The Cetiya (Dr Khin Thidar - History)

1
The Cetiya (1752-1819)
Khin Thidar∗
Abstract
Cetiyas are built as a memorial of the Lord Buddha and it is believed that it
would help the prolongation of the Buddhist Religion up to about 5000 year
after the Mahāparinibbana. Cetiyas are also built to remind the people the
eternal gratitude that we owed to the founder of Buddhism, the Buddha. One
belief is that if the cetiya is built with a view to preserving the Sāsanā, it will
be a support for emancipation from Samsāra. The learned explanation is that
the cetiya is constructed and worshipped with the belief that it would help the
Religion prosper. Starting King Alon:man:tarā:, the early Konbaung Kings,
like the other Buddhist kings, zealously endeavoured the buildings of Cetiyas.
This study attempt to reveal the style and form of Cetiyas and to evaluate
which Cetiyas are the remarkable Cetiya of that period and how much extent
other alternative purposes are getting involved in building Cetiyas. It also
examines the Bodhi tree, Buddha’s footprint and Anekajā ceremony of that
period under survey.
Keywords: cetiya, the Buddha, early Konbaung
Introduction
Cetiyas were built as a memorial of the Lord Buddha and it is believed that it would help
the prolongation of the Religion up to about 5000 years after the Mahaparinibbana. The
usual aspiration in these religious donations was to acquire merit, to reborn in the
celestial realms and to ensure spiritual progress in later rebirths. Jeyapandita categorizes
the reasons for the construction of Cetiya under five headings viz. (1) to prolong the
Religion longer (2) to gain merit for promotion to higher existences, (3) to be prepared to
walk on the noble path towards Nibbana (4) to create a spiritual atmosphere to save
people from falling low or sinking towards hell and (5) to inspire the future generation
for higher ideals.1
Cetiyas are classified into four types; 1. Paribhogha Cetiya – a
memorial with something once used by the Buddha, 2. Dhatu Cetiya – a memorial with
the bodily relics of the Buddha, 3. Dhamma Cetiya – a memorial building to keep the
∗
Dr., Lecturer, Department of History, University of Magway
1
Nyaung Yan Jeyyapandita, apwDbk&m;wnfxm;enf;usrf; (Treatise on Methods of Building Stupa),
Yangon, 1963, p. 38

2
Law and 4. Odhissa Cetiya – a building made sacred by dedication.1
The earliest form
of a Cetiya is found in relief on the stone slab which covered the relic chamber at
Sriksetra in 4th
century AD. Moreover, there is a silver miniature stupa in this relic
chamber. The style of miniature stupa and the relief of Cetiya resembled closely. They
show the earliest shape of a Cetiya in Myanma. The earliest Cetiyas were the Bho Bho
Krī:, Bhurākrī: and Bhurā:mā of Sriksetra. They could not be said to be bell-shaped
Cetiya. They were straight climbing tower in shape. The shape of the Cetiya is changed
from the cylindrical type to a bell shape. It is the Rhwecañ:khum, that tapers upward by
the combination of alinsum:can.– three terraces, upper bell, phon:rac – ovolo moulding
above the bell – like dome of a Cetiya, and khyayā:sī: – the part of a pagoda
immediately below the finial when its shape resembles the fruit of the Indian medlar tree.
The design of Mingalā Cetiya which was built in time of approaching the fall of Bagan
was not quite different from those of the present-day.2
Cetiyas built by Myanmar people
are found each with pan:tankum – plinth of a stupa at the base. Then sapitmhok or Anda
(Egg) or Dome – upper portion of a pagoda which resembles a monk’s bowl turned
upside down. It is then topped with phon:rac – Chhatravali, Ovolo moulding above the
bell,which was in fact the dome of the stupa. Then there is kramhok – withering lotus
and kralan – blooming lotus. It is then graded with a design of khyayā:sī: - Varsasthala –
rain stopper, or nhkpyophu: - bulb. Then a Cetiya is graded with finial, ornamental
pennon called the diamond bulb. These parts of each Cetiya form the characteristic
feature of Myanmar architecture.3
A Cetiya or pagoda would look sublime only when
these features are appropriately added. The majority of Cetiyas in the early Konbaung
period were constructed in accord with these characteristics.
Materials
Many of the materials for this paper were collected from the National Library,
Universities’ Central Library, Yangon University Library and Library of the Myanmar
Historical Research Department, Library of State Pariyatti Sāsanā University and
Library of International Theravāda Buddhist Missionary University. Some are from Dr
Than Tun’s collections. Either to check or supplement the information that I had in the
1
Maing Khing Sayadaw Pandita, wday#u0dedpä,usrf; (Tipetaka Vinicchaya), Mandalay, Tampawady
Press, 1908, p. 399
2
Kyaw Shein, ]]yckuúLrSwfwrf;ordkif;}} ("History of Pakokku"), Unpublished M.A. Thesis, History
Department, Mandalay University, 1975, p. 23
3
ydokumusrf; (Treatise on Architecture), Yangon, Burma Research Society, 1966, p. 52

