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Internship Paper: The Study of Leadership, Stigma, Poverty and Social Institutions
Senior Internship
Jeremey Davison -11/19/2014

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The Mission& History of the Boys and Girls Club:
Enabling young adults and helping them reach their full potential by becoming
productive, caring, and responsible citizens is the overall mission that The Boys and Girls Club
of America strives to reach. Interning at the Boys and Girls Club gave me the opportunity to take
part in this mission and help in the nurturing of the youth within our community.
Founded in 1860 in Hartford Connecticut by Elizabeth Hammersley and Mary and Alice
Goodwin, the Boys and Girls club was as then only known as The Boys Club. At its inception,
the club targeted young boys many of whom were often the engaged in mischief; meandering
about the streets often finding trouble (Boys and Girls Club of America). The focus of the club at
that time was to provide more positive environment and activities for the boys that would better
them as a whole. By 1906, several Boys Clubs had sprung up throughout the area as well as
Boston. With the foundation of The Federation Boys Club in Boston, the Boys Club started to
spread nationwide. In 1956, the Boys Clubs of America, during their 50th anniversary, received a
U.S. Congressional Charter, and in 1990, the organization became the Boys and Girls Clubs of
America, thus opening their doors to young girls in the community.
According to the Boys and Girls Club website (bgca.org), in order to attract young boys
and improve their behavior in a positive way, John Collins developed a system of informal
guidance, thus increasing their personal expectations and goals. This system helped young boys
set more positive goals as well as give them a more positive thing to do rather than roaming the
streets (Boys and Girls Club of America). In 1950 Aaron Fahringer, West Coast Regional
Director developed a code for the west coast chapters detailing the beliefs of the club as well as
what they strive to teach the young boys and girls within the club. The code was later adopted by

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the Boys and Girls club National Council in 1955 and can still be seen displayed in many clubs
today:
“I believe in God and the right to worship according to my own faith and religion.
I believe in America and the American way of life…in the Constitution and the Bill of
Rights. I believe in fair play, honesty and sportsmanship. I believe in my Boys & Girls
Club, which stands for these things.”
The Five Leadership Styles:
There are five main types of leadership styles; the democratic, the authoritarian, the
expressive, the instrumental, and the lassie faire. Three of these leadership styles were
formulated by psychologists Kurt, Lewin, Ronald Lippitt, and Ralph K. White in their 1939
experiment on group behavior amongst children. The psychologist manipulated the different
scenarios in order to observe responses the children would give from the different styles of
leadership.
In the autocratic style, the leader makes decisions without consulting with others (Lewin,
Kurt, Lippitt, and white 1939). The decision is made without any form of discussion. In Lewin's
experiments, he found that this leadership style caused the highest level of discontent. An
autocratic style works when there is no need for input on the decision, where the decision would
not change as a result of input, and where the motivation of people to carry out following actions
would not be affected whether they were or were not involved in the decision-making (Lewin,
Kurt, Lippitt, and White 1939).
In the democratic style, the leader involves the people in the decision-making; the process
for the final decision may still vary from the leader having the final say to the people making the

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decision (Lewin, Kurt, Lippitt, and White 1939). Lewin found that in the Democratic style, the
input of the people is valued more after they have been exposed to autocratic decisions with
which they disagreed. The structure becomes problematic when there is no clear way of reaching
a reasonable decision (Lewin, Kurt, Lippitt, and White 1939).
Laissez-faire style is characterized by a reduction the leader's involvement in decisions.
The structure allows people to make their own decisions (Lewin, Kurt, Lippitt, and White 1939).
Lewin found that the Laissez-faire structure works best when people are self-motivated
and able to make their own decisions (Lewin, Kurt, Lippitt, and White 1939). The structure fails
when fundamental coordination is needed, an example would be when sharing resources across a
range of different people and groups (Lewin, Kurt, Lippitt, and White 1939).
The last two styles of leadership that will be defined are expressive, and instrumental.
Instrumental leadership focuses on achieving goals. Leaders that utilize instrumental leadership
methods work to maintain efficiency and ensure that tasks are completed (Kokemuller 2011).
While expressive leadership focuses on maintaining group unity. Leaders that practice expressive
leadership methods tend to maintain positive relationships amongst members to ensure the well-
being of the group (Kokemuller 2011). In other words instrumental leadership is objective while
expressive leadership is more about the people.
Can leadership be taught or are leaders born?
There are few individuals that are considered born leaders. Born leaders are individuals
that are naturally charismatic. These are individuals that naturally cause people to gravitate
towards them. Dr. Martin Luther King, Mahatma Gandhi, George Washington, Franklin D.
Roosevelt and the infamous Adolf Hitler are all examples of born leaders. However, for the

