The document discusses several theories of learning including classical conditioning by Ivan Pavlov, operant conditioning by B.F. Skinner, and social cognitive theory by Albert Bandura. It also covers behaviorism and key concepts in behavior modification such as reinforcement, punishment, prompting, fading, and transferring stimulus control. The goal of behavior modification techniques is to change behaviors by using reinforcement and other strategies to strengthen desired behaviors.

2. Introduction:
Behaviorism:
Major contribution:
IVAN PAVLOV –created the classical
conditioning theory.
B.F Skinner – created the operant conditioning
theory.
Albert Bandura - Created the social cognitive
theory.
John B. Watson – worked with the classical
conditioning theory.

3. IVAN PAVLOV:
IvanPavlov
(26Sept 1849-27 Feb 1936)

4. Ivan pavlov:

5. Condiotional Reflexes:

7. Operant Conditioing:
Rats were placed in metal cages with a numberof levers. At
first the rats would nose aroundthe cage and accidentally
press thelevers, an action that would causefood or water to
drop into a dish. After repeating the action, the rats saw that
they could receive food and water by pressing the lever.
(Learnedthis behavior

8. Reinforcement
Positive
Reinforcement
Making a behavior
stronger by
following the
behavior with a
pleasant stimulus
Negative
Reinforcement
Making a behavior
stronger by taking
away a negative
stimulus

9. Punishment
• Reducing a
behavior by
removing a
pleasant stimulus
Negative
Punishment
• Reducing a
behavior by
presenting an
unpleasant stimulus
Positive
Punishment

10. 1878-1958
Father of Behaviorism”

11. Albert Bandura
Born on December 4, 1925 in Mundare,
Alberta, Canada
Youngest and only boy of the six children

12. Social Learning Theory:
• Social Cognitive Theory
• Classic “Bobo Doll” studies
demonstrated observational learning

13. Social Learning
Four Key Processes in Social Learning
• Attention
• Retention
• Reproduction
• Motivation

14. Edward Thorndike
Born: August 31, 1874
Died: August 9, 1949

15. Laws of Learning
• Law of Effect
• Law of Exercise
• Law of Readiness

16. Behavior Therapy Used for?
• OCD
• PTSD
• Depression
• Social phobia
• Bipolar disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Autism
• Personality disorder
• Substance abuse

17. Techniques Used:
• Prompting
• Fading
• Shaping
• Chaining
• Modeling
• imitating

18. Characteristics:
• Based on principal
• Deals with client’s current problem
• Emphasizes teaching client skills
• Focus on assessing overt n covert behavior
• Emphasizes a self control approach
• Intervention individually
• Based on collaborative partnership
• Emphasis on practical application

19. GOALS OF BEHAVIOR THERAPY
• “It is fundamental to behavior therapy that
the client should have the major say in
setting treatment goals, it is important that
the client is fully informed, and consents to
and participates in setting goals.
• Provide a direction to counseling
• Provide a basis for selecting and using
• strategies & interventions.
• Provide a framework for evaluating the outcome.

20. Therapist Function and Role
• Behavior therapists must assume an active,
directive role in treatment.
• Behavior therapists function as teacher,
director, and expert in prescribing curative
procedures that will lead to improved
behavior.

21. Therapist’s Function and Role
• Use techniques such as summarization,
reflection, clarification, and open-ended
questions.
• They focus on specifics, systematically
getting information about specific
antecedents, the dimensions of the problem
behavior, and the consequences of the
problem. (Goldried & Davison, 1976)

22. Defining Human Behavior
• Behavior is what people do or say
• Behavior has one or more dimensions
• Behavior can be observed, described and
recorded
• Behavior has an impact on the environment
• Behavior is lawful
• Behavior may be overt or covert

24. Follow steps to initiate Behavior Modification
1. What is one undesirable behavior that you are
aware that you do?
2. Ask yourself how motivated you are to change this
behavior. (As with any change there will be
sacrifice involved.) Ask yourself if the costs will
outweigh the benefits.
3. What changes in your perceptions and attitudes
must accompany this behavioral change?

