1. The Buddha Images of Early Konbaung
Period in Myanmar (1752-1819)
Khin Thidar♣
I. Introduction
The word Bhurā: means any worshipful person or object. The statue of
the Buddha and the pagodas are called Bhurā:. The Lord Buddha was
Myatswa Bhurā: -the most exalted Lord and the Buddha icons were
Bhurā: Chan:tu, the form of the Lord. Bhurā: Chan:tu, images, which
are cast and curved on behalf of the Buddha, are regarded as Uddissa
Cetiya.
In Myanmar the Sāsanā involves the professing of image, being
placed in the forefront. It is difficult to say that worship of the Buddha
image is compatible with the Buddha’s desire. The Buddha is
incomparable and in this sense human representation of his likeness is
not permissible. This ideological prohibition hold good for more than
five hundred years after the death of the Buddha. On the other hand the
Buddha discourages people to worship him. What he wants is that
people should follow his way to end the chain of rebirths called
Samsāra. Worshipping him would not help. It is stated that in
Samyutta Nikāya;
Alam Vakkali, kim te iminā pūtikāyena ditthena,
Yo kho Vakkali dhammam passati, so mam passati.
Yo mam passati, so dhammam passati.
Dhammam hi Vakkali passanto mam passati,
Mam passanto dhammam passati (Samyutta Nikāya,
1957, 98)
♣
Ph.D., Lecturer, Department of History, University of Magway, Myanmar
2. 2
Oh! Vakkali, why do you think so. You see my putrid
body and you get no benefit out of it. If you see the
wisdom that I give, then you see me. When you see me,
you get the wisdom I give. Well, Vakkali see the
wisdom. It means you see me. You see me and you see
the wisdom. (Than Tun, 2000, 3)
It is suggested that these words of the Buddha discourage people to
make the Buddha image. People, however, insisted to do some
resemblance in the form of an image for worship, as they are so
accustomed to offer gifts to gods and pray for some rewards in return.
This being the case they use images to worship and adore.
II. The Making of Buddha Images
Iron, bronze, silver, gold and alloy are cast into Buddha images.
Buddha images are also made of emerald, amber, jade and glass. There
are various kinds of images of Buddha: flower offered to the Buddha
are dried up and plastered to make into an image, known as Pan:pon:
Bhurā:, broken pieces of palm-leaf manuscript coated with plaster into
Pitaka image, memorable image made of bone ash of deceased person
and Mam Bhurā: – lacquered image of Buddha, etc. (Than Tun, 1968,
83) In sculpturing or carving images of Buddha, it is believed that the
presentation of Buddha images are in the human form. The Buddha
images are made in accordance with the traditional systems of 118
characteristics: every part of the Buddha’s image must be even and
well filled out or chubby.
The lower jaw of the image of Buddha must be
exactly round like that of the King Lion, not to
be pointed. The two royal cheeks must also be
chubby from the royal lower jaw to the part of
Buddha’s head in the region of the ear, like a
waxing moon of twelve to fifteen days; the part
from the outer fore-head to the throat must also
3. 3
be plumb; absolutely not to be concave or
sloping inward; the said portion must be well
filled out like a full-moon. The royal throat must
be round and plumb like a small drum with
tapering ends. The part from the royal throat to
the breast must be also well filled out like that of
King Lion. The region of the royal breast has to
be also well filled out like the face of a bull,
called Ussabha. The royal back needs to be
rough, and flat but to be plumb. The two
vertebrae at the small of the royal back must
resemble the ridge of nose of the bull – in
sloping position. The two royal thighs, far from
being straight, shall be chubby. The two royal
arms, up to the wrist, shall be round and plumb
like the trunk of King Elephant. Similarly the
two royal back of the hands must be well filled
out, and the two royal palms must be even and
round; and the royal ten toes must also be even
and well filled out, too. The two royal – shins –
must be round and plumb like those of – must
deer. The two royal calves must also be chubby
like grain of paddy; and the two sides of royal
shoulder must also be plumb like a golden dome
– like structure. (Satthurūpaka, 1961, 28-29)
Thus chubbiness is given basic priority in sculpturing or carving
Buddha images. But models and styles vary with time and place. The
overall form of the Buddha, however, does not resemble the figure of a
male human being. There are irregularities and prominent muscles in
rows on an arm of a male human, whereas attempt has to be made to
sculpture or carve an image of the Buddha so that all is well-
proportioned, graceful, smooth and well filled out. It is believed that an
image of the Buddha is sculptured or carved in accordance with the
4. 4
thirty-two great signs of Uttamapurisa Lakkhana.1)
The instruction that
‘every part of the Buddha’s image must be even and round’ is
misinterpreted by some sculptors, and as such in some images, tips of
fingers are found to be unnaturally of the same length, in some,
however, they are, according to nature, of different lengths.