3
libraries, I had to make several field trips to Amarapura, Bagan, Mandalay, Mingun,
Monywa, Nyaung U, Pakokku, Sagaing and Shwebo.
Discussions
In this paper, the construction of Cetiyas, Bodhi Tree and Buddha’s footprints,
Buddha paintings and Anakajā ceremony were discussed. The validity of some
observation in this study and their historical values has been checked. Whenever the
new facts were found, they were faithfully presented so that they would add and correct
the former earlier statements.
The Construction of Cetiyas
In 1752 Jina Onkhyā Rhwebhumsā Cetiya at Baun:toukya in Tagon: was built by
Alon:man:tarā:. In 1754 the Cetiya known by the name of Rhwekhyaksui1
built at the
place where the umbilical cord of Alon:min:tayā: was buried. In 1757 Modhomransā
Cetiya2
(also known as Cañ:khum Cetiya) was built. Rupcuṁ Cetiya was constructed at
Kywede in Shwebo district in 1758. It was built by Alon:man:tarā: on his march to
Manipur to settle the succession to the throne in that country. Cetiyas of a
commemorative nature were erected at all the principal camps along the line of
marching. The shrine takes its name in terms of its being ornamented with brick figures
of Bilū: and other fabulous monsters.3
Mredū: Maṅ: built Nibbanchipū: Cetiya4
at the Southwest corner of
Ratanasingha Capital on 7 April 1765. Mredū: Maṅ: also constructed Phontoauū: Cetiya
in 1764 and Rhweprann Chipū: Cetiya on 22 February 1776. On 20 March 1782,
Onmreloka Cetiya5
was erected by Patuṁ Maṅ: on the site of his residence before he
ascended the throne. It is also known as the Imtoaurā Cetiya. It was constructed entirely
of sandstone, in cylindrical form with a tapering spire. It was made similar to
Rhwecañ:khuṁ Cetiya at Bagan. When Patuṁ Maṅ: built Amarapura capital, he also
constructed four Mruithonˌ Cetiyas at the four corners of Amarapura. They are
Rhwekwan:up Cetiya at the northeast corner, Rhwecakā: Cetiya at the southeast corner,
1
(see photograph No. 1)
2
3
A List of Ancient Monument in Burma, Rangoon, Government Superintendent Printing, 1960, p. 16
(Hereafter cited as A List of Ancient Monument)
4
5