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majority, leadership is something that is gained through cultivation. The story of “Genie”
illustrates the importance of nurture. Even those listed as born leaders endured some form of
cultivation. Whether it is through a traumatic event in their childhood, or a civil injustice during
their lifetime; they too were influenced by external stimuli. Nonetheless, the method in which
leadership is taught is boundless in nature. Leadership can be crafted through an individual’s life
experiences, habits, and environmental surroundings. Robert J. Sampson and W. Byron Groves
are Modern Social Disorganization Theorist whose research supports the claim of societal
influence on behavior. Sampson and Groves linked the structural aspects of neighborhoods to a
neighborhoods ability to maintain social control (1989). Social control usually refers to
institutions within (schools, churches, after school activities) a neighborhood that can influence
values and behavior by keeping their youth involved. Sampson and Groves found the between
the factors to be a good indicator for criminal victimization (1989). Leadership is a trait that can
be taught, however, the type of leader depends on the environmental factors. In a socially
disorganized environment, that type of leader leans more towards criminal behavior. Social
control institutions similar to The Boys and Girls Club improve neighborhoods by providing the
youth with productive after school activities. These facilities also tend to challenge members to
become leaders and reduce the risk of deviant behavior.
The Boys and Girls Club Services:
The Boys and Girls Club America provides an abundance of services for youth development in
the areas of Character and Leadership, Education and Career, Health and Life skills, Arts, Sports,
Fitness and Recreation, and Specialized Programs.

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The Boys and Girls Club’s Character and Leadership Branch are composed of, “Million
Members Million hours of service, Torch club, Keystone: The Ultimate Teen Program, and The
Youth of the Year.” The Character and leadership branch helps youth become responsible, caring
citizens. The main drive of these programs is to help the youth develop skills for participating in
the democratic process. They also help the youth develop leadership skills and provide
opportunities for planning, decision-making, while contributing to a Club and a community.
The Education and Career branch is composed of programs such as; Career Launch,
Money matters, My Future, Power Hour: Making Minutes Count Project Learn, Junior Staff:
cultivating tomorrows professionals, Be Great Graduate, and Diplomas to degrees. It is a
requirement for each individual club to implement at least one of these three approaches:
academic enrichment and school engagement; targeted dropout prevention; and intensive
intervention and case management. The aim is to ensure that all Club members graduate from
high school on time, and are ready for post-secondary education.
The Health and Lifestyle branch of The Boys and Girls Club is composed of Date Smart,
Passport to Manhood, Smart Girls, and Smart Moves, Net Smartz, and Triple Play. These
programs encourage the youth to partake in positive behaviors that will nurture their own well-
being, and help them set personal goals for living successfully as self-sufficient adults.
The Art branch of the Boys and Girls Club is composed of Clay Tech, TNT Drama
Matters after school, Be Creative Digital Arts festivals, Image Makers, and the National Fine
Arts exhibit. This branch challenges the youth to develop an appreciation for the visual arts,
performing arts and creative writing, and also helps build the skills of those who have a talent in
such subjects.

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The Sports and Recreational branch is composed of PGA Sports Academy, Wannaplay,
Jr RBI, and RBI. These programs help develop teamwork sportsmanship and leadership skills as
well as providing the youth areas for stress relief.
The specialized programs help the club reach needs that come with a changing society
these include; Spanish tutors, special needs, and parent focused groups. The branch focuses on
meeting the significant and specific needs identified within the goals set by the Boys & Girls
Clubs.
“There are No children Here” By Alex Kotowitz
“There are no children here”, by Alex Kotowitz, is a qualitative account of the life of two boys
that grew up in the Henry Horner Homes in Chicago. The study covers the span of three years
summer 1987 to summer 1989. Interestingly, the author illustrates two different temperaments
amongst the children in the ghetto. The author sets the tone with Langston Hughes’ poem “A
Dream Deferred”. In High School, we investigated the true meaning of the poem. A Dream
Deferred reflects the mindset of a young boy living in the ghetto that suffered from a dying
dream. The child believed that they can achieve all until the daunting reality of his circumstances
dissolves those ambitions. Why did Kotowitz start the book with a poem about loss of
innocence? Kotowitz illustrate how the boys cope with living in the projects. The story
illustrates two outcomes of growing up in a socially disorganized neighborhood, one child was
able to excel while the other ended up falling within the depths of the neighborhood.
The boys’ story resonates with me because I was raised in Compton California. There
were more gang organizations than there were youth centers. I feared that I would become a
victim of my environment. Similar to Lafayette, I too was given tremendous responsibility at the