Images of the Buddha are different in models and styles
depending on the time. There was the flame top that signifies –
Omniscience of the Buddha. However, from the Bagan period to the
half of the nineteenth century, the flame top was replaced by a bulb.
The sharp tip was placed on a turner’s lathe and decorated with gouge
and torus moulding. (Than Tun, 1968, 96) The Buddha head was
shaven, and there remained on the head a stubble about two inches. On
the basis of this, the head of the Buddha was made a little more
elevated and heaped than natural. In some cases a thin line is sufficient
to show to the royal hair. In other cases the head was sculptured or
carved without hair. A ball was put in another case. In some images,
some thorns like those of a jackfruit were placed closely on the head.
In other images, spirals were used. (Kyaw Shein, 1975, 90-99)
Jackfruit – thorns were found to be more popular in the first quarter of
the 19th
century. Lines, called Naphu:cañ: or head band, were begun to
be put. Cakkhumndrekhya images with almond eye, closed in
meditation were mostly sculptured. Some images were sculptured with
high eyebrows, flat nose, swollen nose, pout of lips, and round chin.
The fingers are of the same lengths without short or long ones. In
sculpturing robe on the body, from the Bagan period to the early
Konbaung period, there were only lines at the legs or hands, but it was
not made distinct with curls. The edge of the robe on the left shoulder
was shown by dividing into two parts, and hanging. In the latter part of
1778, robe of the images were sculptured with right breast left bare but
lines of the robe became more numerous than those of the Bagan
1)
See Appendix I
5. 5
period. In sculpturing Buddha’s images with robes on, those with plain
lines were found during the year 1772 to 1813.2)
2)
see Illustration 1a- 1l
1a. Phoewintaung, Monywa
(middle of the 18th
century)
1b. Phoewintaung, Monywa
(middle of the 18th
century)
1d. Nan:toaurā, Shwebo
(middle of the 18th
century)
Recent Decoration
1c. Onmre Cetiya, Shwebo
(middle of the 18th
century)
Recent Decoration
6. 6
1f. Caktoaurā, Mingun
(early 19th
century)
1e. Phoewintaung, Monywa
(middle of the 18th
century)
1h. Sītagū Museum, Sagaing
(early 19th century)
1g. Rhwetagum, Yangon
(middle of the 18th
century)
Recent Decoration
8. 8
Images were sculptured in different postures – standing
position; sitting cross – legged position, and recumbent position.
Recumbent image was sculptured with the right hand supporting the
head. The image of Parinibbāna – passing away, the right hand with
the palm spread upwards was placed alongside the head. However, in
Pan:daya Pwaikyain: Ceticu, the image of Parinibbāna was carved
like supine (sleeping on his back).