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Rhwelaṅ:paṅ: Cetiya at the southwest corner1
and Chaṅkyui:rhwekū Cetiya2
at the
northwest corner.
The Maṅ:kwan: Cetiya (Puthui:toaukrī:)3
that was left unfinished is the
remarkable Cetiya of the Konbaung period. The model of Man:kwan: Cetiya called
Pumtoau Pagoda4
shows how it would look when finished. It is about 15 feet high. The
construction of Man:kwan: Cetiya5
was begun on 9 January 1791. Though unfinished it
is now the biggest pile of bricks in the world. The bottom terrace is a square of 450 feet
and the dome on it rises to 162 feet. Each side of the huge cubical mass is hollowed out
to accommodate a small shrine with a slightly projecting arch.6
A few hundred feet to the
the north of Maṅ:kwan: Cetiya is the Rhanphru Cetiya or Mrasin:tan Cetiya7
built by
Cackuiṅ: Maṅ: in 18028
while he was yet a prince. It has a circular plan and seven
concentric terraces parapeted with low walls of wavy pattern. Above the top terrace rises
a cylindrical body which contains a vaulted sanctum. The superstructure assumes the
common type of tapering pagoda. The sanctum is reached by three parallel flights of
steps covered by an arcade of ornamental arches finished in fine stucco.9
It is is intended
to be a complete symbolical representation or model of Mount Meru. The structural
design of the pagoda is seemed to be in connection with similar Buddhistical remains in
Java. The Caktoaurā pagoda10
built in 1811 contains vaulted chambers. In it was placed
a marble footprint of the Buddha11
brought to Maṅ:kwan: by Patuṁ Maṅ: when the relic
chamber of the big pagoda was ceremoniously sealed.
1
2
3
Patuṁ Maṅ: did not complete to build Maṅ:kwan: Cetiya because there appeared the prophecy if the
cetiya will finish the Konbaung dynasty would be fallen. Therefore he did not continue to build it.
4
5
6
Aung Thaw, Historical Sites in Burma, The Ministry of Union of Culture, Government of Union of
Burma, 1978 , pp.134-135 (Hereafter cited as Aung Taw, Historical Sites)
7
8
There is a difference about the constructed date of Man:kwan: Mrasin:tan Ceti. Some books are stated
that it built in 1816.
a. Aung Taw, Historical Sites, p. 135
b. A List of Ancient Monument, p.7
c. Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Volume III, Fascicle 4, Srilanka, The Department of Government
Printing, 1977, p. 528
But according to the Kun:bonchak Maharajawam , Cackuin: Prince built it in 1802.
ukef;abmifqufr[m&mZ0ifawmfMuD;?'kwd,wGJ (The Great Chronicle of Konbaung,II), Yangon, Ledi
Mandai Press, 1967, p.128 (Hereafter cited as Chronicle of Konbaung,II)
There is no mentioned about the construction of this Ceti in 1816 in the Kun:bonchak Maharajawam.
So it is possible to say that the exact date of building the Ceti is 1802.
9
Chronicle of Konbaung,II, p. 128-131
10
11

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Of the Cetiyas of that period, the Pwat Cetiya1
was extremely popular because of
of its peculiar phoṅ:rac style and this Cetiya style is look like the pwatluṁ: - object
made on lathe. Moreover, the Sambhuddhe Cetiya 2
(1783) built like a crown left on the
ground3
is one of the remarkable pagodas of that period. Among the achievements of
kings for the propagation of the Religion, construction of pagodas seemed to be main
venue. After having acquired a new territory, the king wanted to build a pagoda there to
seal the pretence that he fought his neighbour to suppress heathenism. Such a pagoda had
to be just a small one known by the name of Mutho. Patuṁ Maṅ: 1782-1819 had the
name of Mutho changed to Rhwe Gū – Gold Cave, because it was to become a pagoda –
cum – temple, i.e. a temple of Buddha image with a pagoda enshrined with Buddha relics
on the roof. The Ananda Pagoda of Bagan was a square-based temple, a kind of Garbha
Griha where the Buddha’s image was placed, and on which was put on a Sikhara.
Therefore, such Cetiya (Rhwe Gū) would have existed even in ancient times. When
Patuṁ Maṅ: was coroneted for the second time on 22 May 1784, he had 550 Rhwe Gū4
built simultaneously in towns and villages in the kingdom. All these small monuments
were always built simultaneously by synchronizing the moment to say the first stone
when the lunar eclipse began on a particular day notified by astrologers long before it
occurred.5
It may be said that kings founded pagodas
(1) to show the extent of their power and influence;
(2) to mark the important places in their lives (like the place where they
were born or where they had lived before they became king);
(3) to mark the completion of a meritorious deed.
1
2
This cetiya is situated at Amarapūra.
3
4
a. U Tin, jrefrmrif;tkyfcsKyfyHkpmwrf;ESifh bdk;awmfbk&m; &mZowfac: trdefYawmfwrf;MuD; (Treatise on
Administration of Myanmar King and Yajasat @ Royal Order of King Badon), Vol. III, 1965, p.110
(Hereafter cited as U Tin, Administration of Myanmar King, III) (It stated that as many as 550)
b. ukef;abmifqufr[m&mZ0ifawmfMuD;?yxrwGJ (The Great Chronicle of Konbaung,I), Yangon,
Yadanamon Press, 1989, pp. 556-557 (Hereafter cited as Chronicle of Konbaung, I,) (It stated that
there were only 230)
c. tr&yl&jrdKYwnfpmwrf; (Monograph on Building Amarapura), Pe No. 1619, Universities Central
Library, Yangon, cha / kyo
5
U Tin, Administration of Myanmar King, III, p. 110

