1. Childhood in the Early Byzantine Empire: Continuity and Change
Abstract
This dissertation studies continuity and change in selected norms and practices related
to children and childhood in the early Byzantine Empire. In correlation with the
prevalent ancient "schemes" of life, it focuses on the so-called "first stage" of
childhood, from birth until the age of seven. This is supplemented by an examination
of theories and practices concerning the child in utero, deemed necessary for a
comprehensive understanding of the child's place in thought and society. The study
begins with the reign of Constantine the Great (306-337), the first emperor who
actively favored Christianity, and concludes with the canons of the council In Trullo
(Constantinople, 691), which have much to say about family, children and other social
issues. The geographical scope of this study covers the territories of the Eastern
Roman Empire, with occasional references to its Western counterpart.
The first two chapters deal with methodological issues, and constitute the
theoretical part of this dissertation. The first, Historiography, Theory and Method,
maps the theories which lay in the base of the research. The development of research
in social history dealing with family and childhood is outlined in conjunction with its
theoretical framework. Against this background, the theoretical and critical notions
underlining the present study are presented. The second chapter, Primary Sources –
Methodology and Relevance, offers an overview of the relevant types of sources used
here, and highlights their value as well as their pitfalls for the present research. In
addition, the relevance of each type of source is demonstrated by some examples
illustrating the various contexts and circumstances which refer to children.
The main question underlining this research is "did Christianity matter?", to follow
the title of Ramsey MacMullan's famous article. Was Christian thought about
childhood distinctively different form Greek and Roman concepts? How, and to what
extent (if any) were children's' lives changed by the Christian appraisal of childhood?
As is well known, the Byzantines perceived themselves as Romans; to what extent,
then, was there continuity in family lives and values, and what was the influence of
Christianity? Such questions call for a comparative analysis. Thus, all chapters of the
second, thematic, part open with a consideration of the issues in question in the
Roman world. In some of them, Classical Greek thought will also be taken into
consideration due to its influence on subsequent philosophy and literature.

2. The third chapter, The Family, offers a comprehensive analysis of the immediate
framework of (most) children's' lives. It begins with the Roman family, and deals with
marriage, divorce, concubinage and celibacy, all of which have a major influence on
children's legal and social status. The chapter continues with an examination of early
Christian thought and practices. The reign of Constantine the Great is marked by
considerable legislative output on the family, traditionally ascribed to Christian
influence. The research of the last two decades has questioned the validity of this
assumption, yet there can be no doubt that, due to its bulk, Constantine's legislation on
the family deserves special treatment. The last and largest section of the chapter
explores both notions and practices related to family life in late antiquity and early
Byzantium. This comparative analysis concludes with some reflections about the role
played by Christianity in the evolution of the perception of the family and in quotidian
family life.
The fourth chapter, Images of Children and Childhood, traces the evolution of
thought about childhood and children. In this context, it is indispensable to define the
ancient terms denoting the different stages of life, and thus to create a common frame
of reference; it is equally important to explore changes in terminology and definitions.
Such semantic and theoretical discussions are highly philosophical (and later on also
theological), and thus the starting point must be Classical Greek thought, to be
followed by that of Rome, early Christianity and early Byzantium. The aim is to
assess the influence of Christianity on the evolution of thought about the nature of the
child.
The fifth chapter, The Unborn Child, deals with the child in utero, on the
theoretical as well as the practical levels. It starts with Greek physicians and
philosophers, who had a lasting influence on late antique and medieval thought and
medical practice. As for the Roman world, practices such as abortion and the use of
contraceptives are considered as much as theory. Another important dimension is the
legal one, which raises questions such as the status of the fetus and the legality of
abortion. Next I assay early Christian thought about the nature of the fetus, as well as
the evolution of theory and practice in late antiquity and early Byzantium.
The sixth chapter, Aspects of Children's Lives, focuses on the quotidian lives of
children, and follows, as before, a comparative approach. I chose to focus on some
central subjects, such as birth and the care of the newborn, status, early education,
exposure, death and commemoration. Thus, for example, the philosophical and

