Observational procedures refer to systematic methods used by researchers to observe and record behavior, events, or phenomena in a study. There are several types of observation methods, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. Some key observation methods discussed are cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, cohort studies, naturalistic observation, participant observation, longitudinal observation, structured observation, and self-observation. The document provides examples and discusses the benefits and limitations of various observational research techniques.

1. Topic: Observational procedures
Submitted to: Dr. Mussrat Alvi
Submitted by: Group 8
Faiza Shamshad 21021502-001
Umme Aiman 21021502-010
Hira Zaman 21021502-049
Mahrukh Ilyas 21021502-020

2. Faiza Shamshad
(21021502-001)

3. Observation:
• Observation is a fundamental method of research used to gather data
and gain insights into various phenomena.
• Observation research is a qualitative research technique where
researchers observe participants' ongoing behavior in a natural
situation.
• Observational research is a research technique where you observe
participants and phenomena in their most natural settings. This enables
researchers to see their subjects make choices and react to situations in
their natural setting, as opposed to structured settings like research
labs or focus groups.

4. Human as researcher:
• Observational procedures refer to the systematic and structured
methods used by researchers to observe and record behavior, events,
or phenomena in a study.
• Research has long employed human observers as data collectors. It has
long been understood that the primary benefit of human data
observation over impersonal instruments is that it gives the researcher
more freedom to investigate potential new and occasionally
unexpected occurrences.
• Formulating Research Questions:

5. • Data Collection:
• Data Analysis
• Innovation and Creativity
• . The ability to formulate meaningful questions, exercise critical
thinking, and navigate complex ethical considerations underscores the
unique and essential role of humans

6. Advantages:
• Observational procedures offer several advantages in research across
various disciplines due to their ability to capture behavior in natural
settings. Here are some key advantages:
• Ecological Validity
• Rich Qualitative Data
• Behavioral Insight
• Hypothesis Generation
• Flexibility
• Real-time Feedback
• Cultural Sensitivity

7. Disadvantages:
• While observational procedures offer several advantages, they also
come with certain disadvantages and challenges. Here are some
common drawbacks associated with observational research:
• Observer Bias
• Subject Reactivity (Observer Effect)
• Limited Generalizability
• Ethical Concerns
• Difficulty in Interpreting Behavior

8. • Time-Consuming
• Inability to Study Internal Processes
• Formats of observation
cross-sectional study
• A cross-sectional study is a type of observational research design that
involves the collection of data from a population or a representative subset
at a single point in time. In cross-sectional studies, researchers examine the
subjects or variables of interest at one specific moment, providing a
snapshot of the population or phenomena under investigation. This type of
study is often used to assess the prevalence of certain conditions,
characteristics, or behaviors within a population.

9. Case-control study:
case-control study:
• A case-control study is a type of observational research design that
compares individuals with a specific condition or outcome (cases) to
those without the condition (controls). The goal is to investigate and
identify factors or exposures that may be associated with the
development of the condition or outcome. Case-control studies are
often used in epidemiology to explore the causes of diseases or
health-related events.

10. Umme Aimen
(21021502-010)

11. Cohort studies:
• Cohort studies
• A cohort study is an observational study that tracks a group of participants over
time to understand how specific factors, like exposure to a particular risk factor,
influence their health outcomes. The individuals in the cohort share a common
characteristic or experience, such as being born in the same year or living in the
same geographic area. By studying this group over time, researchers can gain
insights into the effects of certain factors on their health.
• Example
• You are interested in how tick-borne diseases spread. You interview a cohort of
people who have been diagnosed with Lyme disease. You ask about the events
surrounding their illness, their symptoms, and their medical history prior to being
bitten, in order to study the spread of Lyme disease.

12. Advantages and disadvantage:
• Advantages
• Causality
• Rare exposure
• More generalizable
• Disadvantages
• Time consuming
• Expensive
• Raise questions regarding ethical considerations

13. Naturalistic observations
• Naturalistic observations
• Naturalistic observation is a research method that involves observing
subjects in their natural environment. This approach is often used by
psychologists and other social scientists. It is a form of qualitative
research, which focuses on collecting, evaluating, and describing non-
numerical data.
• Example
• Medical professionals: To better analyze a patient, medical
professionals may use naturalistic observation by observing their
patients while at home. This can give doctors an insight into a
patient's mental and physical health.

14. Advantages and disadvantage
• Advantage
• More realistic
• More affordable
• Can detect patterns
• Disadvantage
• Cannot explain why behaviors happen
• Inability to manipulate or control variables
• Risk of observer bias

15. Participant observation:
• Participant Observation:
• In this observation, the observer is a part of the phenomenon or
group which observed and he acts as both an observer and a
participant.
• Example
• a study of tribal customs by an anthropologist by taking part in tribal
activities like folk dance. The person who are observed should not be
aware of the researcher's purpose. Then only their behaviour will be
'natural."