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In addition to this the king passed an order that no more pagodas were to be built in the
capital city. This prohibition on having a new pagoda built in the capital city is unique in
the sense that there was no order like this before and after.
Repository of Relics
Cetiyas are also built to remind the people the eternal gratitude that we owed to
the founder of Buddhism, the Buddha and in some instances to commemorate some
historical events like founding a new capital city. Cetiya has a sealed-up chamber often
in the basement and sometimes in the dhatugabbha which lies between the bell-shaped
section and the finial. In constructing a Cetiya, relics and other things are enshrined in a
sealed-up chamber. Most of the Cetiyas contain some forms of relics relating to the
Buddha, like bodily relics, miniatures (of the Buddha and the Stupa), with extracts from
the scriptures, on gold leaves. In 1755, a number of sacred relics and an emerald alms
bowl said to be of the Buddha were enshrined at the Rhwekhyaksui Cetiya. In 1758, the
relics were enshrined in the terrace of Cañ:khuṁ Cetiya (Modhomraṅsā Cetiya). When
Rhanphrū Cetiya was built, the relics were interred at the basement of the Cetiya. In the
Maṅ:kwan: Cetiya, the plinths were actually the concealed chambers containing the
relics. In 1783, 512028 votive tablets were enshrined in each of four Mruiˌthonˌ Cetiyas
in Amarapura.1
Thus the Cetiyas are shrines with some relics, the Buddha images and
some copies of the Pitaka.
The Expenses of Stupa
The expense of a Cetiya depended on its size. It was found that the expenses of
outstanding Maṅ:kwan: Mrasin:tan Pagoda (1802), was Ks 146,523.1.2
The cost of the
Kusuitoau Cetiya of Amarapūra (1789) was Ks 5,361.08 and cost of the Cetiya built in
Thettinshaw village, Inlay, in 1797 was Ks 441.3
Just like the kings, people in remote
areas also built pagodas in conformity with their capability. According to the ink
inscription of the Dīpaṅkarā Temple (a pagoda with a vaulted roof) at Kandaung
Monastery in Pindaya Township, that temple was built in 1799. In Pwai Kyaṅ:-Cetisu, a
picture of Nat (Deva) holding a Parabike was found and it seems that many temples were
1
Sukumar Dutt, The Buddha and After Five Centuries, London, Luzac & Co. Limited, 1957, pp. 41-42
2
Ledi U Hla Paing, rif;uGef;bk&m;rsm;ordkif; (History of Mingun Pagaodas), Yangon, Tun Thiri Press,
1971, p. 78
3
Ni Tut, ]]tr&yl&omoem0if}} ("Amarapura Sasanavamsa"), Unpublished M.A. Thesis, History
Department, Mandalay University, 1982, p. 23

