Psychology-1.pptx

Psychology
B.SC NURSING FIRST YEAR

Unit–I:Definition and scope of psychology
ShortAnswers:
1. Define psychology.
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. It
includes the study of conscious and unconscious
phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an
academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the
boundaries between the natural and social sciences.
2. List down four uses of psychology in nursing.
• attitude
• way of thinking
• coping abilities
• mental mechanisms
3.List down the schools of psychology.
• Early Schools of Thought.
• Gestalt Psychology.
• Behaviorism.
• Psychoanalysis.
4.List down the branches of psychology.
 Clinical psychology
 Cognitive psychology
 Developmental psychology
• Evolutionary psychology
5. What is parapsychology?
Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic
phenomena (extrasensory perception,
telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance,
psychokinesis, a.k.a. telekinesis, and
psychometry) and other paranormal claims.
6. What is cognitive psychology?
Cognitive psychology is the scientific
investigation of human cognition, that is, all our
mental abilities – perceiving, learning,
remembering, thinking, reasoning, and
understanding.

7.Define applied psychology with an example.
Applied psychology is the use of psychological
methods and findings of scientific psychology to
solve practical problems of human and animal
behavior and experience
8.Define Purepsychology with anexample.
Pure psychology is a theoretical science while
applied is a practical one. For example, research on
learning, by itself, would come under pure
psychology, while the application of that research
to design an actual paradigm for improving the
performance of students would be applied
psychology.
9.What is developmental psychology?
Developmental psychologists study human growth
and development over the lifespan, including
physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual,
personality and emotional growth. Developmental
psychologists working in colleges and universities
tend to focus primarily on research or teaching.
10.What is experimental psychology?
Experimental psychology is concerned with testing
theories of human thoughts, feelings, actions, and
beyond – any aspect of being human that involves
the mind. This is a broad category that features
many branches within it
11.What is legal psychology?
Legal psychology deals with cognitive and social
principles and their usage in the legal system. It is
based on empirical and psychological research of law
along with legal institutions. ... They advise the
judges and legal decision makers on some
psychological issues pertaining to the concerned
case.Legal psychology deals with cognitive and social
case.
12.What is clinical psychology?
Clinical psychology is a subject that focuses on the
psychological (that is, the emotional, biological,
cognitive, social, and behavioral) aspects of human
functioning in varying socioeconomic, clinical, and
cultural groups as well as in different age groups.
13.What is abnormal psychology?
Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology
that studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion
and thought, which could possibly be understood as
a mental disorder. Although many behaviors could
be considered as abnormal, this branch of
psychology typically deals with behavior in a clinical
context

14.What is physiological psychology?
Physiological psychology is a subdivision of
behavioral neuroscience (biological psychology) that
studies the neural mechanisms of perception and
behavior through direct manipulation of the brains of
nonhuman animal subjects in controlled
experiments.
15.What is social psychology?
Social psychology is the scientific study of how the
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals are
influenced by the actual, imagined, and implied
presence of others, 'imagined' and 'implied
presences' referring to the internalized social norms
that humans are influenced by even when they are
alone.
16.What is child psychology?
Child psychology is a branch of psychology that
focuses on children from infancy through
adolescence. A wide variety of topics within
psychology are encompassed by this discipline,
including abnormal psychology, social psychology,
developmental psychology, and so forth.
17.What is adult psychology?
Adult psychology involves looking at the issues,
stages and various influences that a child experiences
throughout their development into functioning
adults.
18.What is adolescent psychology?
Adolescent psychology refers to the unique mental
health needs of adolescents (defined as individuals
between 10 and 19 years of age). 1. Many people
have an idea of what traditional talk therapy looks
like with adults, and they might have an idea of
what play therapy looks like with young children.
19.What is militarypsychology?
Military psychology is a specialization within
psychology that applies psychological science to
promote the readiness of military members,
organizations, and operations.
Legal Psychology is a modern term that refers to the
study and use of psychology as it applies to the legal
system and people who come into contact with the
legal system. People who work in the area of legal
psychology work with methods of understanding,
evaluating and questioning suspects, evaluating jury
candidates, investigating crimes and crime scenes,
forensic investigation and other legally-related
situations.
21.What is industrial psychology?
Industrial Psychology is the scientific study of the
human behavior in the workplace environment,
technically and industrially, pertaining to the
organisations.

22.Whatiseducationalpsychology?
Educational psychology is the branch of psychology
concerned with the scientific study of human
learning. The study of learning processes, from both
cognitive and behavioral perspectives, allows
researchers to understand individual differences in
intelligence, cognitive development, affect,
motivation, self-regulation, and self-concept, as well
as their role in learning.
23.Whatisanimalpsychology?
Animal Psychologist is a professional who is adept in
studying animal biology and behaviour in order to
work safely and efficiently with them. They examine
the cognitive processes of animals which includes
phylogenetic history, adaptive significance and
development of behaviour in order to diagnose any
significant disorders.
Legal psychology deals with cognitive and social
case.Legal psychology deals with cognitive and social
case.
25.List down any four methods of psychology.
• Case Study.
• Experiment.
• Observational Study.
• Survey.
• Content Analysis
26.What is introspection method of psychology?
Introspection is a process that involves looking inward to
examine one's own thoughts and emotions. ... The experimental
use of introspection is similar to what you might do when you
analyze your own thoughts and feelings but in a much more
structured and rigorous way.
27.Write merits of introspection method of psychology.
• This method can be used any time and anywhere. You can
introspect while walking, traveling, sitting on a bed & so on.
• It is the easiest method and is readily available to the
individual.
• The introspection data is first-hand as the person himself
examines his own activities.
28.Write demerits of introspection method of psychology.
• The state of one's mental processes is continuously changing.
• Data collected cannot be verified.
• Data is highly subjective.