16. Advantages and disadvantages:
• Advantages
• Flexible research method
• Triangulation
• Disadvantages
• research biases
• Expensive
• Time consuming
• Ethical concerns

17. Longitudinal observations:
• Longitudinal observations:
• Longitudinal observations are important when researchers want to
study things that change or develop over time. It's like taking a series
of snapshots to see how something evolves.
• For example
• If researchers want to understand how people's attitudes towards
climate change over the course of several years, they would conduct a
longitudinal observation. By observing the same group of people at
different points in time, they can track any changes and get a better
understanding of how attitudes shift.
•

18. Structured observation:
• Structured observation
• As participant and naturalistic observation study participants in a
natural environment, but structured observation does hot study
participants in a natural environment.
• Study in a controlled environment:
• Instead, scientists using structured observation to study participants
in structured or controlled environment.
• For example:
• Imagine studying how children interact with toys. You might set up a
playroom with different toys and observe how they play with each
one. This way, you can focus on the specific behaviors you're
interested in without other distractions.

19. Self as observer:
• Self as observer:
• Systematic self-observation is a methodology in which several
participants are invited to observe, and then report, a specific
phenomenon in their own lives.
• For example:
• You take some people to an extreme hot or cold environment and
they lived their for a certain period of time and then we take their
views.
• It has strong points:
• It gets the researcher as close as possible to the inner workings of the
participants’ minds.

20. Continue.....
• It also have Weak points:
• Problem lies in validating whether the participants are providing
accurate information.
• If the study is not done carefully, participants may simply tell the
researcher what they think the researcher wants to hear. An even
greater problem is that the act of reporting what a participant is
thinking can be disruptive.
• There are two sub divisions of self as observer
• Introspection
• Retrospection

21. Introspection:
• Introspection is a psychological process that involves looking inward to
examine one’s own thoughts, emotions, judgments, and perceptions.
• Although, historically, the term was once used as an experimental
technique.
• Uses for Introspection:
• Introspection is important for several reasons.
1. It helps us engage in reflection.
2. It assists with research.
3. It can be a valuable tool in mental health treatments involving
psychotherapy.

22. Continue…
• The word ‘Introspection’ is made up of two Latin words. “Intro”
meaning within and “Spection” meaning looking i.e. looking inwards.
Hence it is a method where an individual is looking within one self.
• Introspection in research:
• Wilhelm Wundt, a psychologist, came up with a technique called
introspection. It was like a research method where people were
trained to analyze their thoughts in a careful and objective way.
• They would observe and describe their own thoughts and try to be as
detailed as possible.

23. Continue…
• For example:
• You’re feeling a bit stressed and want to practice introspection. You
could take a moment to sit quietly, close your eyes, and focus on your
thoughts. You might ask yourself questions like, “What is causing this
stress?” or “How does it make me feel?” Then, you can observe your
thoughts and emotions without judgment and try to describe them as
accurately as possible.
• Difference between observation and introspection:
• Here are some key differences between introspection and
observation:

24. Continue…
• Nature of Focus: Introspection focuses on exploring one’s own
thoughts and emotions, while observation involves objectively
studying external events or phenomena.
• Subjectivity vs. Objectivity: Introspection is subjective as it relies on
personal experiences and interpretations, whereas observation aims
for objectivity by gathering data through external observation.
• Methodology: Introspection relies on self-reflection and internal
analysis, while observation involves external senses and gathering
information through direct perception.

25. Continue…
• Research Approach: Introspection is more informal and subjective,
often used in qualitative research, while observation is more
structured and objective, commonly employed in quantitative
research.

26. • Hira Zaman
• 21021502-049

27. Retrospection:
• Researchers sometimes use retrospection to avoid the influence of a techniqe
called introversion that was used in a previous study. In this case, participants are
asked to wait until they finish a task before thinking back and reflecting on what
they did mentally.
• However, there's another problem that can affect the data: memory loss. If the task
is complicated or takes a long time, participants might forget some of the mental
processes that happened. People tend to remember the beginning and end of
information but forget what's in the middle.

28. Example:
• Wesche and Paribakht (2000) did a study where they looked at how people learn
new words. They used two types of retrospection:
• Immediate retrospection
• Delayed retrospection
• They had two groups of participants. One group used regular reading strategies,
and the other group used a method called "reading plus" to learn new words. The
participants read a text and did some vocabulary tasks. While doing the tasks, they
had to talk out loud about what they were thinking and doing. After each task, they
were asked to think back and reflect on the strategy they used (that's immediate
retrospection). Once they finished all the tasks, they were interviewed about the
exercises and how they helped them learn new words (that's delayed
retrospection).

29. Advantages:
• 1. Reflection: When participants engage in retrospection, it allows them to reflect
on past experiences or thoughts.
• 2. Valuable insights: Retrospection provides valuable insights and information
that may not be easily accessible in real-time observations.
• 3. Understanding motivations: It helps researchers understand the reasons
behind certain behaviors, motivations, or decision-making processes.
• 4. Detailed information: Retrospection allows participants to provide more
detailed and accurate information about their experiences.