25. 4. What new behavior do you wish to adopt to
replace the old behavior? (It is best to think
positively for example “I would like to show up
on time”
Instead of negatively “I don’t want to be late”.
5. After trying the new behavior, ask yourself how
you did. Was your first or second attempt
successful? Why or why not? If not, what other
approach can you take to accomplish your goal?

26. Behavior Modification Techniques
There are five categories of activities that can
be addressed through behavior modification
Develop a new behavior
Strengthen a behavior
Maintain an established behavior
Stop inappropriate behavior
Modify emotional behavior

27. Behavioral Assessment
Definition: Collection and analysis of data to:
a) identify and describe behavior
b) identify possible causes of the behavior
c) guide the selection of an appropriate
behavioral treatment
d) evaluate treatment outcome

28. Observing and Recording Behavior
Measurement of behavior prior to
treatment will provide information that can
help you decide whether treatment is
necessary
Can help you choose the best treatment
Measurement of target behavior before and
after treatment will allow you to determine
whether the behavior change following the
implementation of treatment

29. Types of Behavior Assessment
Indirect
Use of interview,
questionnaires and
rating scales to obtain
information on the
target behavior from
the individual
exhibiting the
behavior or others
(e.g. parents,
teachers, staff)
Direct
-- An individual observes
and records the target
behavior as it occurs
-- The individual observing
and recording the
behavior must be in close
proximity of the individual
whose behavior is being
observed and recorded so
that the behavior can be
seen or heard

30. The individual recording the behavior
must have a precise definition of the
target behavior so that its occurrence
can be distinguished from the
occurrence of the non-target behavior

31. Measurement of target behavior through
direct assessment will usually be more
accurate than that of indirect assessment,
as the individual is trained to observe the
target behavior and record its occurrence
immediately

32. While in indirect observation the
information is based on the individual’s
memories and the individual may not
notice all the occurrence of the target
behavior due to lack of training
resulting in incomplete information

33. Steps required to Develop a
Behavior Recording Plan
 Defining the Target Behavior
 Define exactly what a person says
or does that constitutes a behavioral
excess or behavioral deficit targeted
for change
 Behavioral definition includes active
verbs describing specific behaviors
that a person exhibits
 Is objective and unambiguous
 Does not make inference about
another person’s intensions

34.  A label is not used to define
behavior
 A good behavioral definition is
one which helps different people in
observing the same behavior and
agreeing that the behavior is
occurring (Inter observer
Reliability)

35. Behavioral Definition Labels
When baby cries and sobs, lies on the
floor and kicks the floor or walks, or
pounds toys or other objects on the floor.
It is defined as a tantrum
Tantruming
Any time Ali’s finger is in his mouth and
his teeth are closed together on a
fingernail cuticle or skin around the nail
Nail-biting

36.  Determining the Logistics of Recording
 The Observer
• Who will observe and record the behavior
• Is generally other then the person exhibiting the
behavior
• To function as an observer the individual must
have contact with the client when the target
behavior is occurring

37. • Must be trained to record the behavior
immediately
• Must have time for record and be willing to
record
• When the client observes his/her own
behavior it is called self-monitoring
• Self-monitoring can also be combined with
direct observation by another observer

38.  When and Where to Record
• The observer records the behavior in a
specific period of time called the observation
period at the time when the target behavior is
likely to occur
• Indirect observation can indicate the best
times when the target behavior is likely to
occur
• The observation period will also be
determined by the availability of the observer

39. • Can occur in natural or contrived setting
• Observation in natural setting provides a
more representative sample of the target
behavior
• However in contrived setting is more
controlled and variables that influence the
behavior are easier to manipulate

40.  Choosing a Recording Method
o Continuous Recording
• Observer observes the client
throughout the observation period
and records each occurrence of the
behavior
• The observer must be able to
identify the onset and offset
(beginning and end) of each instance
of behavior
• Various dimensions can be
observed-frequency, duration,
intensity and latency

41. • The frequency refers to the number of
times the behavior occurs in an observation
period. One occurrence is defined as one
onset and offset of behavior. Frequency may
be reported as rate, which is the frequency
divided by the number of observation period.
• Duration of the behavior is the total
amount of time occupied by behavior from
start to finish

42. • Intensity refers to the amount of force,
energy, or exertion involved in it. Intensity is
often measured by a rating scale or a
measurement instrument
• Latency refers to the time from some stimulus
event to the onset of the behavior i.e. how long
it takes the person to initiate the behavior after a
particular event occurs
Latency is how long it takes to start the behavior
and duration is how long the behavior lasts.