3. theological discourse on the fate of deceased children, dealt with in the fourth chapter,
is completed here by a discussion of ways of commemorations and expressions of
grief in the Roman, early Christian and early Byzantine worlds. The dissertation ends
with some general conclusions highlighting changing moral perceptions and
subsequent evolution of quotidian practices.
The analysis of the legislation, customs and thought surrounding the family
revealed that, while Roman legislation and social norms respected the authority of the
paterfamilias over his household and rarely intervened with his patria potestas,
Christianity sought to regulate the private and familial lives of its adherents. New
marital norms were introduced, while marriage itself gained a spiritual meaning.
During the first centuries, these new morals had no legal legitimacy, but the secular
legislation of the 5th and 6th centuries started to show explicit Christian character.
Moreover, Christianity created an ambivalent image of the family, highlighting, on
the one hand, the classical hierarchy and stressing the importance of obedience, while
creating, on the other hand, a potential threat to family ties and obligations. Thus,
Christianity offered, for the first time, an alternative style of life outside the family,
open to women and children. By choosing celibacy, a child could disobey his
paterfamilias’ wishes and create his own destiny. This choice, of course, was not
available to everybody at every point in time. Moreover, a child could be consecrated
to a life of asceticism against his will. But a new possibility now existed, and some
could benefit from it.
The difference between the classical appraisal of children and the Christian one is
sharp. No classical writer had dedicated a treatise solely to the study of children's
attributes, and the scattered remarks on their nature in ancient texts bear evidence to
an essentially negative perception. Children were seen as deficient adults, as they had
yet to develop the logos of the adult male citizen. Thus, they were often classed with
other marginal members of society, such as women and slaves. Nevertheless,
philosophical comments about the low estate of children in the Greco-Roman world
must be tempered, as men and women sought children and wanted to become mothers
and fathers in order to perpetuate their family, to use them as a work force, and to
have someone to care for them in their old age. Since infant mortality, both at
childbirth and subsequently, was remarkably high (by modern standards), children
were a precious commodity. As far as we are able to tell from literary and
epigraphical evidence, children were cared for, loved, and mourned in death. Still,

4. childhood was seen as a phase of life lacking any independent and essential value, a
stage to pass through as quickly as possible.
With the rise of Christianity, philosophical attitude toward children began to
change: they were seen as valuable in themselves. As a consequence of the
understanding that all people are created in the image of God, that all people are His
children, including little ones and even fetuses, Christianity accepted children as
persons, not on the basis of their reception into the family or their usefulness to the
community but on the basis of their very existence. It is true that Judaism had the
same attitude toward children, and thus one cannot argue that the Christian attitude
was unprecedented. Still, as Christianity gradually increased its political and spiritual
prominence and claimed ever-widening circles of adherents, its influence on Greco-
Roman attitudes toward children became fundamental. Moreover, the words of Jesus
charged childhood, for the first time, with a spiritual and religious essence. His
disciples and, later on, the adherents of Christianity are encouraged to become "like
children" in order to inherit the Kingdom of God. This revolutionary message was
tempered, no doubt, by Paul and later Christian writers, but it still bore a positive
assessment of basic characteristics described as "childlike".
But what effect, if any, had this positive and spiritual assessment of childhood on
the everyday lives of children in early Byzantium? Obviously, this did not mean that
embryos were no longer aborted, or that children were no longer exposed or enslaved,
but it did mean that the Christian population was challenged in its practices and
attitudes concerning children. For Christians, engaging in such practices meant that
their own place in the church was threatened, as were their very souls. Ultimately this
lent itself to a change in practices which is gradually evidenced in the sources of the
5th and the 6th century. This tendency is in accord with the gradual interference of law
and social norms in the authority of the paterfamilias.
Along with these changes in attitude toward the family, Christianity developed an
ambivalent approach toward procreation. Within marriage, procreation was generally
seen as a good thing and children themselves as a blessing. Moreover, while classical
law and society tended to treat abortion and contraception as the sole concern of the
paterfamilias, the abortion of all children was explicitly condemned by the church
fathers. In addition, Christian writers explicitly condemned the abandonment of
children, while, especially from the 4th century onwards, they refrained from blaming
poor parents for such deeds. It is not easy to assess whether such admonitions had any

5. effect on abandonment rates. On the other hand, the creation of asylums for the care
of foundlings cannot be explained without the influence of Christian morals and
values. Unfortunately, what little evidence there is for those institutions is confined to
the 6th century.
Another important development was the importance placed on knowledge and
education. This is apparent from the education of small children within the household,
another instance in which theory and practice meet. The scattered classical references
paint a picture according to which most children were entrusted to the care of wet-
nurses and pedagogues; no classical writer seem to have offered a detailed program
for the moral and intellectual rearing of children. This stands in a sharp contrast with
classical emphasis on higher education. It should be noted, however, that our sources
for the subject in the ancient world are mostly restricted to the upper classes. Some
Christian writers, on the other hand, did offer a detailed program for the early
education of children. They did not condemn the use of nurses and tutors, but placed
the responsibility for the content and outcome of child-rearing solely on the shoulders
of parents. This call was not intended for the upper classes alone. Moreover, some
hagiographical sources reveal such emphasis on early learning in the lives of future
saints who did not belong to the upper classes. By choosing the path of Christian
education and asceticism, even children born to the lower classes of society could
make an eternal reputation for themselves.
The Christian perception of childhood, originating in the words of Jesus and
somewhat tempered by later church fathers, highlighted the spiritual and religious
essence of the child. This basic notion did not translate itself smoothly and rapidly
into children's lives. The interference of Christianity within the realm of the
paterfamilias did create some drawbacks for children (who could, for example, be
consecrated to virginity against their will), but also opened up new opportunities for
those who were traditionally classified among the marginal members of society. The
influence of Christian morals and practices on children's daily lives in early
Byzantium becomes more apparent, naturally, with time's progress, yet the
fundamental change had occurred with Jesus' words: "Suffer little children, and forbid
them not, to come unto me: for of such is the kingdom of heaven" (Mt. 19.14).