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age of thirteen to look after my cousins and my little sister. However, I also shared similarities
with Pharaoh within the classroom. Growing up in Compton was like living in two realities.
There was the reality of being a kid and wanting to play, but there was also the reality of
prevalent dangers. I find it interesting the way humans suppress traumatic events in our minds.
The more I read, the more vivid the images of past become. I remember waking up in the middle
of the night because of a local gang’s drive-by. Although I wanted no part of it, being exposed to
that environment forced me to understand the gang system. Through each account that Kotowitz
records, a similar image of my own remerges. In chapter six, Pharaoh becomes frustrated with
his environment and asks for Lafayette to take him to the railroad. My mother would take me to
the beach to relieve the stress of the environment. Reading “There is No Children Here” was like
taking a walk down memory lane. I often wonder where I would have been if it were not for
someone similar to Alex Kotowitz in my life. Mr. Malcom took me and a group of endangered
youth under his wing. The mission of the group was to reclaim the youth, suffering from a
chronic state of poverty, from the streets of Compton.
Harsh facts about Children in poverty:
Children from minority groups are suffering the most due to poverty. According to the National
Center for Children in Poverty’s website, there are 16 million children living in families that fall
below the threshold. James Baldwin once said, “Anyone who has struggled with poverty knows
how extremely expensive it is to be poor”. Expensive indeed, children from poor families have a
higher number of absenteeism, or leave school all together because of having to work or care for
family members (DoSomething.org, 2013). Children of upper middle class families usually do
not have to deal with having to maintain a job while in school. Children of poor families, by the
time of 6th grade, have fallen behind in categories of reading and math. Another fact is that

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children of poor families are 1.3 times more likely to have developmental delays or learning
disabilities than their counterparts (DoSomething.org 2013). Children of poor families do not
always get a lot of nurturing from their parents, due to parents constantly having to work. One
other fact from Do Something.org is, “By the end of the 4th grade, African-American, Hispanic,
and low-income students are already two years behind grade level. By the time they reach the
12th grade they are four years behind. The price for being poor is very expensive for children
and minorities. A sticky floor scenario is when a child is focused more on supporting strong ties
than furthering their education. The scenario is common in not only Hispanic families, but also
in African American families. The NBA did a 30/30 special documentary on Allen Iverson who
throughout high school would skip school to take care of his sister. The documentary helped
place poverty in perspective of the choices the poor make. The documentary illustrated the
struggles of being a poor in America. Allen Iverson had talent, like many others talent was his
way out of poverty. However, in poor families these role models tend to portrayals of unlikely
success stories for poor children. Placing emphasis on education instead of sports seems to be a
more practical route of escaping poverty. When the interviewer did a follow up on Iverson’s
friends from high school many of them are still coping with stressors of being poor.
Social disorganization theory:
Poverty is not only an individual problem, but a societal problem. Harrell R. Rodgers
wrote an article, “Why are People Poor in America?” Rodgers gives two categories of theories
that are used: cultural /behavioral and structural/economic. Behavior/Culture theorists look at
the behavior, culture and values of the poor as the reason for poverty. While Structural
Economic theorist tend to look at how poverty has become structured in society through unequal
economic opportunities. Both theorists have a valid argument. Behavior theorists believe that

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people are poor because of their choices, Rodgers calls that a narrowly drawn stereotype. Many
social disorganization theorists agree with Rodger’, poverty is structured throughout society
through unequal opportunity. However, the Cultures of Poverty theorist believe that
opportunities are based on the consequences of choices. This does not undermine the fact that
living in poverty is a problem. But, poverty is a consequence of many latent choices made over a
period of time. Poor families are not aware or have access to the opportunities available to get
them out of poverty. However, lack of education and lack structure of the environment both fuel
the cycle of poverty and the stigma of being poor.
Goffman’s stigma:
Erving Goffman theorizes the concept of stigma in his 1963 text, Stigma: Notes on the
Management of Spoiled Identity. Goffman’s focus was based on how individuals managed their
stigma and the societal impact of the stigma.
Goffman states, “Society establishes the means of categorizing persons and the
complement of attributes felt to be ordinary and natural for members of each of these categories”
(Goffman 1963, pg. 2). Goffman illustrates a separation based on prejudice, “the routines of
social intercourse in an establish setting allow us to deal with anticipated others without special
attention or thought” (Goffman 1963, pg 2). According to Goffman, “When a stranger comes
into our presence, then, first appearances are likely to enable us to anticipate his category and
attributes, his "social identity" ... We lean on these anticipations that we have, transforming them
into normative expectations, into righteously presented demands” (Goffman 1963, pg2). He
further states, “The term stigma, then, will be used to refer to an attribute that is deeply