29.Write any two merits and demerits of
introspection method of psychology.
Merits:
• This method can be used any time and
anywhere. You can introspect while walking,
traveling, sitting on a bed & so on.
• It is the easiest method and is readily available
to the individual.
Demerits:
• Data collected cannot be verified.
• Data is highly subjective.
30.Whatisobservationmethodofpsychology?
Observation is one method for collecting research
data. It involves watching a participant and
recording relevant behavior for later analysis. ...
The observation method has the advantage of
providing direct evidence of the phenomenon that
is being studied.
31.Writemeritsofobservationmethodofpsychology.
• Simplest Method
• Useful for Framing Hypothesis
• Greater Accuracy
• An Universal Method
32.Writedemeritsofobservationmethodofpsychology.
• Lack of clarity
• Little control over physical situation
• Unmanageable data
• Possibility of distortion
33.Write any two merits and demerits of observation
method of psychology.
Merits:
• Simplest Method
• Useful for Framing Hypothesis
Demerits:
• Lack of clarity
• Little control over physical situation
34.What is experimental method of psychology?
The experimental method involves manipulating one
variable to determine if changes in one variable
cause changes in another variable. This method
relies on controlled methods, random assignment
and the manipulation of variables to test a
hypothesis.
35.Write merits of experimental method of
psychology.
• researcher can have control over variables
• humans perform experiments anyway

36.Write demerits of experimental method
of psychology
• Results are highly subjective due to the
possibility of human error
• Experimental research can create
situations that are not realistic
• It is a time-consuming process
• There may be ethical or practical problems
with variable control
37.Write any two merits and demerits of
experimental method ofpsychology
Merits:
• researcher can have control over variables
• humans perform experiments anyway
Demerits:
• Experimental research can create
situations that are not realistic
• It is a time-consuming process
38.Listdownthestepsofexperimentalmethodofpsychology.
• Ask a question or find a research problem to solve.
• Determine what you will test to answer this question.
• Review current knowledge on the subject.
• Design an experiment.
• Perform the experiment.
• Analyze results using statistical methods.
• Draw your conclusion and share the results with the
scientific community.
39.Whatissurveymethodofpsychology?
A survey is a data collection tool used to gather
information about individuals. Surveys are commonly used
in psychology research to collect self-report data from
study participants. A survey may focus on factual
information about individuals, or it might aim to obtain
the opinions of the survey takers.
40.Writemeritsofsurveymethodofpsychology
• Low Costs
• Convenient Data Gathering
• Good Statistical Significance
• Little or No Observer Subjectivity
• Precise Results

41.Write demerits of survey method of psychology
• Respondents may not feel encouraged to
provide accurate, honest answers.
• Respondents may not feel comfortable
providing answers that present themselves in a
unfavorable manner.
42.Write any two merits and demerits of survey
method of psychology.
Merits:
• Low Costs
• Convenient Data Gathering
Demerits:
• Respondents may not feel encouraged to
provide accurate, honest answers.
• Respondents may not feel comfortable
providing answers that present themselves in a
unfavorable manner
43.What is interview method of psychology?
Focus group interview is a qualitative approach
where a group of respondents are interviewed
together, used to gain an in‐depth understanding
of social issues. The method aims to obtain data
from a purposely selected group of individuals
rather than from a statistically representative
sample of a broader population.
44.Write merits of Interview method of psychology.
• It helps in obtaining in depth information.
• It is flexible and adaptable to individual situations,
and can often be used when no other method is
possible or adequate.
• It can be used even with children, and non-literate
persons.
45.WritedemeritsofInterviewmethodofpsychology.
• Conducting interview studies can be very costly as
well as very time-consuming.
• An interview can cause biases.
• Interview studies provide less anonymity, which is a
big concern for many respondents.
46.WriteanytwomeritsanddemeritsofInterviewmethodof
p
Merits:
• It helps in obtaining in depth information.
• It is flexible and adaptable to individual situations,
and can often be used when no other method is
possible or adequate.
Demerits:
• Conducting interview studies can be very costly as
well as very time-consuming.
• An interview can cause biases.

47.Whataretwotypesofinterview?
There are two primary types of interviews used by
companies: screening interviews, and selection interviews.
Every company's hiring process is different. Some companies
may require only two interviews while others may require
three or more.
48.Whatiscasestudymethodofpsychology?
Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person,
group, event or community. Typically, data are gathered
from a variety of sources and by using several different
methods (e.g. observations & interviews). ... In psychology,
case studies are often confined to the study of a particular
individual.
49.Writeanytwomeritsanddemeritsofcasestudymethodofpsy
chology.
Merits:
• It turns client observations into useable data.
• It turns opinion into fact.
Demerits:
• No Classification.
• Possibility of Errors.

Unit–II:Biology of behaviour
ShortEssay:
1.Explain the role of heredity and environment in
behaviour development?
Human behavior is the potential, and expressed
capacity for physical, mental and social activity during
the phrases of human life. Like other species, we
human beings have a typical life course that consist of
successive phrases of growth, which is characterized
by different sets of physical, behavioral and
physiological features. It includes the way we human
beings act basing on various…show more content…
THE ROLE OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT IN
SHAPING HUMAN BEHAVIOR:
Heredity is one of the important factors that
contribute to the formation of human personality. It
refers to the biological process of transmission of
certain biological and psychological characters from
parents to children through genes. This genetic
inheritance received by every individual at the time of
conception is referred to as Heredity. As such the
physical character of a person, like height, weight,
color of skin, eyes, hair, social and intellectual
behavior are all determined by heredity. It influences
man’s social behavior too.
A given social environment may change extensively in
the lifetime of an individual. The effect of social
environment upon the behavior of the individual
maybe inferred point for point from an analysis of
that environment.
2.Describe the factors influencing development of behaviour
Behaviour is affected by factors relating to the person,
including:
physical factors - age, health, illness, pain, influence of a
substance or medication
personal and emotional factors - personality, beliefs,
expectations, emotions, mental health
life experiences - family, culture, friends, life events
what the person needs and wants.
Behaviour is also affected by the context, including:
what is happening at the time
the environment - heat, light, noise, privacy
the response of other people, which is affected by their own
physical factors, personal and emotional factors, life exper
This means that a worker needs to consider a range of
factors in order to understand behaviour, including their
personal response and role.
- A person with lived experience of a mental health
conditioniences, wants and needs.

3.Whatarecausesforindividualdifferences?
• Heredity:
• One of the most significant and chief causes of
individual differences is heredity. Individuals
inherit various physical traits like face with its
features, colour of eyes and hair, type of skin,
shape of skull and size of hands, colour blindness,
baldness, stub-finger and tendency to certain
diseases like cancer and tuberculosis, mental traits
like intelligence, abstract thinking, aptitudes and
prejudices.
• Environment:
Environment significantly influences individual
differences. Changes in child’s environment are
reflected in the changes in his personality.
Environment consists of physical, intellectual, social,
moral, political, economic and cultural forces.
• Influence of caste, race and nation:
Individuals of different castes and races exhibit very
marked differences. It is generally seen that son of a
Kshatriya has a more of courage in him while the son
of a trader has the traits of business.
Similarly individuals of different nations show
differences in respect of their personality, character
and mental abilities. These are the outcome of their
geographical, social and cultural environment.
4.Every individual is unique.Brieflyexplain.
Everything in this world has a purpose. It might seem
worthless, but the fact is that everyone plays a vital
role in this Earth. People should appreciate what they
have and always be grateful. As human beings, we are
different in many ways. We are all created by the same
God, but we do have some variations. Not all things are
perfect, adorable and probably the best. But trust me;
there is only that one thing that makes one to be
exceptional, regardless of a family background and
other problems. Everyone is unique and gifted in some
way.
Why exactly do we compare ourselves with others? We
compare ourselves because we have never understood
ourselves and are not aware of who we are and what
we have. It is also because society has conditioned us
from our birth to evaluate ourselves based upon
others.
Buddha says, 'Nothing exists except in relationship.'
Suppose you were the only person on a new planet,
how could you compare yourself with anyone? Could
you c ..