7
built in that area in 1811. Old and ruined pagodas were renovated by the Order of Kings.
The total expense on renovation of Man:-O-Khyam:sā pagoda was 1,136 gold-leaf
packets; 200 viss of sacce: – Melanorrhoea usitata, and Ks 147.03 for all other
services.1
Bodhi Tree and Buddha’s Footprints
‘Bodhi tree’ is often mentioned as a Sacred Tree having significant association
with the Buddha. It is supposed to be said that Prince Siddhattha finally arose
enlightened as the Buddha under the shade of the Banyan tree (Ficus religiosa) which
was born with him simultaneously. Buddhists therefore pay respect to the Bodhi tree
which is specially grown in the precinct of a Cetiya. Although it was right that the Lord
and His disciples – practiced religious meditation under trees, there were those who felt
that there must have been some relationship between the Lord and the tree under which
He sat. Anyhow, there is evidence that, in the early Konbaung period, Bodhi trees were
brought from Sri Lanka and regarded with great veneration in Myanmar. They were also
grown to show the spread of Buddhism obviously.2
On 18 March 1806 Patuṁ Maṅ:
ordered that the seven Bodhi saplings imported from Sri Lanka, should be put in seven
gold pots and to plant them in the following places;
1. two in the precincts of Mahāmuni,
2. two in the precincts of Rhwekhyaksui, Ratanasingha, and
3. three in the precincts of Puthui:toaukrī:, Man:kwan:.3
With reference to the belief that the Buddha had been to Myanmar while He was living,
the Buddha’s footprints were carved and placed in several Cetiyas throughout the
country. Before the 18th
century, the Buddha footprint has 108 auspicious marks known
as Mahapurisalakkhana – auspicious signs of a great man. The Lakkhana Sutta of Digha
Nikāya mentions that there is a wheel marked on the palm of the foot of a great man.
Commentaries mention that there are thirty-two marks discernable within the wheel. As
regards the number of auspicious marks, when and how they have been increased from
thirty-two to 108 has not been studied yet. Up till now the number of marks continued to
be 108.4
In addition to the 108 signs, a footprint of the Buddha made in early Konbaung
1
Than Tun, The Royal Orders of Burma (1598-1885), Vol. VI, Kyoto, The Centre for Southeast Asian
Studies, Kyoto University, 1987, p. 213 (Hereafter cited as ROB VI)
2
prÁL'DyOaqmif;usrf; (Jambhudipa Uchon Kyam:), Yangon, Burma Research Society, 1960, p. 42
3
Chronicle of Konbaung, I, p. 271
4
see Appendix I

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era would also has 136 pictures of sixteen kinds of birds and beasts1
suggesting the
aggregate of various existence of the Buddha before Nirvana.2
It cannot be known why
the Myanmar had chosen those particular sixteen out of many previous lives of the
Buddha.
In most of the Buddha’s footprints of the 18th
century onwards, there are two
serpents encircling a footprint. They represent the Nammada River and the Nammada
Nagā. The Nammada River marks the boundary between the northern expense of plains
and the southern peninsular in India. It is also supposed to be the place of the Nagā
serpents and once the Buddha visited the place of the Nagā king, the Buddha left the
print of his left foot on the bank of Nammada River. When the river rises the print is
submerged in water and so the print is visible only at the time of low water. Myanmar
borrowed this story and had a footprint of the Buddha made at Man:caktoaurā, on the
east ridge of West Yoma, 26 miles on the southwest of Maṅ:bhu: and 16 miles on the
west of Caku.3
Most of the footprints are also engraved on stones, but there are also
some engraved on bronze plaques and lacquered wood. They are also painted on the
ceilings of the temples. It is impossible that the Buddha had visited it in his lifetime and
left various footprints like those at Man:caktoaurā on the eastern ridge of west Yoma.
The idea of having so many marks visible on the palms of the feet of a great man
(Mahapurisa lakkhana) is pre-Buddhistic and somewhat too idealistic because the
Buddha’s own theory of the attributes of Mahapurisa is given in the Mahapurisa Sutta
and Vassakara Sutta. No two lists of the 108 marks agree totally. There are slight
variations in each enumeration. There also appeared early in the 19th
century a correction
in making the Buddha’s footprint. According to this correction, all the 108 marks are to
be shown within a big circle. In early Konbaung Period, a marble footprint of the Buddha
in Caktoaurā pagoda was unique.
Buddha Paintings
Buddha paintings are also drawn on walls of Cetiya and monasteries.
Traditionally, pictures of Gotama Buddha are painted; but the paintings of the
enlightenment of the twenty-eight Buddhas were also used to be drawn. The best method
1
see Appendix II
2
3
Than Tun, "The Buddha Footprints in Burma", Journal of Asian and African Studies, No.28, 1984, p.
120