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discrediting, but it should be seen that a language of relationships, not attributes, is really
needed” (Goffman 1963, pg 2).
Goffman, concludes that “A stigma, then, is really a special kind of relationship between
an attribute and a stereotype” (Goffman 1963, pg 4). There are two types of stigma, discredited
stigmas are those that are visible and already known and discreditable stigma those that are
unknown or hidden (Goffman 1963 pg 4). Goffman also provides three levels of analysis of
stigma those of the body, the character and those of tribe. Goffman explains how people handle
their stigma, by hiding or “passing” and the benefits and consequences of doing so. Goffman on
passing scrutiny states, " he who passes leaves himself open to learning what others "really"
think of persons of his kind, both when they do not know they are dealing with someone of his
kind and when they start out not knowing but learn part way through the encounter and sharply
veer to another course”(Goffman pg 89).
There is a prevalent fear of being labeled an outsider due to an undesirable attribute. That
is because the in-group receives many perks based on being a part of the desirables. For example
when Goffman discusses deviance he finds that “when the in-group deviant is attacked by
outsiders, the group may well rally in support; when the group isolate is attacked, he is more
likely to have to do his own fighting”(1963 pg 142). The incentives are given to those members
associated in the in-group; however, they can still be enjoyed by individuals that are practicing to
avoid their stigma or in his terms “passing”. There is a psychological price that individuals pay
when they avoid stigma in order to fit in (Goffman 1963). Individual choosing to passes or avoid
their stigma must maintain a façade that can breakdown at any moment (Goffman 1963 pg 88).
They have to live in-between the realm of the in-group and the out-group (Goffman 1963 pg 88).
Finally, as Goffman states, “He who passes will have to be alive to aspects of the social

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interactions which others treat as uncalculated and unattended” (1963 pg 88). Goffman’s
insights on stigma were important to expounding labeling theory because it explored how an
individual can react to a stigmatized identity or label. Goffman’s approach illustrate that
individuals are often aware of the stigma associated with various labels and attributes.
Is there a Stigma Associated with minority youth?
Yes there is a stigma associated with minority youth. Minority females are generally viewed as
being less intelligent that their Caucasian counterparts. They are depicted as “baby-makers”,
“hoochies” and future “abusers” or “over-users” of the welfare system. Minority males are often
viewed as violent, disruptive, vagrants and criminals. If more than two African American males
are assembled and a basketball is not around; they are viewed with suspicion. Minorities are
often considered a product of the culture of poverty. This stigma is a double edged sword. The
media tends to perpetuate these negative stereotypes frequently highlighting the deviance of a
few as a reflection of the whole. The result is twofold: 1. these slanted views build social
prejudices within society and 2. Children, who are also consumers of media output, watch these
images and are also subliminally encouraged to believe that this is the normal and appropriate
behavior for a person of color. Thus the effect is cyclic; young children without guidance will act
out what they see before them. Without positive role-models on television they will gravitate
towards any image that looks like them, positive or negative. With the actions of these few the
media will continue to project to society at large these negative images and society will believe
every degrading image and depiction placed in front of it.
The Culture of Poverty Theory is a controversial sociology theory that stems from the
economic cycle of poverty. The theory was framed by Oscar Lewis an archeologist that was

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fascinated by why poverty exists despite Lyndon Johnson’s war on poverty programs. Lewis in
his original 1966 article “Culture of Poverty” states his views, “I suspect that the culture of
poverty flourishes and is endemic to the free-enterprise, pre-welfare-state stage of capitalism,
and then it is also endemic in colonial societies” (1966 Lewis). He then tries to justify stating
that “many primitive and preliterate peoples that have been studied by anthropologists suffer dire
poverty attributable to low technology or thin resources or both” (Lewis 1966). Lewis
concludes, stating that “yet even the simplest of these peoples have a high degree of social
organization and a relatively integrated, satisfying and self-sufficient culture” (Lewis 1966).
Lewis’ theory was under heavy criticism due to the racial undertone of the time. Politicians often
used it as an explanation of poverty amongst the Black population in America that was under the
subjection of other racial ideological works.
Albert Banduras Take on the situation on behaviors
Albert Banduras out lined some key factors in what it meant to be human. His social
cognitive theory provides a useful analysis of human’s beings and their interaction. This is
essential because he outlines what it means to be human in four parts. Those parts are intentional
actions, foresight self-reactiveness and self-reflectiveness. Some of the actions that are
performed in the belief that they will bring desired outcomes actually produce outcomes that are
neither intended nor wanted For example it is not uncommon for individuals to contribute to
their own misery through intentional transgressive acts sprouted by miscalculation of
consequences (Albert Bandura: 2001). Banduras intentional section explains that humans are
going to intentionally make mistakes. Just unfortunately families living in poverty cannot afford
to make that mistake. They do not have the means to recover from splurging in the mall.
Bandura also mentions foresight as an essential part of an individual’s progress towards a valued