43. o Product Recording
• May be used when a behavior results in
certain tangible outcome that you are
interested in e.g. a supervisor can count
the number of products assembled in a
factory as a product measure of the
employee’s job performance
Advantage: the observer does not have
to be present when the behavior occurs

44. o Interval Recording
• Another aspect of a behavior that may be
recorded is whether the behavior occurred
or did not occur during consecutive time
periods.
• The observer divides the observation
period into a number of smaller time
periods or intervals, observes the client
throughout each interval, and observes
whether the behavior occurred or not
during that interval

45. • You do not have to identify the onset and
offset of the behavior rather you simply record
whether or not the behavior occurred during
each interval of time.

46. o Time Sample Recording
• You divide the observation period into
intervals of time, but you only observe
and record the behavior during some part
of each interval.
• When using time sampling recording, the
level of the behavior is reported as the
percentage of the intervals in which the
behavior occurred

47.  Choose a Recording Instrument
What the observer use to record the
behavior e.g. paper and pencil, stop
watch, transfer of coins from one pocket
to another

49. Prompting
• Prompts are stimuli that are used to
increase the likelihood that an individual will
engage in correct behavior at the correct
time.
• They are used during discrimination training
to help the person engage in the correct
behavior at the correct time (in the
presence of SD ).
• Prompts are given before or during the
performance of a behavior.

50. Example:
In this example, the SD is the ball approaching the John.
The correct response is swinging the bat to connect with
the ball and the reinforcer is hitting the ball and getting
praise from the coach
Antecedent Behavior Consequences
Pitcher throw John correctly John hits the
the ball swings the ball ball and gets
praise

51. Function of Prompts
• However, if the correct behavior is not occurring, the
behavior cannot be reinforced. The function of
prompts is to produce an instance of the correct
behavior, so that it can be reinforced.
• The use of prompts makes teaching more efficient.
Example
The teachers provide supplemental stimuli (prompts)
along with the SD so that the student will exhibit the
correct behavior.

52. Antecedent Behavior Consequences
Pitcher throw John correctly John hits the
the ball swings the ball ball and get
+ praise
Instructions are
given

53. Types of Prompts
Response Prompts
 Verbal prompts
 Gestural prompts
 Modeling prompts
 Physical prompts
Stimulus Prompts
 Within-stimulus
prompts
 Extra-stimulus
prompts

54. Response Prompts
Prompts that are associated with the
desire responses are response
prompts. A response prompt is the
behavior of another person that
evokes the desired response in the
presence of SD.

55. Verbal Prompt
When the verbal
behavior of another
person results in the
correct response in
the presence of SD ,
this is called verbal
prompt.
Example
Natasha was
learning to say
“car,” the teacher
showed her the
flashcard with the
word CAR and said
car. By saying “car”
she prompted
Natasha to make the
correct response.

56. Gestural prompts
Any physical
movement or
gesture of another
person that leads to
correct behavior
response in the
presence of SD is
considered a
gestural prompt
Example
When coach pointed
to the place John
should stand in the
football ground.

57. Modeling Prompts
Any demonstration of
correct behavior by
another person that
makes it more likely that
correct behavior will
occur at the right time is
the modeling prompt. An
individual observe the
model and imitates the
modeled behavior
response in the presence
of SD.
Example
When coach hit the ball to
show John how to do so.
He was modeling the
correct behavior.
For a modeling prompt to
be successful, the
individual must able to
imitate the model
behavior.

58. Physical Prompts
With the physical prompt,
another person physically
assists the individual to
engage the correct
behavior at the right time.
Physical prompts are also
known as physical
guidance.
The person using a physical
prompt is executing all or
part of behavior. Physical
prompt involve hand-over-
hand guidance.
Example
When coach held
the bat with john
and physically
assisted him to
swing the bat and
hit the ball.