9
of differentiating one Buddha from another is to use different ‘Bodhi trees’.1
For
instance the Buddha Vessabhū set under the Aporosa macrophylla (Ankran) at the time
of his enlightenment, Kakusanda under Ficus glomerata (Yesaphan), Kassapa under
Ficus bengalensis (Prannon). Apart from painted Buddha, ten Jatakas – last ten anterior
lives of Gotama Buddha, and 550 Jatakas (actually there are 547 life stories of the
Buddha) were also drawn2
. These Jataka stories aimed to educate the illiterate public to
appreciate the concepts of Buddhism. Pictures from the Jataka stories show how the
sinful were punished whereas the good received rewards in proportion to what merit they
had done. The tales tell how, through human and animal forms, the Lord attained the
moral perfections needed for a final birth. These moral perfections are qualities such as
generosity, patience, and loving kindness. Paintings of Jataka have historical value,
because they also portray the secular buildings, such as place and village architecture of
the period as well as the dress, the ornaments and the furnishings of the time. Moreover,
the paintings were the most striking and effective means of convincing the common folk
of the merit of giving alms and of meditation.
Anekajā Ceremony
Myanmar when they have completed a pagoda or an image use the Anekajā
without which the Cetiya is just a pile of bricks and the image is just another statue
which is considered worshipful. They must be properly consecrated. The ceremony
requires the assembly of men and monks and the monks recite a formula beginning with
Anekajāti samsāram which is supposed to be the first words uttered by Gotama Buddha
at the time of the enlightenment. The formula is
Anekajātisamsāram
Sandhavissam anibbisam
gahakarakam gavesanto,
dukkha jati punappunam.
Gahakaraka! Ditthosi,
puna geham na kahasi,
sabba te phasuka bhagga,
gahakutam visankhitam,
1
2

10
visankharagatam cittam,
tanhanam khayam ajjihaga.
Thro many a birth in Samsara wandered I,
Seeking but not finding, the builder of this house.
Sorrowful is repeated birth.
O house – builder! You are seen.
You shall build no house again.
All your rafters are broken,
Your ridge-pole is shattered.
To dissolution (Nibbana) goes my mind. Achieved is
The end of craving.1
These two verses are in numbers 153 and 154 from the Dhammapada, Jaravagga,
Suttanta Pitaka. These verses are supposed to have been uttered by the Buddha as soon
as he attained Sabbaññutañāṇa. Hence two verses are recited to every new image to
‘Buddhify’ it. An image dated on 30 December 1810 described the Anakajā ceremony.
Patum Man: asked the Mon: Ton Charātoau – a question with reference to consecrating
an image or pagoda, and the Charātoau replied that this practice was not warranted by
any canonical text2
and many Buddhist philosophers ignored it. This practice, however,
is much imbued in Myanmar Buddhists.
Findings
Most of the Cetiyas in early Konbaung period are solid structures. Early
Konbaung Kings erected the Cetiyas at all the principal camps along the marching route.
Furthermore they built Mruithonˌ Cetiyas at the four corners of capital when they
construct the new capital. Sometime they built in memorial place such as birth place and
resident. They enshrined some form of relics relating to the Buddha, like bodily relics,
miniatures (of the Buddha and the Cetiyas), with extracts from the scriptures, on gold
leaves in relic chamber of Cetiyas. In the precinct of Cetiya, Bodhi Tree is grown.
Sometimes, in memory of Lord Buddha, Buddha Footprint is carved in it. Buddha
paintings are also decorated on walls of Cetiyas. When the Cetiya was completely built,
the Anakajā ceremony was held.
1
"r®y' (Dhammapada), Yangon, Department of Religious Affairs, 1962, Verses 153, 154
2
Maung Htaung Shin Ñāna, tar;awmfajz (Catechism), Mandalay, Padetha Pitaka Press, 1961, p. 456