5.Explain the significance of individual
differences.
The significance of individual differences in
education has long been recognized. The
extensive experimental work that has been
undertaken, began by Galton and carried on up
to the present time, has so increased our
knowledge concerning individual differences and
has so enhanced their significance to education
that their existence and importance are now a
matter of general acceptance.
Now knowledge of these differences, their
amount, interrelations, and causes, is very
important and necessary in planning the
education of a particular child. Exact knowledge
of just what differences do exist between
individuals and of the causes of these differences
is important.
Education is furthermore concerned with
individual differences resulting from the differing
degrees of maturity or growth, and those which
previous education and training have caused.
Education can only be made efficient with a
minimum of effort, time, and expense by
knowledge of which of the differences between
people and the achievements of a given person
are due to training, and which are due largely to
the degree of maturity.
6.How heredity and environment influence the
development of behaviour?
Human behavioral genetic research aimed at
characterizing the existence and
nature of genetic and environmental influences on
individual differences in cognitive ability, personality
and interests, and psychopathology is reviewed. Twin
and adoption studies indicate that most behavioral
characteristics are heritable.
Nonetheless, efforts to identify the genes influencing
behavior have produced
a limited number of confirmed linkages or
associations. Behavioral genetic research also
documents the importance of environmental factors,
but contrary to
the expectations of many behavioral scientists, the
relevant environmental factors
appear to be those that are not shared by reared
together relatives. The observation
of genotype-environment correlational processes and
the hypothesized existence
of genotype-environment interaction effects serve to
distinguish behavioral traits
from the medical and physiological phenotypes
studied by human geneticists. Behavioral genetic
research supports the heritability, not the genetic
determination,of behavior.

7.Roleofheredityandenvironmentinshapingbehaviour.
The knowledge of heredity and environment has a great
influence on human development. Human development
is the product of both heredity and environment. The
development pattern of the children is determined by
both heredity and environment.
As per the developmental pattern of the children the
educational pattern, methods and learning environment
should be made by the teacher in the teaching-learning
situation. So the knowledge of heredity and environment
helps the teacher in various ways which are discussed
hereunder.
i. Knowledge of heredity and environment helps the
teacher to know the varying needs and abilities of the
children.
ii. It helps to provide proper guidance to his children in
the field of educational, vocational and personal.
iii. It helps the teacher to classify the students as gifted,
normal or slow learner and arrange different types of
education for them.
iv. It helps the teacher to provide better learning
environment in the school.
v. It helps the teacher to know the principle of individual
differences and arrange the educational experience
accordingly.
vi. It helps the teacher to study the behaviour of the
children under different situations.
8.Briefly explain the role of endocrine glands on
behaviour.
Endocrine glands play an important role in ensuring
normal behaviour by modulating and influencing the
other activities. Various kinds of endocrine glands are
the hypothalamus, the pineal gland, the thyroid, the
testes, the ovaries and the pituitary gland. Each gland
has its unique function to perform and affect the
functioning of the human body and behaviour
differently. The hypothalamus connects the endocrine
system with the nervous system, which is located at the
base of the brain. The hypothalamus comprises of a
collection of nuclei which controls human behaviour by a
significant extent. The basic needs such as hunger, sleep,
thirst, sex and stress as well as emotional responses are
regulated by the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus
equally controls the functioning of the pituitary glands,
which then regulates the hormonal secretion from other
glands into the endocrine system. The functioning of the
endocrine system is controlled by the central nervous
system and basically the endocrine system work towards
maintaining homeostasis or a chemical equilibrium
bodily. Chemical disequilibrium can result because of the
over activity or below optimum functioning of any of the
endocrine glands, which may lead to both physiological
and psychological abnormalities. Endocrine glands may
be subdivided into the categories of minor and major
glands.

9.Briefly explain the glandular control of the
behaviour.
Endocrine system consists of a series of glands that
produce chemical substances known as hormones.
Like neurotransmitters, hormones are chemical
messengers that must bind to a receptor in order to
send their signal. However, unlike neurotransmitters,
which are released in close proximity to cells with
their receptors, hormones are secreted into the
bloodstream and travel throughout the body,
affecting any cells that contain receptors for them.
Thus, whereas neurotransmitters’ effects are
localized, the effects of hormones are widespread.
Also, hormones are slower to take effect, and tend
to be longer lasting.
10.How hormones control the emotion and behaviour of
an individual?
Behavioral endocrinology is the scientific study of
theinteraction between hormones and behavior. This
interaction is bidirectional: hormones can affect
behavior, andbehavior can feedback to influence
hormone concentrations. Hormones are chemical
messengers released fromendocrine glands that
influence the nervous system toregulate the physiology
and behavior of individuals. Overevolutionary time,
hormones regulating physiological processes have been
co-opted to influence behaviors linked tothese
processes. For example, hormones associated
withgamete maturation such as estrogens are now
broadlyassociated with the regulation of female sexual
behaviors.Such dual hormonal actions ensure that
mating behavioroccurs when animals have mature
gametes available forfertilization. Generally speaking,
hormones change geneexpression or cellular function,
and affect behavior byincreasing the likelihood that
specific behaviors occur inthe presence of precise
stimuli. Hormones achieve this byaffecting individuals’
sensory systems, central integrators,and/or peripherial
effectors. To gain a full understandingof hormone–
behavior interactions, it is important to monitor
hormone values, as well as receptor interactions in
thebrain. Because certain chemicals in the environment
can mimic natural hormones, these chemicals can have
profound effects on the behavior of humans and other
animals

