lessons, most of which would be
popular topics during mass.43 When opened, the altarpiece expanded into a bright, colorful lesson
in redemption and the afterlife; themes reserved for days such as Easter and Christmas when the
holiday reflects on the life and sacrifice of Jesus.
Christ’s sacrifice can be seen in the lamb, its chest spilling blood into a chalice. Directly
under the sacrificial altar the Fountain of Life can be seen draining down to the bottom of the
panel, pouring its waters onto St. Bavo’s altar which would stand directly under the altarpiece.44
Like the breathtaking image of Christ enthroned, this special blessing from the Fountain of Life
would only be seen on selective religious holidays.
As the frame’s inscription announces, the Van Eyck altarpiece was complete and
welcomed its first admirers on May 6th, 1432. Considering Jan’s employment with Duke Philip
the Good, it should be considered no coincidence that his masterpiece be open for viewing on the
Duke’s son’s day of christening, May 6th, in the town where he was born, Ghent. The child was
presented with the name of Joos, after the man economically responsible for the triumphant
work. May 6th was also the feast day of St. John in Oil, commemorating the attempted killing of
St. John the Evangelist by boiling oil by the Roman Emperor Dometian.45 St. John is also
depicted in statue form on the front of the altarpiece, as previously discussed.
The Ghent Altarpiece exemplifies the religious zeal of the Flemish people by its themes,
commission and artist. The realistic rendering of such holy events could only be done in such a
way by the hand of a devout artist; someone who studied every aspect of creation and each
separate element’s relationship to another.

The Ghent Altarpiece is one of the largest examples of an Early Northern Renaissance
altarpiece, filled with a multitude of symbols and stories, very briefly discussed here. Also
completed in 1432, The Merode Altarpiece offers a comparison to Van Eyck’s masterpiece as it
too was created in the Netherlands and combines the Northern attention to detail with Christian
devotion.
The Merode Altarpiece, also known as The Annunciation Triptych, is commonly
attributed to the Flemish artist Robert Campin although historically there has been debate over
who the true artist is.46 Unlike the history of The Ghent Altarpiece, there is a lack of records
concerning the commissioner and artist of The Merode Altarpiece. Before Robert Campin was
deemed the artist, the painting was attributed to an unknown artist, The Master of Flemelle, the
title stemming from the triptych’s location of origin.
The two pieces share many similarities, alluding to the environment of the Northern
countries and their personal interpretations of Christianity as well as their own unique style of
painting, differentiating themselves from their more popular Italian neighbors. In both
altarpieces, intricate Flemish cityscapes fill the background where people, horses and shops can
all be identified, presenting as much food for the eye as the rest of the panel. For these artists
such details were not mediocre; they were important elements of the painting as a whole because,
like the details of Mary’s room, they were homage to Northern life.
Consisting of three panels instead of twelve, The Merode Altarpiece can be digested
much easier than its larger, more robust sibling. The Merode is a smaller, personal devotional
altarpiece that would have placed inside the home.47 Like Van Eyck, Campin chose to place the
Annunciation into a then modern Flemish setting. Many of the same symbols can be seen in both

Annunciations; white lilies, opened windows, Mary’s book, and washing station.48 The
interesting intersection here is that the room Mary and the angel Gabriel are occupying looks
much like the home this devotional piece would have resided in.49
One of the more interesting and unique symbols of The Merode Annunciation is the small
figure of the infant Jesus coming down through the circular windows on the left. The glass of the
window remains intact, as does Mary’s purity, Christ coming through like the thin beams of light
surrounding him.50 Like the Annunciation in The Ghent, Mary’s book is still settling from
Gabriel’s entrance but Mary has yet to notice his presence. She continues to read even as her
soon to be son enters her room, signifying literally seconds before the Immaculate Conception.
In the left panel the donors kneel in reverence to the holy scene taking place inside. A
popular opinion within the art historian community is that the donor panel was not added until
later, and that the Annunciation was originally designed to be its own painting, only later being
turned into a triptych. The donor’s wife, barely fitting into the frame, may have been added after
the altarpiece was complete, commemorating a new marriage.51 An opened door allows the
couple to see into Mary’s room, bridging the separation of the two panels and two worlds; the
Real and the Holy.52 On the opposite side, Joseph is seen working in his wood shop, but a shop
in the Netherlands, not in the East. Here we see more of the same tilted perspective as Mary’s
room, his work table slanting up, providing onlookers with a full view of his tools. A mouse trap
sits on the windowsill, symbolizing Jesus as the trap set by God to catch Satan.53
Over 500 years old, the art of these Flemish artists have continued to draw crowds from
both the Christian and art communities since their creation. A religious and artistic mecca, The
Ghent Altarpiece has awe inspired visitors throughout the centuries. The 2014 George Clooney

film, The Monuments Men focused on the abduction of this treasure by Nazi Germans during
World War II and what it would mean for the Western World if this keystone of Christian faith
was destroyed.
These specific works by Van Eyck and The Master of Flemelle exemplify the
environment of the Netherlands during the 15th century. Quite literally on the eve of a
renaissance, these two artists expanded their horizons as both Christians and artists, straying
from Classicism in the arts and from the medieval belief in a vengeful God to that of modern
settings and the Just Judge.
The Northern Renaissance artists were able to achieve with oil paint what our
technological agenda strives for; perfection. Spanning 500 years we as people are still attempting
to replicate our world, to recreate nature as accurately as possible. Where individuals today use
computers and science to reimage their environments in film or photographs, Netherlandish
artists combined their spirituality and physical world onto canvas with talent and a paint brush.

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