11
Conclusion
The Cetiyas were built as memorial of Lord Buddha and to express their religious zeal
for merit or gain through public applause. The learned explanation is that the Cetiyas are
made and worshipped with the belief that all these would help the Religion to prosper.
Most of the Cetiyas of the early Konbaung period are solid structures like those of the
present day. In constructing the Cetiya, the base was built first. Then the three preceding
terraces and the bell were made. And then the ringed spire tapering upwards was
cemented and the finial was fixed. For the construction material, brick was the most
common one because stone was scarce. The most remarkable Cetiya of that period was
the Man:kwan: Patho:toaukri: by Patuṁ Maṅ:. And it is found that the consecration
ceremony called Anekaja ceremony becomes very important nowadays. This practice
was not prescribed in any canonical text and many Buddhist philosophers ignored it. But
Myanmar Buddhist imbued this practice and held the Anekajā ceremony. It can be
concluded that the Cetiyas are not mere reminders of the faith, but they are also strong
repositories of relics. By doing this research, one become to know about the Buddhist art
and architecture of ancient Cetiyas, and as a Buddhist, what had done after the
completion of Cetiya. One can evaluate the high standard of civilization of Myanmar.
This paper gives some information about the ancient Cetiyas in Upper Myanmar and
reveals that Myanmar is the land of cultural heritage.

12
Appendix I
The 108 Auspicious Marks of Buddha Footprint
1. A Spear
2. A House of Great Honour
3. A Flower of Periwinkle Plant
4. Three Distinct Lines on the Throat
5. A Vatamsaka Flower
6. A Tray of Food
7. A Couch of Gold
8. A Goad of Gold
9. A Hall with Gold Roof of Multiple Tiers
10. A Gate way of Gold
11. Two White Umbrellas
12. A Double-edged Sword
13. A Circular Palm-leaf Fan
14. A Peacock Tail-feather Fan
15. A Whisk of Tail from a Lion-like Animal called Camari
16. A Forehead Band of Gold
17. An Ascetic’s Begging Bowl made of Emerald
18. A Ruby
19. A Garland of Jasmine Flowers
20. A Brown Flower of Water Lily
21. A White Flower Water Lilly
22. A Red Flower of Water Lilly
23. A Red Flower of Water Lilly
24. A Flower of Padumma Water Lilly
25. A Pot full of Water
26. A Bowl full of Water
27. A Symbol depicting Four Oceans
28. A Mountain Range going around the Universe
29. A Mountain called Meru
30. A House in a Circle to represent the Sun (later the Horse is
replaced by a Peacock)
31. A Hare in a Circle to represent the Moon

13
32. A Lunar Asterism
33. A Great Continent that looks like a Half Moon in the East
34. A Great Continent that looks like a Circle in the West
35. A Great Continent that looks like a Triangle in the South
36. A Great Continent that looks like a Square in the North
37. The Universal Monarch
38. Right-voluted Conch
39. A Pair of Cirrhina Mrigala Fish of Gold
40. A Whirling Circle of Blades
41. A Bird with Human Head
42. A Crocodile
43. A Cluster of Banners and Streamers
44. A Palanquin
45. A Yak Tail Whisk finished with Gold
46. A Silver Range called Kelasa
47. A Lion
48. A Tiger
49. A Horse that could fly
50. A White Elephant
51. A Serpent
52. A Wild Duck of Gold
53. A Bull
54. An Elephant with Three Heads called Eravana
55. A Sea Monster called Makara
56. A Brahma with Four Faces
57. A Boat of Gold
58. A Crow with a Calf
59. A Bird with Male Human Head
60. A Bird with Female Human Head
61. A Cuckoo
62. A Peacock
63. A Crane
64. A Ruddy Goose
65. A Swallow

14
66-71. Six Abodes of the Deva
72-87. Sixteen Abodes of the Brahma
88-94. Seven Ranges
95 -101. Seven Lakes
102-108. Seven Swamps
Than Tun, 2000, 121-122

15
Appendix II
Sixteen Birds and Beasts of Buddha Footprint
1. Beasts, Lion-like 15
2. Birds with Human Head 4
3. Birds, Mina 7
4. Buffaloes 8
5. Bullocks 14
6. Cranes 16
7. Cuckoos 5
8. Ducks, Wild 9
9. Elephants 11
10.Fowls 12
11.Hogs 13
12.Horse that could fly 1
13.Monkeys 10
14.Parrots 3
15.Peacocks 2
16.Pigeons 6
Total 136
Than Tun, 2000, 123

16
No. 1 Rhwekhyaksui Cetiya –1754
West Market Quarter, Shwebo
No. 2 Modhomransā Cetiya-1757
No. 1 Quarter, Shwebo
No. 3 Nibbanchipū: Cetiya- 1765
West Minkon Quarter, Shwebo