59. Response prompts involve the behavior of
one person, who attempts to influence the
behavior of another person. Therefore,
response prompts are intrusive, they
involve one person exerting control over
another.

60. Stimulus prompts
A stimulus prompt involve some changes
in a stimulus, or the addition or the
removal of the stimulus, to make the
response more likely.

61. Within-stimulus prompts
In within-stimulus prompt, alter the salience of an
SD in a number of ways. It can be done by
changing the position, or some other dimension
such as size, shape, color, or intensity.
Example
Coach used within-stimulus prompt when he threw
easy pitches to the kids at first. It is change in
intensity of the SD that makes it more likely that
kids could make the correct response.

62. Extra-stimulus Prompts
Sometimes stimulus prompts involve the addition
of a stimulus to help an individual make a correct
discrimination.
Example
Wacker and Berg (1983) used picture prompts
to help adolescents with mental retardation
complete complex vocational tasks correctly. The
picture prompts helped the adolescents assemble
the correct part at the correct time.

63. Fading is one way to transfer stimulus
control from the prompts to the SD .
Gradually remove the prompts, until
the behavior was occurring in the
presence of SD without any
supplemental stimuli. Teaching is not
complete until all prompts are
completely faded.
Fading

64. Once the correct response has
occurred, the prompt must be
eliminated, so as to transfer stimulus
control to the natural SD . The end
result of transfer of stimulus control is
that correct behavior occurs at the
right time without any assistance
(prompts).
Transfer of Stimulus Control

65. Following ways are used to transfer
stimulus control
1. Prompt Fading
2. Prompt delay
3. Stimulus fading
The goal of each method is to move from
artificial stimulus control of prompts to the
natural stimulus control of the relevant SD.

66. Prompt fading is the most commonly used
method of transferring stimulus control. With
prompt fading, a response prompt is gradually
removed across learning trials until the prompt is
no longer provided.
Example
When coach provided fewer and fewer
instructions to John as he hit the ball.
Question: What type of prompt did he
fade?
Prompt Fading

67. Fading within prompt
Example: teacher presented the flashcard
with word “car” printed on it. Initially, she
used to say complete word then first part,
then first latter and eventually say nothing
when presented the card.

68. Fading across prompts
1. Least-to-most prompting and fading
Example
Lucy is a woman with mental retardation. Her
task was to take paper stuffing out of shoes, her
trainer first used verbal prompts, if she didn’t
respond for 4 seconds, he used gestural prompt
by pointing towards it. If she didn’t respond in 4
seconds, then use physical prompt.

69. Fading across prompts
2. Most-to-least prompting and fading
Example
Coach provided verbal and gestural prompt when
pitch is thrown to John and then gradually
decrease by removing gestural prompt and then
eventually verbal prompt.

70. Another method to transfer stimulus control
from a response prompt to the natural SD is the
prompt delay. In this procedure, if the correct
response is not made, then provide the prompt.
The time delay between the presentation of the
SD and the prompt may be constant or
progressive.
Prompt Delay

71. Cuvo and Klatt (1992) taught adolescents with
disabilities to read common words that are used in
daily life. They used constant prompt delay
procedure. They presented the word on flashcard
and if student didn’t respond in 4 seconds, they
said the word.
Questions:
What type of prompt is used?
What is SD in the above example?
What is the duration of prompt delay?
Example

72. Whenever stimulus prompts are used to get a
correct response, some aspects of the SD or the
stimulus situation is altered to help the individual
make the correct discrimination. Eventually the
stimulus prompts must be removed through the
process of stimulus fading.
Example
The teacher would use stimulus fading by
gradually reducing the size of EXIT sign until it was
the same size as the Enter size. Once they were
same size, the stimulus prompt would be gone.
Stimulus Fading

73. Overview
Behavior Therapy Based on Classical Conditioning
Flooding
Desensitization
Aversion Therapy
 Behavior therapy based on Operant Conditioning
Contingency management
Token Economy
Modeling
Extinction
Assertive Training
Shaping, fading & Chaining

77. Flooding involves the client being exposed
to the actual or imagined fearful situation
for a prolonged period of time. The
example of the client with the spider fear
would be that the client would be exposed
to the spider or the thought of a spider for
a prolonged period of time and uses
relaxation techniques to cope. There may be
ethical issues in using these techniques with
certain fears or traumatic events and the client
should be provided with information on the
techniques before utilizing them so he or she
understands the process.