11.Explain the body and mindrelationship.
Mind-Body Connection is the belief that the
causes, development and outcomes of a physical
illness are determined from the interaction of
psychological, social factors and biological
factors. Your health can be affected by the stress
from both good and bad life events like
marriage/divorce, promotion/lay-off or the
purchase of a house/home foreclosure. It also
can be affected by daily routines such as fighting
rush hour traffic, meeting a deadline, unrealistic
self-expectations and interpersonal relationships.
And your body responds to this stress and to
anxiety or depression. For example, when you’re
stressed—even by something positive—you
might develop high blood pressure, a stomach
ulcer, back pain, constipation or diarrhea,
fatigue, headaches, shortness of breath, and you
may have trouble falling or staying asleep.
12.Howdoesthebodyaffectthemind?
The brain is considered to be the primary generator
and regulator of emotions; however, afferent
signals from throughout the body are detected by
the autonomic nervous system and brainstem and
in turn can modulate emotion processes. During
stress and negative emotion states, levels of
cardiorespiratory coherence decrease and there is a
shift towards sympathetic dominance, while during
more positive emotion states levels of
cardiorespiratory coherence increase and there is a
shift towards parasympathetic dominance. These
dynamic changes in cardiorespiratory coherence
that accompany different emotions could provide
insights into how the limbic system and afferent
feedback activity manifest as emotions. We propose
that the brainstem and cardiorespiratory coherence
are involved in important feedback mechanisms
that modulate emotions and higher cortical areas.
This mechanism may be one of many mechanisms
that underlie the physiological and neurological
changes experienced during pranayama and
meditation and may support the use of these
techniques to treat various mood disorders and
reduce stress.

13.How does the mind affect the body?
The brain is considered to be the primary generator and regulator of
emotions; however, afferent signals from throughout the body are
detected by the autonomic nervous system and brainstem and in
turn can modulate emotion processes. During stress and negative
emotion states, levels of cardiorespiratory coherence decrease and
there is a shift towards sympathetic dominance, while during more
positive emotion states levels of cardiorespiratory coherence
increase and there is a shift towards parasympathetic dominance.
These dynamic changes in cardiorespiratory coherence that
accompany different emotions could provide insights into how the
limbic system and afferent feedback activity manifest as emotions.
We propose that the brainstem and cardiorespiratory coherence are
involved in important feedback mechanisms that modulate emotions
and higher cortical areas. This mechanism may be one of many
mechanisms that underlie the physiological and neurological
changes experienced during pranayama and meditation and may
support the use of these techniques to treat various mood disorders
and reduYour mind and body are powerful allies. How you think can
affect how you feel. And how you feel can affect your thinking.
An example of this mind-body connection is how your body responds
to stress. Constant worry and stress over jobs, finances, or other
problems can cause tense muscles, pain, headaches, and stomach
problems. It may also lead to high blood pressure or other serious
problems.
On the other hand, constant pain or a health problem like heart
disease can affect your emotions. You might become depressed,
anxious, and stressed, which could affect how well you treat,
manage, or cope with your illness.
But your mind can have a positive effect on your health, too. Having
a positive outlook on life might help you better handle pain or stress
and stay healthier than someone who is less hopeful.ce stress.

Unit-III:CognitiveProcesses
LongEssay:
1.Define attention. Write classification of
attention.Briefly explain the determinants of
attention.
Attention is the term used or given to the perceptual
processes that select certain inputs for inclusion in
our conscious experience, or awareness at any given
time. It is the process involving the act of listening,
and concentrating on a topic, object or event for the
attainment of desired ends.
Types of Attention:
Motives:
Our basic needs and motives to a great extent,
determine our attention, thirst, hunger, sex, curiosity,
fear are some of the important motives that influence
attention, e.g. small children get attracted towards
eatables.
Mind set:
Person’s readiness to respond determines his attention.
If we are expecting a stimulus, occurrence of that
stimulus along with many other stimuli may not come in
the way of attending to that particular stimulus. At a
time when students are expecting the examination time
table by the end of the semester the time table put out
on the notice board along with other notices would
attract their attention easily.
Moods and attitudes:
What we attend to is influenced by the moods and
attitudes. When we are disturbed or in angry mood, we
notice the smallest mistake of others very easily.
Likewise our favourable and unfavourable attitudes also
determine our attention. After discussing subjective and
objective factors, we realize that these factors are
interrelated. How much or in what way we attend to a
stimulus depends on subjective as well as objective
factors.

2.Classify attention. Explain the factors influencing
attentionn.
The strong interindividual variability in attention performance
depends on a number of factors, both constitutional and
environmental, that determine the different developmental
paths that attention could follow. Thus, as with all cognitive skills
which are developed, in order to be understood and evaluated
as fully as possible, consideration should be given to the child’s
characteristics, taking into account the influence of many factors
the biological characteristics of the child (i.e., temperamental
characteristics favouring girls for effortful control and boys for
surgency maturation levels of the central nervous system
(activation and visual spatial attention that show earlier
development than other executive functions general cognitive
and emotional capacity of the child and environmental
variables, namely his/her personal experiences and the context
in which he/she lives (for example, supporting parenting
strategies)..
As far as environmental variables are concerned,
we take into consideration the primary school
experience because this period is characterized by
rapid changes in attention functions according to
the literature, and thus the role of attention in
academic learning and achievement may be
critical . Scholastic achievement is positively
correlated with attention-related skills and the
development of attentional processes. However,
in most investigations, attentional performance
has been assessed using teacher and parent
ratings of children’s ability to focus and shift
attention, thereby introducing a risk of rater bias .
While there appears to be an association between
attentional processes and scholastic performance,
the specific aspects of attentional performance
that are associated with scholastic achievement
are unknown. School is one of the most significant
and privileged developmental contexts for the
child. With his or her attendance of primary
school, the child faces new developmental
challenges compared to early childhood, which
will lead him/her to an important cognitive,
emotional, and social evolution . The class that
the child attends, people around him/her, and
everything defining the child in his/her specificity
assume an important role in attention
performance.

3.What is span of attention? Explain the factors
influencing attention
Attention span is the amount of time spent
concentrating on a task before becoming
distracted. Distractibility occurs when attention
is uncontrollably diverted to another activity or
sensation. Attention training is said to be part of
education, particularly in the way students are
trained to remain focused on a topic of
observation or discussion for extended periods,
developing listening and analytical skills in the
process.
Factors influencing attention
The strong interindividual variability in attention
performance depends on a number of factors, both
constitutional and environmental, that determine the
different developmental paths that attention could
follow. Thus, as with all cognitive skills which are
developed, in order to be understood and evaluated as
fully as possible, consideration should be given to the
child’s characteristics, taking into account the influence
of many factors the biological characteristics of the
child (i.e., temperamental characteristics favouring girls
for effortful control and boys for surgency maturation
levels of the central nervous system (activation and
visual spatial attention that show earlier development
than other executive functions general cognitive and
emotional capacity of the child and environmental
variables, namely his/her personal experiences and the
context in which he/she lives (for example, supporting
parenting strategies)..
As far as environmental variables are concerned, we
take into consideration the primary school experience
because this period is characterized by rapid changes
in attention functions according to the literature, and
thus the role of attention in academic learning and
achievement may be critical . Scholastic achievement
is positively correlated with attention-related skills
and the development of attentional processes.
However, in most investigations, attentional
performance has been assessed using teacher and
parent ratings of children’s ability to focus and shift
attention, thereby introducing a risk of rater bias .
While there appears to be an association between
attentional processes and scholastic performance, the
specific aspects of attentional performance that are
associated with scholastic achievement are unknown.
School is one of the most significant and privileged
developmental contexts for the child. With his or her
attendance of primary school, the child faces new
developmental challenges compared to early
childhood, which will lead him/her to an important
cognitive, emotional, and social evolution . The class
that the child attends, people around him/her, and
everything defining the child in his/her specificity
assume an important role in attention performance.