By observing the attitude of the hand (mudrā) and the
attitude of the feet (āsana), anyone can understand what message the
Buddha was trying transmit to his disciple. The attitudes of hand
(mudrā) are:
(1) Abhayamudrā – have no fear,
(2) Bhumisparsamudrā – touching earth after the
Enlightenment,
(3) Dhammacakramudrā (Vyākhyanamudrā) – turning
the Wheel of Law,
(4) Dhyanamudrā (Samadhimudrā) – Meditation,
(5) Mahākarunikamudrā – having some compassion,
(6) Varadamudrā (Varamudrā) – blessing or bestowing
a gift and
(7) Vitakkamudrā – having an argument. The most
popular mudrā was that of Bhumisparsamudrā. There were also
images sculptured with different attitude of feet – Āsana;
1. Vyaditāsana - standing with both feet,
2. Paryankāsana – sitting cross legged with the left leg
above the right, it signifies serenity,
3. Dhyanāsana – meditative pose with both legs closely
locked and their soles visible and
4. Pralambanāsana (or) Bhadrāsana – sitting with both
legs pendant. (Than Tun, 1956, 171-173)
Dhyanāsana was the most frequently found and it can be said that it
was the most popular one. We find that during this period besides the
9. 9
indigenous styles sculptors made use of Chinese and Thai arts as well.
The style of Buddha images is likely to be Thai.3)
But there is a little differentiates between Myanmar style and Thai
style. In Thai style the robe is shown on left shoulder only and
exposing the right breast. But in Myanmar of the period under survey,
the right end of the robe is also put on the left shoulder but leaving the
right breast bare.
III. The Crowned Buddha Image
The crowned Buddha images4)
were also sculptured and
worshipped. This image is also known as the Jambupati image. The
reason of the making of this image is based on the story of the king
Jambupati who is very powerful and arrogant. (U Mya, 1961, 28-31)
But there is no explanation in Pāli text about the story of king
Jambupati. Some of the learned monk said that the crowned Buddha
3)
see Illustration 2a-2b
4)
see Illustration 3a-3b
2b.
Buddha image in Northern Siam
(1726)
2a.
Buddha image in Myanmar
(middle of the 18th
century)
10. 10
image was made with reference to the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta,
Mahāvagga Pāli Text in Dīgha Nikaya. (Ādiccavamsa, 1940, 437) It
may have been important to portray the Buddha images in the regalia
of kings in order to reinforce the authority of the ruler. A scholar said
that the reasons for the worship of the crowned image were –
1. as the Buddha – to – be;
2. in the commemoration of the victory over Māra – Evil god,
depicting the situation in which it was not the feature of the king nor
was it that of Rahan – monks; the situation in which kingly appearance
was disappearing while the appearance of a monk was developing;
3. as it was assumed that the one who wanted to see the image
as graceful as a king had the right to adorn the image with
royal dress. (Than Tun, 1968, 91)
The crowned Buddha images had appeared in Rakhine, Bagan,
Cambodia and Northern Thailand during the 10th
-13th
centuries but this
style is rare in Myanmar again until the 15th
century. In early
Konbaung period, some people wanted to adorn an image with royal
dress. The image from the Rhwekhyaksui pagoda of Alon:man:tarā:5)
and the Canda Muni image6)
are the examples. The most of the images
were first made with ordinary robes, and the royal crown, ornamental
earflaps attached to crested headdress, and sash are later additions.7
)
5)
U Mya stated that there was the Crowned Buddha Image in the Rhwekhyasui
pagoda, Shwebo. However, this image cannot see nowadays in this pagoda. On
24 November 2002, I asked one of the members of pagoda trustee of
Rhwekhyasui and some elders in Shwebo, where the Crown Buddha Image was.
But they gave me the negative answers. I don’t know why and when it
disappears and where it can be seen now.