17
No. 4 Onmreloka Cetiya-1782
Sagaing
No. 5 Rhwelan:pan Cetiya-1783
Southwest Corner, Amarapura

18
No. 6 Chankyui:rhweku Cetiya-1783
Northwest Corner, Amarapura
No. 7 Pumtoau Cetiya-1791
Mingun, Sagaing

19
No.8 Puthui:toaukrī:-1791
Mingun, Sagaing
No. 9 Mrasin:tan Cetiya-1802
Mingun, Sagaing

20
No. 10 Caktoaurā Cetiya-1811
Mingun, Sagaing
No. 11 Buddha Footprint
Caktoaurā Cetiya, Mingun, Sagaing

21
No.14 Details of the Buddha’s
Right Footprint engraved
on stone, early 19th
century
AD, Mui:mit Monastic
Establishment, Man:kwan:
108 auspicious marks on the
Buddha Footprint of Man:kwan:
and 136 anterior lives of the
Buddha engraved around it.
Than Tun, 1984,130
No. 12 Pwat Cetiya
Near Wingaba Cave,
Phowintaung, Monywa
No.13 Sambbuddhe Cetiya-1783
Amarapura

22
No. 15 28 Buddha Images
No.480 Queen Cave, Phowintaung,
Monywa
No. 16 547 Jataka Stories
No.480 Queen Cave, Phowintaung,
Monywa

23
References
A List of Ancient Monument in Burma, Rangoon, Government Superintendent Printing, 1960
Aung Thaw, Historical Sites in Burma, The Ministry of Union of Culture,
Government of Union of Burma, 1978
Dutt, Sukumar The Buddha and After Five Centuries, London, Luzac & Co. Limited,
1957
Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Volume III, Fascicle 4, Srilanka, The Department of Government Printing,
1977
Hla Paing, U, Ledi rif;uGef;bk&m;rsm;ordkif; (History of Mingun Pagaodas), Yangon, Tun Thiri
Press, 1971
Jeyyapandita, Nyaung Yan apwDbk&m;wnfxm;enf;usrf; (Treatise on Methods of Building Cetiya),
Yangon, 1963
Kyaw Shein, ]]yckuúLrSwfwrf;ordkif;}} ("History of Pakokku"), Unpublished M.A.
Thesis, History Department, Mandalay University, 1975
Ñāna, Shin, Maung Htaung tar;awmfajz (Catechism), Mandalay, Padetha Pitaka Press, 1961
Ni Tut, ]]tr&yl&omoem0if}} ("Amarapura Sasanavamsa"), Unpublished M.A.
Thesis, History Department, Mandalay University, 1982
Pandita, Maing Khing Sayadaw wday#u0dedpä,usrf; (Tipetaka Vinicchaya), Mandalay, Tampawady
Press, 1908
Than Tun, "The Buddha Footprints in Burma", Journal of Asian and African
Studies, No.28, 1984
Than Tun, The Royal Orders of Burma (1598-1885), Vol. VI, Kyoto, The Centre
for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, 1987
Tin, U jrefrmrif;tkyfcsKyfyHkpmwrf;ESifh bdk;awmfbk&m; &mZowfac:
trdefYawmfwrf;MuD; (Treatise on Administration of Myanmar King and
Yajasat @ Royal Order of King Badon), Vol. III, 1965
ukef;abmifqufr[m&mZ0ifawmfMuD;?'kwd,wGJ (The Great Chronicle of Konbaung,II), Yangon, Ledi Mandai
Press, 1967
ukef;abmifqufr[m&mZ0ifawmfMuD;?yxrwGJ (The Great Chronicle of Konbaung,I), Yangon, Yadanamon
Press, 1989
prÁL'DyOaqmif;usrf; (Jambhudipa Uchon Kyam:), Yangon, Burma Research Society, 1960
"r®y' (Dhammapada), Yangon, Department of Religious Affairs, 1962
ydokumusrf; (Treatise on Architecture), Yangon, Burma Research Society, 1966
tr&yl&jrdKYwnfpmwrf; (Monograph on Building Amarapura), Pe No. 1619, Universities Central Library,
Yangon

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