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future. This progress is best achieved by hierarchical structured goal systems combining distal
aspirations with proximal self-guidance. Goals embodying self-engaging properties serve as
powerful motivators of action (Albert Bandura: 2001). The foresight section of Banduras theory
is often a missing characteristic of amongst the poor households. Many people that are in social
disorganized neighborhoods are focused on survival. Meaning that poor individuals tend to be
more present oriented when it comes to decision making. This is one of the key reasons why the
poor families tend to remain in poverty. In Banduras, reactiveness section he goes on further to
explain human behavior. It is not uncommon for individuals to invest in their self-worth so
strongly in certain convictions that they will submit to harsh and punitive treatment rather than
go against what they regard as unjust or immoral(Albert Bandura:2001). Bandura in this
section on self-reactiveness explains the theory of group think. Individuals are influenced by the
thoughts of others. This can be positive or negative in the form of bullying. My thought on this
section tends to follow the rate of prostitution amongst the poor. Many individuals have
subjected themselves to harsh treat mean as a means for survival crime, drug, and prostitution are
common amongst poor neighborhoods. Each of these problems has an effect on the stability of a
poor family to remain together.
Structure of poverty
Gregory Acs & Austin Nichols outline the characteristic of low income families in
America. The research discovered that 1/3 of all the families that have children live below the
poverty threshold. Low income families tend to be directly tied to the work force (Gregory Acs
& Austin Nichols: 2007). More than half of these low income families have only one working
adult. Only 30 percent of the low income families show collaborative efforts in work (Gregory
Acs & Austin Nichols: 2007). If one parent is working it has a significant impact on child

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rearing. Gregory Acs & Austin Nichols also note that low income families tend to experience a
lot of marital hardship. Poor families are nearly twice as likely as middle-income families to
report cutting or skipping meals or not being able to pay for food (“food insecurity”), half again
as likely to miss rent, mortgage, or utility payments (“housing insecurity”), and twice as likely to
lack health insurance as middle-income families (Gregory Acs & Austin Nichols: 2007). The
issue of food insecurity and housing insecurity can be daunting on the families’ self-esteem.
More single-parent families may be low-income than married-couple families. The lack
of a second potential earner may contribute to this difference, but it is also possible that the
inability of two parents to achieve middle-income status may lead the couple to break up
(Gregory Acs & Austin Nichols: 2007). Education is an interesting indicator many low-
income single parent families were raised by a high school dropout. Another significant
observation was the number of children a family has in the ability for their parents to work
played a role. Immigrant families also tended to be low income due to a vast majority of barriers
that make the transition hard. However, this is usually the initial generation. Surprisingly low
income families tend to have more children than middle class families (Gregory Acs & Austin
Nichols: 2007). However the middle class family tends to have to adults that work the same ours
and gross the same amount of pay. The sad thing to note is that the larger the family the greater
the needs (Gregory Acs & Austin Nichols: 2007). Low income families have less education than
that of middle income families. Low income families are usually headed by a high school
dropout as previously mentioned. However the middle class family tends to have a higher level
of education. Their education can be advantageous in solving problems within the relationship.
The attainment of higher education becomes extremely beneficial in justification for higher pay
demands.

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In conclusion, poverty is a horrifying reality of the poor families. Statistics do little
justice on shedding light on the problem. Those who come from poor backgrounds have tough
odds against them from moving out of poverty. The culture of poverty in the way that it is often
operationalized fuels the prejudices that are associated with the stigma of being labeled poor.
The prejudices that are associated with poverty tend to hinder the growth of minorities. However,
it is this same circumstance that provided us with great leaders. When one views a group of
people as the problem they tend to avoid looking at the ecological factors that plague these
environments. The lack of effective social control institutions in a community limits the
opportunities for that community’s youth; therefore creating a culture of poverty for those
individuals to survive. The culture is then stigmatized and labeled; ultimately the group is then
separated from the desirables and is viewed as the problem. Social institutions similar to the
Boys and Girls Club are important because they provide the youth with the support they need in
order to overcome the barriers.

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