30. Disadvantages:
• 1. Memory bias: Retrospection relies on participants' memory, which can be
subject to bias and inaccuracies. Memories can fade or be influenced by external
factors, leading to potential distortions in the recollection of past events.
• 2. Limited objectivity: Participants' retrospective accounts may be influenced by
their current perspectives, emotions, or biases. This subjectivity can introduce
potential inaccuracies or inconsistencies in the data.
• 3. Incomplete information: Participants may not remember or accurately recall
certain details or events from the past, leading to gaps or missing information in
the research findings.
• 4. Time constraints: Retrospective research relies on participants' ability to recall
past events, which may be limited by the passage of time. The accuracy and
completeness of the information provided can decrease as time goes on.

31. Non-participant observation:
• Non-participant observation is a research method where the observer does not
actively participate or interact with the people being observed. Instead, the
observer simply observes and records the behavior or actions of the participants
without getting involved in any way. It allows researchers to gather data on how
people behave or interact in natural settings without -influencing their behavior.
• Example:
For example, an observer can measure how much time a teacher spends talking
compared to how much time students spend talking in a language classroom. In this
case, the observer doesn't need to interact with the teacher or students to collect this
information. They can simply observe and record the data.

32. Advantages:
• 1. Natural behavior: Non-participant observation allows researchers to observe
people in their natural environment, without interfering or influencing their
behavior. This can provide a more accurate representation of how individuals act in
real-life situations.
• 2. Unbiased data: Since researchers are not actively participating in the observed
setting, non-participant observation can yield unbiased and objective data. This
reduces the potential for researcher bias or influence on the observed behavior.
• 3. Rich contextual information: By observing the setting as a whole, non-
participant observation allows researchers to gather rich contextual information. This
includes factors such as physical surroundings, social dynamics, and interactions
among individuals, providing a comprehensive understanding of the observed
behavior.

33. Disadvantages:
• 1. Limited perspective: Non-participant observation may provide a partial view of the
observed behavior, as researchers are not actively involved. This can result in missing out
on important nuances or underlying motivations behind the observed actions.
• 2. Observer bias: Despite efforts to remain objective, researchers' own biases and
interpretations can still influence the observation process and data analysis. This can
introduce potential inaccuracies or subjective interpretations.
• 3. Hawthorne effect: The presence of an observer in the setting may alter the behavior of
those being observed. This phenomenon, known as the Hawthorne effect, can lead to
participants modifying their behavior, potentially affecting the validity of the observed
data.
• 4. Time and resource-intensive: Non-participant observation can require significant time
and resources, particularly when observing complex or long-term behaviors. It may
involve extended periods of observation and extensive data collection efforts.

34. Mahrukh Ilyas
(21021502-020)

35.  Participant observation :
• Definition
• Example
• When to use participant observation?
• How to analyse data from participant observation?
• Advantages
• Disadvantages
• Difference Between participant and non-participant
observation
•

36. What Is Participant Observation?
| Definition & Examples
Definition:
Participant observation is a qualitative research method in which the researcher
immerses themselves in the daily life and activities of the group or community they
are studying. Through this involvement, they aim to gain a deeper understanding of
the subject's perspectives, behaviours, and social dynamics.Participant observation
is a research method where the researcher immerses themself in a particular social
setting or group, observing the behaviours, interactions, and practices of the
participants. This can be a valuable method for any research project that seeks to
understand experiences of individuals or groups in a particular social context

37. Examples:
Examples of participant observationParticipant observation is a common research
method in social sciences, with findings often published in research reports used to
inform policymakers or other stakeholders.Example:
•Rural community participant observation
•You are interested in studying the behaviour and social interactions of a particular
subculture at your school (skateboarders).
•An anthropologist lives with a remote indigenous tribe for a year to study their
customs, rituals, and daily life. By participating in their rituals and engaging in their
daily activities, the anthropologist gathers firsthand insights and data.

38. When to use participant observation?
A participant observation could be a good fit for your research if:
1. You are studying subcultures or groups with unique practices or beliefs.
2. ⁠You are studying complex social interactions.
3. ⁠You are studying behaviours or practices that may be difficult to self-report.

39. How to analyse data from participant observation?
Data analysis in participant observation typically involves a step-by-step process of
immersion, categorization, and interpretation.
1) Immersion.
2) Categories or Themes.
3) Variety of Qualitative research methods.
4) Feedback.

40. Advantages & Disadvantages:
Advantages:
•Rich and nuanced qualitative data
•Flexible research method
•Triangulation
Disadvantages:
•Research biases
•Expensive, time consuming and Challenging
•Raise ethical concerns

41. Difference between participant and non-participant observation:
•participants observation involved with the people they are observing while non-
participant observation separates from the person they are observing.
•participant observation is the way to observe behaviour while non-participant can’t
observe certain behaviour.
•participant observation gives greater accuracy and detail while non-participant
observation gives less accuracy and detail.
•In participant observation there is harder to remain objective while in non-
participant observation it’s easier to remain objective.
•In participant observation, there are ethical issues while in non-participant
observation there are less ethical issues.