LECTURE NOTES

1. IMAGERY
Imagery as a general term covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings,
thoughts, ideas, states of mind, and any sensory experience. It is a figurative language used to appeal to
the senses through vivid descriptive language. Imagery creates mental pictures in the reader as they
read the text.
There are five types of imagery.
1. Visual imagery is the most common form of imagery in literature. It appeals to our sense of
sight. When we talk about the things we see, we talk about the size, shape, and color of the
object.
2. Auditory imagery appeals to our sense of hearing. When we talk about the things we hear, we
talk about the sounds we hear around us.
3. Olfactory imagery appeals to our sense of smell. We describe the smell around us. Some smells
are pleasant while others are revolting.
4. Gustatory imagery appeals to our sense of taste. We can mainly taste four different tastes:
sweet, sour, salty, bitter. But every food that we have has a mixture of different tastes that makes
it unique.
5. Tactile imagery appeals to our sense of touch. We use words that tell what we feel when we
touch.
Purpose of Imagery
Imagery examples are prevalent in all types of literature from cultures around the world. Poets,
novelists, and playwrights use imagery for many reasons.
1. To generate a vibrant and graphic presentation of a scene that appeals to as many of the
reader’s senses as possible.
2. To aid the reader’s imagination to envision the characters and scenes in the literary piece clearly.
3. To help create mood in the setting in which the story may take place.
4. To help readers understand the fictional world.
5. To beautify a piece of literature.
EXAMPLES
1. It was dark and dim in the forest.
 The words “dark” and “dim” are visual images.
2. The children were screaming and shouting in the fields.
 “Screaming” and “shouting” appeal to our sense of hearing, or auditory sense.
3. He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee.
 “Whiff” and “aroma” evoke our sense of smell or olfactory sense.
4. The fresh and juicy orange is very cold and sweet.
 “Juicy” and “sweet” – when associated with oranges – have an effect on our sense of
taste or gustatory sense.
5. The girl ran her hands on a soft satin fabric.
 The idea of “soft” in this example appeals to our sense of touch or tactile sense.

2. DICTION
 Diction refers to the linguistic choices a writer makes to effectively convey an idea, a point of
view, or tell a story. In literature, the words used by an author can help establish a distinct voice
and style.
Different styles of diction impact how different ideas are expressed. There are different levels of diction.
1. FORMAL/ INFORMAL
 Formal diction
 Formal diction is the use of sophisticated language, without slang or colloquialisms.
 Formal diction sticks to grammatical rules and uses complicated syntax—the structure of
sentences. This elevated type of language is often found in professional texts, business
documents, and legal papers.
a. Pedantic diction. This is when a writer is highly detailed or academic in their writing.
Words are chosen specifically to convey only one meaning. It is sometimes used in
literature when characters speak in a highly educated manner, as in F. Scott
Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby.
b. Biblical diction. The King James Bible has a very distinctive diction, using words like
“yea” and “thy.” any of these terms were fairly standard at the time the KingJames
version was originally written, but they are easily recognizable today as “biblical”
diction.
 Informal diction.
 Informal diction is more conversational and often used in narrative literature. This casual
vernacular is representative of how people communicate in real life, which gives an
author the freedom to depict more realistic characters. Most short stories and novels
use informal diction.
a. Colloquial diction. Colloquial words or expressions are informal and generally
represent a certain region or time. “tara” and “tena” are examples of Filipino
colloquial expressions. Colloquialisms add color and realism to writing.
b. Slang diction. These are words that originated within a specific culture or subgroup
but gained traction. Slang can be a new word, a shortened or modified word, or
words that take on a new meaning. Examples of common Filipino slang words are
“lespu” instead of “pulis”; “erpat,” which means father; and “chicks,” which refers to
a sexy lady.
c. Poetic diction. Poetic diction is driven by lyrical words that relate to a specific theme
reflected in a poem, and create a euphonious, or harmonious, sound. Poetic diction
usually involves the use of descriptive language, sometimes set to a beat or rhyme.
2. ABSTRACT/ CONCRETE
 Abstract diction.
 This is when a writer uses words to express something intangible, like an idea or an
emotion. Abstract phrases often lack physical detail and specificity because they are
things the reader cannot experience through their five senses.
 Concrete diction.
 Concrete diction is the use of words for their literal meanings and often refers to things
that appeal to the senses. The meaning is not open to interpretation because the writer
is specific and detailed in their phrasing. For example, the sentence: “I ate an apple.”
3. DENOTATION/ CONNOTATION