6)
see Illustration 4
7)
see Illustration 5
11. 11
3b. Phoewintaung, Monywa
(early 19th century)
3a. Rhwetagum, Yangon
(middle of the 18th
century)
Recent Decoration
5. Sītagū Museum, Sagaing
(middle of the 18th century)
4. Candamuni Iron Image
(1802)
Candamuni Cetiya, Mandalay
12. 12
IV. The Iron and Bronze Buddha Image
There were also images in iron. It was only in the 19th
century
that Myanmar people became skilled in the art of casting iron. Patum
Man: had a great iron cannon cast successfully on 1 January 1802; his
predecessors had never done such an undertaking. Then, the Canda
Muni iron image8)
was continued to be cast, using 11368 viss of iron;
it was successfully completed on 14 April 1802. (Candamuni
Inscription, Pe No. 207, kho/observe) Formerly, images of the Buddha
were made by casting other metals, so Patum Man: satisfied that iron
could have been cast into images of the Buddha. It was said that only
when U Paw Oo, - High Official, had told that ‘ in the Nammakāra
Vandanā – paying homage – there is the Pāli text, Sambbuddhe
atavisañca’, Patum Man: stopped boasting of his work. (Hmawbhi
Thein, 1967, 196) In this period, a few images of bronze were also
found. It was discovered that Myanmar craftsmen became skilled in
that art of casting bronze in the late 18th
century. Only five bronze
images, with dates, including Bhisakkaguru bronze image cast on 12
March 1804, had ever been discovered. The bronze image cast in 1791
was a crowned Buddha.9 )
(Than Tun, 1968, Fig 20, 23)
8)
see Illustration 6
9)
see Illustration 7
7. Bronze Buddha Image
Kwansāyā, Yangon
6. Candamuni Iron Image
(1802)
Candamuni Cetiya, Mandalay
13. 13
V. Bhisakkaguru Image
It seems that in the early Konbaung period, the believe in the
Great Physician (Bhisakkaguru) was revived because a fairly great
number of these images were found in the Pan:daya Cave. It is a kind
of cult very popular among the Mahayanists. Such an image is made to
cure any sickness or to help anymore studying medicine or to help
those who would like to become a medicine man. The sitting Buddha
has 1, Vatra-Thabate, the pot of amrita (the water of long life) (nectar),
in the right hand, close to the body; 2, a seed between the left thumb
and the left index finger as a symbol of life.10)
The pot (nectar) and the
seed are for longevity and health. In the Pan:daya cave on the western
slope of the Shan Plateau, we find Bhisakkaguru images but only two
of them are dated. One image is dated 5 March 1779 and the other was
15 March 1789 and this suggests that the Bhisakkaguru cult was quite
in vogue about the latter half of the 18th
century in places on the west
part of the Shan plateau. And we found Bhisakkaguru image in Pupa
village, Sainpyin, Butalin Township on 15 June 2002.11)
According to
the script of an inscription on the front of the pedestal of this image, it
was made in 1156 (518 Myanmar Era). But this inscription is not
original. The exact date of image was inscribed on the back of the
pedestal. It was made on 1 May 1804 and I don’t know why the people
inscribed an earlier date on the front of the throne. It seems that this
cult was quite popular in Upper Myanma in those days. This cult is a
Mahayana element that remained or revived in a Theravada country
and the revival was made at the turn of the century between 18th
and
19th
centuries and it did not survive long.
10)
see Illustration 8
11)
see Illustration 9
14. 14
VI. The Lacquered Buddha Image
Mam Bhurā: – lacquered image of the Buddha – were also
made and worshipped. The main reason for making the Buddha image
of lacquer was perhaps to use it at a festival where it could be carried
at the head of a procession going around the town or village and its
light weight and low cost of production were in favour of its use on
these occasions. In Myanmar it was not for the religious processions
but for being carried by vendors to very remote places where a pious
person might buy it to acquire merit as well as the grand title of Bhurā:
Takā – one who has ordered the Buddha Image. The centre for making
(lacquered image of Buddha) was Sithamyay village in Ye-U
township, situated about 8 miles north-west of Ye-U, and its environs.