ShortEssay:
1.Explain the determinants of attention.
Attention can be influenced by both external and
internal factors.
External Factors: These are the factors which are
external in nature and are usually governed by the
characteristics of the stimuli. These external factors
could be related to the nature of the stimuli, the
intensity as well as the size of the stimuli, the
degree to which contrast, variety or change is
present in the stimuli. The extent to which the
exposure to a stimulus is repeated will, also
determine the strength of the attention. Moreover,
a stimulus which is in a state of motion will be able
to catch our attention more quickly than a
stationery one.
Internal (Subjective) factors: The subjective factors
which influence attention are interests, motive,
mind set and our attitudes & moods. It is believed
that interest is the mother of attention, as we pay
attention or focus on those objects about which we
have interest. Similarly, our needs or motives
equally govern our attention for specific events or
objects. Moreover, the mental readiness of a
person to respond to certain stimuli or
preparedness will also determine the attention
level for that person.
2.Explain the factors influencing attention.
The strong interindividual variability in attention
performance depends on a number of factors,
both constitutional and environmental, that
determine the different developmental paths
that attention could follow. Thus, as with all
cognitive skills which are developed, in order to
be understood and evaluated as fully as possible,
consideration should be given to the child’s
characteristics, taking into account the influence
of many factors the biological characteristics of
the child (i.e., temperamental characteristics
favouring girls for effortful control and boys for
surgency maturation levels of the central
nervous system (activation and visual spatial
attention that show earlier development than
other executive functions general cognitive and
emotional capacity of the child and
environmental variables, namely his/her personal
experiences and the context in which he/she
lives (for example, supporting parenting
strategies)..

LongEssay:
1.Define perception. Explain the principles
of perceptual organization
Perception includes the five senses; touch, sight,
sound, smell, and taste. It also includes what is
known as proprioception, a set of senses involving
the ability to detect changes in body positions and
movements. It also involves the cognitive
processes required to process information, such
as recognizing the face of a friend or detecting a
familiar scent.
Principle # 1. Closure:
Gestalt psychologists claimed that when we
receive sensations that form an incomplete or
unfinished visual image or sound, we tend to
overlook the incompleteness and perceive the
image or sound as a complete or finished unit.
This tendency to fill in the gaps is referred to as
closure.
Principle # 2. Pragnanz:
The term pragnanz indicates fullness or
completeness. Gestalt psychologists are of the
view that the process of perception is dynamic
and goes on changing until we reach a stage of
perceiving with maximum meaning and
completeness. Once we reach this point, the
perceived gestalt remains stable. Such a stable
gestalt is called a good gestalt.
Principle # 3. Proximity:
When objects are close to each other, the tendency is to
perceive them together rather than separately. Even if
the individual items do not have any connection with
each other they will be grouped under a single pattern
or perceived as a meaningful picture
Principle # 4. Similarity:
Similar elements tend to be perceived as belonging
together. Stimuli that have the same size, shape and
colour tend to be perceived as parts of the pattern
Principle # 5. Continuity:
Anything which extends itself into space in the same
shape, size and colour without a break is perceived as a
whole figure (Fig. 7.5). For example, when several dots
form a curved line, an individual may perceive the figure
as two different continuous lines irrespective of the
factors like proximity and similarity of the dots. Thus, the
whole figure is organised into a continuum though the
dots are unconnected
Principle # 6. Inclusiveness:
The pattern which includes all the elements present in a
given figure will be perceived more readily than the
other figures. For example, in Fig.7.6 the hexagonal
figure formed by all the dots may be perceived more
readily than the square formed by the four middle dots.
Single dots at either end act as a fence or enclosure
within which all the other elements are included.

2.Define
perception.Writethecharacteristicsofperception.
Explain extrasensory perception
Perception includes the five senses; touch, sight,
sound, smell, and taste. It also includes what is
known as proprioception, a set of senses
involving the ability to detect changes in body
positions and movements. It also involves the
cognitive processes required to process
information, such as recognizing the face of a
friend or detecting a familiar scent.
Most Important Characteristics of Perception
• Perception is a selective process
• Perception requires sensation
• Perception involves organisation
• Perception involves past experience
• Change is the basis of perception
• Perception is objective as well as subjective
• Perception has affective aspect
Extrasensory perception
Extrasensory perception (ESP), perception that
occurs independently of the known sensory
processes. Usually included in this category of
phenomena are telepathy, or thought transference
between persons; clairvoyance, or supernormal
awareness of objects or events not necessarily
known to others; and precognition, or knowledge
of the future. Scientific investigation of these and
similar phenomena dates from the late 19th
century, with most supporting evidence coming
from experiments involving card guessing. Subjects
attempt to guess correctly the symbols of cards
hidden from their view under controlled conditions;
a better-than-chance percentage of correct calls on
a statistically significant number of trials is
considered to be evidence of ESP. Although many
scientists continue to doubt the existence of ESP,
people who claim this ability are sometimes used
by investigative teams searching for missing persons
or things.

3.Explain the factors affecting perception
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Every person is unique and brings different
attitudes to a team. You may work well when
collaborating with others while your coworker
prefers to work in isolation. Each of these
differences affects your perception of your team
and organization. You’ll behave differently when
you’re working with your colleague as opposed to
someone else. Your perception of your coworker
shapes the way you work as well. In the
workplace, it’s necessary to respect these
differences and work with others to create
harmony.
MOTIVATIONS
Say you want to work for a few years and gain
enough experience to get into business school for
an MBA. Your motivations will impact your
perception of your work. You’re more likely to
make just enough effort to work well, get positive
feedback and fulfill your requirements. So, our
motivations affect the way we approach a
situation. When it comes to teamwork, each
member’s motivations will be different. But to
achieve collective goals, management has to bring
everyone on the same page and communicate
their expectations.
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
For Priyanka, her informal organization transformed into a
traditional hierarchical office. Her behavior as a
professional had to change to accommodate her external
environment. When you’re working with others and aiming
to accomplish long-term goals, you have to meet them
halfway. An organization’s values, mission and beliefs are
important factors influencing perception.
PAST EXPERIENCES
Our past experiences shape us into who we are today. We
can’t separate ourselves from them. Past experiences are
also significant factors influencing perception. They shape
our personal biases and opinions as well as our
expectations from others and ourselves. It’s important to
be open to changing our perceptions when situations
change. For instance, the Earth wasn’t always considered to
be round.
EXTERNAL FACTORS
Perception isn’t only affected by internal or personal
factors. External factors affecting perception can include
what people think of us, others’ expectations and cultural
norms such as taboos or rules followed by society.