3.  Denotation.
 Denotation refers to the primary. Literal meaning or the dictionary meaning of a word. It
uses the universal meaning of words; thus, it remains the same regardless of culture and
personal experiences.
 Connotation.
 Connotation refers to the implied or suggested meaning attached to a word or the
emotional label that goes along with the word. It can be classified as a positive and
negative connotation. Connotation can change according to culture and personal
experiences.
PURPOSES OF USING DICTION IN WRITING.
Some of these are:
To create a certain tone that supports the purpose
 The purpose of a piece of writing determines its diction. In literature and fiction writing,
writers often use informal diction and figures of speech—words used for nonliteral
meanings, like similes and metaphors. If a scientist is publishing a paper on their
research, however, the language will be technical, concise, and formal, written for a
specific audience.
To support the setting.
 In fiction writing, the language an author uses supports the basic story elements, like
setting. Diction helps establish when and where a story is set by using language native to
that time and place. This is called colloquial diction. For example, a story set in New York
City will have a different style of language compared to a story that takes place in
London.
To establish a narrative voice and tone.
 A writer’s attitude towards the subject of a story comes through in the words they use.
This helps establish tone and impacts readers’ emotional response. For example, the
tone of a horror novel will be very different from that of a romance novel.
To bring characters to life.
 A writer can tell a reader a lot about characters through their dialogue. The way a
character uses diction reflects personal details like age and gender, background, social
setting, and profession. For example, a younger character might use slang when they
speak.
When analyzing diction, look for specific words or short phrases that seem stronger than the
others (ex. Bragg’s use of slingshot instead of travel). Diction is NEVER the entire sentence!
Also, look for a pattern (or similarity) in the words the writer chooses (ex. Do the words imply
sadness, happiness?). This pattern helps to create a particular kind of diction.
This pattern can also include repetition of the same words or phrases. Repeating the same word
or phrase helps the reader emphasize a point, feeling, etc.
Effective diction is shaped by words that are clear, concrete, and exact. Good writers avoid words
like pretty, nice, and bad because they are not specific enough. Instead, they rely on words that invoke a
specific effect to bring the reader into the event being described.
Examples: A coat isn’t torn; it is tattered.
The US Army does not want revenge; it is thirsting for revenge.
A door does not shut; it thuds.

4.  Diction depends on subject, purpose, occasion, and audience.
 The subject often determines how specific or sophisticated the diction needs to be. For
example, articles on computers are filled with a specialized language: e-mail, eshopping,
web, interface. Many topics generated special vocabularies to convey meaning.
 The writer’s purpose – whether to persuade, entertain, inform – partly determines diction.
Words chosen to impart a particular effect on the reader reflect the writer’s purpose. For
example, if an author’s purpose is to inform, the reader should expect straightforward
diction. On the other hand, if the author’s purpose is to entertain, the readers will likely
encounter words used in ironic, playful, or unexpected ways.
 Diction also depends on the occasion. Formal diction is reserved for scholarly writing and
serious texts. Informal diction is often used in narrative essays and newspaper editorials.
Colloquial diction and slang are typically used to capture the language of a particular time
frame or culture.
 Finally, the type of diction a writer uses depends on the audience (readers, listeners). An
author who uses sophisticated diction knows he is writing for an intelligent audience. An
author who uses more informal diction knows he is writing for an audience of varied
intelligence.