It is assumed that this craft of making the Mam Bhurā: began in these
villages as early as the middle of the 18th
century A.D. Because a
porter who carried these images and went on a journey of nearly four
months was paid his wages of Kyats forty five only when he arrived
back at the village and this was described as being paid after “the
leader and man had returned” (buil pran tap pran) – a phrase used
when these villages had to send levies to the feudal army which would
have stared, when the Konbaung dynasty began in the middle of the
8 & 9. Bhisakkaguru Image
(1804)
Pupa Village, Butalin
15. 15
18th
century. Dr Than Tun inclined to accept this tentatively because
the earliest dated Mam Bhurā: found in Nyaungkan near Butalin has
the date 10 September 1765 and another one has the date December
1772 found at the Yan Aung monastery of Pindaya. (Than Tun, 1980,
23) In January 1760, the four Mam Bhura: were made of the ashes of
the king’s cloth and placed them at the four gates of the
Rhwechamtoau of Dagon (Rhwetagum). Fortunately, I found a Mam
Bhura: at Rahu Corner, Rhwetagum Cetiya.12)
It seems that this image
is one of the four lacquered images which made of old dresses of
Alon:man:tara:. Mam Bhurā: are usually made in four sizes (eighteen
inches, fourteen inches, nine and three quarter inches and six inches).
A porter can carry four sets of them (sixteen in number) weighing
fifteen viss (fifty four pounds) and he uses a yoke to carry them. In
making these statues, which are almost of one style with the hand
attitude (mudrā) in bhumisparsamudrā – touching the earth, and the
feet in the dhyanāsana – meditation pose with the feet crossed in such
a way that both palms of the feet would show upward.13)
Those with a
kingly robe (man: wat bhurā:), the hand attitudes would be made to
order. The dated images of Mam Bhurā: indicate that a porter would
sell in the central plains of Myanmar and in the Shan State.
12)
see Illustration 10
13)
see Illustration 11
10. Lacquered Image (? 1760)
Rāhu Corner, Rhwetagum
11. Lacquered Image (1793)
Than Tun, 1968, fg. 21
16. 16
VII. Dakkhinasākhā Image
There was Dakkhinasākhā – image of the Buddha made from
the southern branch of the sacred Bodhi tree. The image is supposed to
have a magical power of preventing fire. For this reasons almost every
Buddhist home has a Dakkhinasākhā image.14)
The cult has reached to
such a height that even the sophisticated Myanmas keep these images
although they usually are heavily insured against fire. On the head of a
Dakkhinasākhā image are nine leaves of lotus. Such an image is carved
with the head covered with lotus-sepal, the chin touching the breast,
the nape short, the fat body and the right hand stretched. The image
looks like an infant. The Dakkhinasākhā image carved on 20
November 1809 was called ‘Bodhiyo Bhurā:’.15
Putting inside the
Dakkhinasākhā images rolls of cabalistic squares or signs composed of
mystic figures and characters in a grid – An: - by striking nine tacks
was an occult science, and as such it is not Buddhism. (Ohn Maung,
1975, 92-93)
14)
see Illustration 12
15)
see Illustration 13
12. Dakkhinasakhā Image
Kwansāyā, Yangon
(middle of the 18th
century)
13. Bodhiyoe Wooden Buddha
(20 November 1809)
Than Tun, 1997, 160
17. 17
VIII. Conclusion
The images of the Buddha are made and venerated with the
belief that all these would help the Religion prosper. In sculpturing or
carving images, it is believed that the images closely resemble the
Buddha when he was alive. The style of the Buddha image in early
Konbaung Period is likely to be the Thai style and Chines style. People
professed and carved the image of Bhisakkaguru and Dakkhinasakkhā.
These cults are Mahayana elements. It is suggested that Mahayana
Buddhism is mixed up with the Theravada Buddhism in that period.
The Buddha wants is that people should follow his way to end the
chain of rebirths called Samsara. One has to work himself to get what
he wants. One cannot see the Buddha because of the Buddha images.
People, however, venerate the Buddha images and pray the Buddha in
order to escape the miseries of life.