ShortEssay:
1.Explain the errors in perception.
1.Selective Perception-People generally interpret
according to their basis of interests,idea and
backgrounds.It is the tendency not to notice and
forget the stimuli that cause emotional
discomfort.For example we might think that fresher
graduates with above 80 % marks will exceptionally
do well in technical interviews of respective subjects
2.Halo Effect-We misjudge people by concentrating
on one single behavior or trait.It has deep impact
and give inaccurate result most of the time.For
example we always have an impression of a lazy
person can never be punctual in any occasion.
3.Stereotypes-We always have a tendency to classify
people to a general groups /categories in order to
simplify the matter.For example-Women are always
good homemakers and can do well in work life
balance
4.Contrast Effect-We again sometimes judge people
in comparison to others . This example generally
found in sports,academics and performance review
5.Projection-This is very common among Perceptual
errors.Projection of one's own attitude,personality
or behavior into some other person.For example- To
all honest people,everybody is honest.
2.Explain the various types of perceptual
illusion.
Perceptual Illusions: the misinterpretation of a real
external, sensory experience. (MeSH) The action of
deceiving, especially by appearances. An instance of
the sense perception of an external object suggesting
a false belief as to its nature.
The experience of misperceiving the true
characteristics of an object or an image. (Hockenbury,
116) A perceptual experience that is not a true
representation of the physical event we are receiving
through our senses. An illusion is more than a simple
case of mistaken perception, it is an experience that
cannot be predicted by a simple recording of the
stimulus itself. Perceptual illusions underscore the fact
that what we see is not merely a simple reflection of
th
• The Skye Blue Café Wall Illusion.
• Confetti.
• The Rice Wave Illusion.
• The Tilted Road Illusion.
• Lightness Illusion.

LongEssay:
1.Define learning. Explain Pavlov’s classical
conditioning theory of learning
Learning is the process of acquiring new
understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values,
attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is
possessed by humans, animals, and some machines;
there is also evidence for some kind of learning in
certain plants. Some learning is immediate, induced by
a single event (e.g. being burned by a hot stove), but
much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated
experiences.
Human learning starts at birth (it might even start
before) and continues until death as a consequence of
ongoing interactions between people and their
environment. The nature and processes involved in
learning are studied in many fields, including
educational psychology, neuropsychology,
experimental psychology, and pedagogy. Research in
such fields has led to the identification of various sorts
of learning. For example, learning may occur as a result
of habituation, or classical conditioning, operant
conditioning or as a result of more complex activities
such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals.
Learning may occur consciously or without conscious
awareness. Learning that an aversive event can't be
avoided or escaped may result in a condition called
learned helplessness.
In the Ivan Pavlov theory, there is a stimulus and a
response. How the subject reacts to a stimulus
depends on whether they’ve been conditioned or
unconditioned. For instance, an infant wouldn’t
know that a tiger in the wild can be dangerous. It’s
only when they watch something educational or
read about predators that they’ll find out.
The classical conditioning theory operates in stages.
The first is where you have no knowledge of how the
stimulus will elicit a response, if at all. The second is
where the stimulus is known to produce a specific
response. The response is the result of an
unconditioned or conditioned stimulus, respectively.
Learning through association is universally
applicable. For instance, employees who are
discouraged from sharing their views the first three
times may be too afraid to stand up the fourth time.
In school, if a student is made to stand outside the
class every time they talk to their friends it will likely
change their habit. This is an example of learning
through association.
A lot of processes and procedures in school, home
and work can be attributed to the classical
conditioning theory. Going to work on time,
delivering work on time or being polite to your
teachers can be a result of classical conditioning
where the conditioned response can even be ‘fear’.
Let’s understand the terminology of the Pavlov
theory of learning.

2. Explain operant conditioning theory of
learning
Operant conditioning (also called instrumental
conditioning) is a type of associative learning process
through which the strength of a behavior is modified
by reinforcement or punishment. It is also a procedure
that is used to bring about such learning.
Although operant and classical conditioning both
involve behaviors controlled by environmental stimuli,
they differ in nature. In operant conditioning, behavior
is controlled by external stimuli. For example, a child
may learn to open a box to get the sweets inside, or
learn to avoid touching a hot stove; in operant terms,
the box and the stove are "discriminative stimuli".
Operant behavior is said to be "voluntary". The
responses are under the control of the organism and
are operants. For example, the child may face a choice
between opening the box and petting a puppy.
In contrast, classical conditioning involves involuntary
behavior based on the pairing of stimuli with
biologically significant events. The responses are
under the control of some stimulus because they are
reflexes, automatically elicited by the appropriate
stimuli. For example, sight of sweets may cause a child
to salivate, or the sound of a door slam may signal an
angry parent, causing a child to tremble. Salivation
and trembling are not operants; they are not
reinforced by their consequences, and they are not
voluntarily "chosen".
3. Explain insightful theory of learning.
insight, in learning theory, immediate and clear
learning or understanding that takes place without
overt trial-and-error testing. Insight occurs in human
learning when people recognize relationships (or
make novel associations between objects or actions)
that can help them solve new problems.
Much of the scientific knowledge concerning insight
derives from work on animal behaviour that was
conducted by 20th-century German Gestalt
psychologist Wolfgang Köhler. In one experiment
Köhler placed a banana outside the cage of a hungry
chimpanzee, Sultan, and gave the animal two sticks,
each too short for pulling in the food but joinable to
make a single stick of sufficient length. Sultan tried
unsuccessfully to use each stick, and he even used
one stick to push the other along to touch the
banana. Later, apparently after having given up,
Sultan accidentally joined the sticks, observed the
result, and immediately ran with the longer tool to
retrieve the banana. When the experiment was
repeated, Sultan joined the two sticks and solved the
problem immediately. This result, however, is
ambiguous, because it appeared that Sultan solved
the problem by accident—not through insight.