80. Ethical Considerations
One of the major criticisms of aversion therapy is that it lacks
rigorous scientific evidence demonstrating its effectiveness.
Ethical issues over the use of punishments in therapy are also
a major point of concern.
Practitioners have found that in some cases, aversion therapy
can increase anxiety that actually interferes with the treatment
process. In other instances, some patients have also
experienced anger and hostility during therapy.

81. ‘Cure’Homosexuality
March7,2012
Althoughaccepted in most UKsocieties today, homosexuality was onceconsidered a
crime, a disease and a mental illness which needed treatment to be‘cured’.For many
years aversion therapy was a method used inorder to ‘cure’those from homosexuality.
Themethod was mostly used onmen, and it was thought that unethicallyadministering
drugs or placing patients in dirty, sickeningsurroundings while shown pin-upimages of
men, would causethem to form an association between the images and the negative
effects. Theaim was to makethem nauseous whenthey saw men in a sexually
attractive way and so would hopefully turn them‘straight’. Shockinglyit was also only
in2006that the AmericanPsychological Association (APA, 2010)deemed that using
this method on homosexual patients broke the codes of practice.

82. Behavior Therapy Based on
Operant Conditioning

84. Research has demonstrated the effectiveness of
treatment approaches using contingency
management (CM) principles, which involve
giving patients tangible rewards to reinforce
positive behaviors such as abstinence. Studies
conducted in both methadone programs and
psychosocial counseling treatment programs
demonstrate that incentive-based interventions
are highly effective in increasing treatment
retention and promoting abstinence from drugs

88. Assertive Training
Assertiveness training is a form of behavior therapy designed to
helppeople stand up forthemselves—to empowerthemselves,
in more contemporary terms. Assertiveness is a response that
seeks to maintain an appropriate balance between passivity and
aggression. Assertive responses promote fairness and equality in
human interactions, based on a positive sense of respectfor self
and others.

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90. Uses of techniques in disorders

91. Uses Relaxation training exercises
Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR)
• used to control stress and anxiety, relieve
insomnia, chronic pain.
• relief in a number of conditions, including
headache, cancer pain, high blood pressure,
and digestive disturbances, hypertension.

92. Uses Relaxation training exercises
• PMR at night helps them fall asleep.
• Effective in controlling muscular tension
associated with anger
• Studies suggest that it may be an effective
way to “kick the habit” of smoking

93. Uses Relaxation training exercises
Diaphragmatic Breathing, deep breathing
• Handling depression, anxiety, and stress-
related disorders.
• Feel calmer
• May trade feelings of anger
• Used to treat, sleep problems

94. Uses Relaxation training exercises
Attention Focusing Exercise
Meditation
• Increases serotonin production that
improves mood and behavior
• Building skills to manage your stress
• Reducing negative emotions

95. Uses Relaxation training exercises
• Emotional stability improves
• Gaining a new perspective on stressful
situations
• Decreases depression, irritability
• Help with mood swings, boost confidence,
increase self-acceptance & empathy.

96. Uses Relaxation training exercises
Guided Imagery
• Promotes relaxation
• Reduce problems related to stress
• Deep relaxation of muscles, other organs
• Improve sleep
• Eliminating self-destructive behaviors,
habits, and addictions
• Decrease social anxiety

97. Uses Relaxation training exercises
• Get rid of nightmares
• Obsessive thoughts
• Dealing with seasonal affective disorder
• Relaxation for positive self- image
• Decreasing self harm behavior

98. Uses Relaxation training exercises
Systematic desensitization
• Phobias
• Panic attacks
• Fear
• Anxiety Disorder

99. Advantages:
• Because does not emphasize experiencing
catharsis
• Rather stresses changing specific behavior
and developing problem solving skills
• Focus on environmental conditions that
contribute to a client problem

100. Limitation and criticism
• Behavior therapy may change behavior but
it does not change feelings
• It ignores the important relational factors in
therapy
• It does not provide insight
• It treats symptoms rather than causes
• It involves control and manipulation by
therapist