Key Words: the Buddha, Image, Bhurā:, early Konbaung
18. 18
Appendix I
Thirty-Two Great Signs of Uttama Purisa Lakkhana
1. The palm of the foot is full
2. The foot has 108 marks on it
3. The heel is longer than ordinary
4. The toes and fingers are smooth, thick, rounded and more longer
than ordinary
5. The palm of the hand is smooth and soft like that of an infant
6. All toes and all fingers are of equal length
7. Prominent lateral malleolous
8. The thigh shaped like a long smooth seed
9. The hand long enough to touch the knee
10. Fully sheathed male organ (no circumcision)
11. Golden complexion
12. Tender skin
13. Each follicle contains only one hair
14. The soft hair curls clockwise and is brownish in colour
15. Straight torso
16. The neck, shoulders, palms of hand and foot (seven parts) are full
17. Lion like breast
18. Full in the space between shoulder blades
19. Proportionate built (no short leg and limb)
20. Broad and square shoulders
21. No veins (or muscles showing)
22. Strong jaws like those of a lion
23. Forty teeth in the mouth
24. All teeth are of equal size
25. No gap between teeth
26. All teeth clean and canine teeth are sharp
27. Long tongue to clean nostrils and ear
28. Has the voice of a heron
29. Deep brown eyes
30. Eyes bright like those of a newly born call
31. Hair on the brow ridge called urna.
32. Exuberant hair called usnisa right on top of the head
19. 19
Bibliography
- Books in Myanmar Version
Ādiccavamsa, (Monywe Sayadaw), 1940. Samandacakkhu Dīpanī,
Yangon: Thuddhamawati Press.
Dīka Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, Sixth Edition, 1956.
Hmawbhi Saya Thein, 1967. Oral Chronicle, Yangon: Aye Aye Press.
Khin Khin Su (edit), 1966. Pisukā Kyam: (Architecture Treatise),
Yangon: Burma Research Society.
Kyaw Shein, 1975. “History of Pakokku (From the 17th
Century)”,
Unpublished MA Thesis, History Department, Mandalay
University.
Mya, U, 1961. “The cause that led to making of Jambhupati Buddha
Image”, Report Of The Superintendent, Archaeological Survey,
Burma, For The Year 1958-59, Rangoon: Superintendent,
Government Printing And Stationery, Burma.
Ohn Maung, 1975. History of Dakkhinasakkhā Buddha Image,
Yangon: Aungyawein Press.
Paññindābhivamsa, Shin, 1999. Review on Buddhism in Myanmar,
Yangon: Department of Religious Affair.
Samyutta Nikaya, 1957. Yangon: Buddha Sasanā Association.
Teik Soe, 2002. Introduction of Buddhist Art, Yangon: Quality
Publishing House.
Than Tun & Thein Than Tun, 1997. History of Pindaya Shwethamin
Ceti and Pindaya Cave, Mandalay: Thein Dan Media.
Than Tun, 1968. Travelling Chronicle, Yangon: Nantha Book House.
Than Tun, 1981. “Mam Bhurā: (Lacquered Buddha Image)” Radana
Mon Magazine, Vol. 8, No. 10.
Tun Myint, U (edit), 1961. Satthurūpaka Dīpanī, Yangon: Burma
Research Society.
Win Maung, 1978. “Mandalay Sasanavamsa”, Unpublished MA
Thesis, History Department, Mandalay University.
20. 20
- Books in English Version
Coomaraswamy, Ananda K, 1970. Origin of the Buddha Image,
Calcutta: Department of Ancient Indian History and Culture,
University of Calcutta.
Griswold, A.B., 1957. Dated Buddha Images of Northern Siam,
Ascona, Switzerland: Artibus Asiae.
Than Tun, 1978. History of Buddhism in Burma, AD 1000-1300,
JBRS, LXI. I & ii, December.
Than Tun, 1980. “Lacquer images of the Buddha (Mam Bhurā:),
SHIROKU, Kagoshima University, No. 13, November.
Than Tun, 2000. “Brahmanical and Buddhist Iconograph of Pyu, Mon,
Rakhine and Myanmar”, Paper read at the 50th
Anniversary of
the Sanatan Dharma Swayamsevak Sangh on 14 January 2000,
at Yangon. the Rama Krishna Mission Main Hall.
Than Tun, 2002. Buddhist Art and Architecture, Yangon: Mon Ywe
Book House.
Tin Hla Thaw, 1963. “The Development of the Buddha Image in
Burma”, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of London.