4.Enumerate the different types of
learning.Explain factors affecting learning.
1. Intellectual factor:
The term refers to the individual mental level. Success in
school is generally closely related to level of the intellect.
Pupils with low intelligence often encounter serious
difficulty in mastering schoolwork. Sometimes pupils do
not learn because of special intellectual disabilities.
2. Learning factors:
Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been
taught, faulty methods of work or study, and narrowness
of experimental background may affect the learning
process of any pupil. If the school proceeds too rapidly
and does not constantly check up on the extent to which
the pupil is mastering what is being taught, the pupil
accumulates a number of deficiencies that interfere with
successful progress.
3. Physical factors:
Under this group are included such factors as health,
physical development, nutrition, visual and physical
defects, and glandular abnormality. It is generally
recognized that ill health retards physical and motor
development, and malnutrition interferes with learning
and physical growth.
4. Mental factors:
Attitude falls under mental factors attitudes are
made up of organic and kinesthetic elements. They
are not to be confused with emotions that are
characterized by internal visceral disturbances.
Attitudes are more or less of definite sort. They play
a large part in the mental organization and general
behavior of the individual.
5. Emotional and social factors:
Personal factors, such as instincts and emotions,
and social factors, such as cooperation and rivalry,
are directly related to a complex psychology of
motivation. It is a recognized fact that the various
responses of the individual to various kinds of stim
Some of these innate tendencies are constructive
and others are harmful. For some reason a pupil
may have developed a dislike for some subject
because he may fail to see its value, or may lack
foundation. This dislike results in a bad emotional
state.
Some pupils are in a continuing state of
unhappiness because of their fear of being victims
of the disapproval of their teachers and classmates.
This is an unwholesome attitude and affects the
learning process to a considerable degree. This is
oftentimes the result of bad training.uli are
determined by a wide variety of tendencies.

5.Explain any two theories of learning.
The two theories of learning discussed are
Behaviorism and Constructivism. Skinner
andWatson, the two major developers of the
behaviorist school of thought sought to prove
thatbehavior could be predicted and controlled
(Skinner, 1974). They studied how learning
isaffected by changes in the environment. The
constructivists viewed learning as a search
formeaning. Piaget and Vygotsky described
elements that helped predict what children
understandat different stages (Rummel, 2008).
Details of both theories illuminate the differences
andconnections between the behavioral and
constructivist theories in relationship to how
childrenlearn and how their behavior is affected.
How curriculum and instruction work with
thesetheories to promote learning and how
educators view learning with respect to both
theories are also reviewed.
Psychology became an accepted science in the
latter part of the nineteenth century andwas
defined as the science of consciousness.
“Behaviorism was, and is, a moment primarily
inAmerican psychology that rejected consciousness
as psychology’s subject matter and replaced itwith
behavior” (Leahey, 2000, p. 686). Behaviorism was
rooted in the 1880s and continues toevolve in the
twentieth-first century and beyond. Although
behaviorism has been intenselystudied,
behaviorists continue to have difficulty agreeing on
a definition for behaviorism andidentifying who
were the true behaviorists (Mills, 1998).
The learning theory of Constructivism evolved from the
extensive study of cognitivedevelopment (i.e., how
thinking and knowledge develop with age) by Swiss
psychologist JeanPiaget and the Russian psychologist Lev
Vygotsky. Their study of cognitive developmentprovided
the foundation for the psychological theory of
constructivism. Constructivists believethat children
develop knowledge through active participation in their
learning. However, Piagetbelieved that cognitive
development was a product of the mind “achieved
through observationand experimentation whereas
Vygotsky viewed it as a social process, achieved
throughinteraction with more knowledgeable members
of the culture” (Rummel, 2008, p. 80). Piagetreferred to
his work as “cognitive” constructivism (Chambliss, 1996).
Piaget’s theory wascomprised of two major elements
“ages” and “stages.” According to Piaget, “these
elements helpto predict what children can and cannot
understand at different ages.” (Rummel, 2008, p. 80). Itis
the theory of development that is the major foundation
for cognitive constructivist approaches to teaching and
learning.

6.Define learning.Describe the educational
implications of learning by conditioning in
nursing education.
Learning is an enduring change in behaviour, or
the capacity to behave in a given fashion which
results from practice or other forms of experience
(Chunk, 2012). Learning can also be looked at as a
relative permanent change of behaviour as a
result of experience.
Learning theories are theories whose main
concern is to link research with education. In
other words learning theories explain how
learning and teaching processes should be and/or
should take place. As teachers deal with teaching
and of equal importance learning of students, the
contribution of various learning theories to
teacher development is with some detail given
hereunder.
Although theories differ in many ways, including
their general assumptions and guiding principles,
many rest on a common foundation. These
theories differ in how they predict that learning
occurs—in the processes of learning—and in
what aspects of learning they stress. Thus, some
theories are oriented more toward basic learning
and others toward applied learning and, within
that, in different content areas; some stress the
role of development, others are strongly linked
with instruction; and some emphasize motivation.
As environment properly arranged help learning to
occur, teachers should prepare the environment that will
help learners to learn such as arranging activities that
suit environment. Teachers also need to help learners
make practice of what they have learned. This is
important as learning is subject to the rate of occurrence
of behaviour. The practicing is important for
strengthening the responses.
Learning should be reinforced. Students should
therefore be given rewards. Teachers are to reward any
desired behaviour in learning. However to weaken the
undesired behaviour learned, teachers should apply
punishment. In developing the profession of teaching,
teachers have to note that developing professionally has
some benefits such as being able to help learners learn.
Increasing the knowledge base, being rewarded
economically and developing/improving their personal
lives. This is to say teachers plan to develop
professionally due to these observable benefits as well.

ShortEssay:
1.Explain the nature and types of learning
Learning is a key process in human behaviour. All living
is learning. If we compare the simple, crude waysin
which a child feels and behaves, with the complex
modes of adult behaviour, his skills, habits,
thought,sentiments and the like- we will know what
difference learning has made to the individual.
Classical Conditioning :Classical conditioning is a
process by which we learn to associate events, or
stimuli, that frequently happen together; as a result of
this, we learn to anticipate events. Ivan Pavlov
conducted a famous study involving dogs in which he
trained (or conditioned) the dogs to associate the
sound of a bell with the presence of a piece of meat.
Operant Conditioning :Operant conditioning is the
learning process by which behaviors are reinforced or
punished, thus strengthening or extinguishing a
response.
Observational Learning:Observational learning occurs
through observing the behaviors of others and
imitating those behaviors—even if there is no
reinforcement at the time. Albert Bandura noticed that
children often learn through imitating adults, and he
tested his theory using his famous Bobo-doll
experiment. Through this experiment, Bandura learned
that children would attack the Bobo doll after viewing
adults hitting the doll.
2.Explainthevariousfactorsaffectinglearning.
1. Intellectual factor:
The term refers to the individual mental level.
Success in school is generally closely related to level
of the intellect. Pupils with low intelligence often
encounter serious difficulty in mastering
schoolwork. Sometimes pupils do not learn
because of special intellectual disabilities.
2. Learning factors:
Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been
taught, faulty methods of work or study, and
narrowness of experimental background may affect
the learning process of any pupil. If the school
proceeds too rapidly and does not constantly check
up on the extent to which the pupil is mastering
what is being taught, the pupil accumulates a
number of deficiencies that interfere with
successful progress.
3. Physical factors:
Under this group are included such factors as
health, physical development, nutrition, visual and
physical defects, and glandular abnormality. It is
generally recognized that ill health retards physical
and motor development, and malnutrition
interferes with learning and physical growth.

4.Explain the laws of learning.
(i) Law of Use:
When a modifiable connection is made
between a situation and a response, that
connection’s strength is other things being
equal, increased’.
(ii) Law of Disuse:
When a modifiable connection is not made between a
situation and a response over a length of time, that
connection’s strength, other things being equal,
decrease.
In brief, we may say that repetition and drill helps
learning, and its absence causes forgetfulness. We
also believe in the common proverb, practice makes a
man perfect’. Drill is based on the principle that
repetition fixes the facts to be learnt. That is the
reason why the pupils have to repeat arithmetical
tables, formulae, spelling lists and definitions in order
to establish these.
Law of Effect:
“When a modifiable connection between a situation
and response is made and is accompanied or followed
by a satisfying state of affairs that connection’s
strength is increased, but when made and
accompanied by an annoying state of affairs its
strength is decreased”.
5.Briefly explain insightful theory of learning.
Insight, in learning theory, immediate and clear
learning or understanding that takes place without
overt trial-and-error testing. Insight occurs in
human learning when people recognize
relationships (or make novel associations between
objects or actions) that can help them solve new
problems.
Much of the scientific knowledge concerning insight
derives from work on animal behaviour that was
conducted by 20th-century German Gestalt
psychologist Wolfgang Köhler. In one experiment
Köhler placed a banana outside the cage of a
hungry chimpanzee, Sultan, and gave the animal
two sticks, each too short for pulling in the food but
joinable to make a single stick of sufficient length.
Sultan tried unsuccessfully to use each stick, and he
even used one stick to push the other along to
touch the banana. Later, apparently after having
given up, Sultan accidentally joined the sticks,
observed the result, and immediately ran with the
longer tool to retrieve the banana. When the
experiment was repeated, Sultan joined the two
sticks and solved the problem immediately. This
result, however, is ambiguous, because it appeared
that Sultan solved the problem by accident—not
through insight.

6.Brieflyexplainclassicalconditioningoflearning.
Classical conditioning is a type of learning that happens
unconsciously.
When you learn through classical conditioning, an
automatic conditioned response is paired with a specific
stimulus. This creates a behavior.
The best-known example of this is from what some
believe to be the father of classical conditioning: Ivan
Pavlov. In an experiment on canine digestion, he found
that over time dogs were salivating not only when their
food was presented to them, but when the people who
fed them arrived.
To test his theory that the dogs were salivating because
they were associating the people with being fed, he
began ringing a bell and then presenting the food so
they’d associate the sound with food.
These dogs learned to associate the bell ringing with
food, causing their mouths to salivate whenever the bell
rang — not just when they encountered the food.
Conditioning is beneficial in an evolutionary sense
because it’s helped us create expectations to prepare
for future events. For instance, getting ill from a certain
food helps us associate that food with sickness. In turn,
that helps prevent us from getting sick in the future.
7.Briefly explain operantconditioning of learning.
Operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning)
is a type of associative learning process through which the
strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or
punishment. It is also a procedure that is used to bring
about such learning.
Although operant and classical conditioning both involve
behaviors controlled by environmental stimuli, they differ in
nature. In operant conditioning, behavior is controlled by
external stimuli. For example, a child may learn to open a
box to get the sweets inside, or learn to avoid touching a hot
stove; in operant terms, the box and the stove are
"discriminative stimuli". Operant behavior is said to be
"voluntary". The responses are under the control of the
organism and are operants. For example, the child may face
a choice between opening the box and petting a puppy.
In contrast, classical conditioning involves involuntary
behavior based on the pairing of stimuli with biologically
significant events. The responses are under the control of
some stimulus because they are reflexes, automatically
elicited by the appropriate stimuli. For example, sight of
sweets may cause a child to salivate, or the sound of a door
slam may signal an angry parent, causing a child to tremble.
Salivation and trembling are not operants; they are not
reinforced by their consequences, and they are not
voluntarily "chosen".

8.Differentiate between classical and operant
conditioning theory of learning.
9.Discuss Thorndike’s laws of learning and
write their significance.
Thorndike Theory
One of the phenomenal work is his book under
title “Animal intelligence, Anexperimental study
of association process in Animal”. This book is
based on his research to behavior of animals like
cats, dogs, and bird. According to him,
thebehavior of those animal is giving a
description of learning process; that is basicof
learning is association, a stimulus will result
generate a certain respond.
Thorndike theory explains learning is change of
behavior that can be observed,measured, and
assessed concretely. The change of stimulus will
generate respond based on mechanistic law.
Based on Thorndike, learning is phenomenon
that grows associationsbetween one events to
another events which is called as stimulus (S)
with respond (R). Stimulus is a changing of
external environment that become sign to
activate organism to react and act. And, respond
is behavior that is raised by stimulus.
From experiment of hunger cat which is putted
in cage is known that in order to reach relation
between stimulus and respond need an ability
to choose preciousrespond through trials and
errors. Here, some experts call Thorndike
asInstrumental Conditioning

10.Explain trial and error learning.
Trial and error is a fundamental method of problem-
solving. It is characterized by repeated, varied attempts
which are continued until success, or until the practicer
stops trying.
According to W.H. Thorpe, the term was devised by C.
Lloyd Morgan (1852–1936) after trying out similar
phrases "trial and failure" and "trial and practice". Under
Morgan's Canon, animal behaviour should be explained in
the simplest possible way. Where behavior seems to
imply higher mental processes, it might be explained by
trial-and-error learning. An example is a skillful way in
which his terrier Tony opened the garden gate, easily
misunderstood as an insightful act by someone seeing the
final behavior. Lloyd Morgan, however, had watched and
recorded the series of approximations by which the dog
had gradually learned the response, and could
demonstrate that no insight was required to explain it.
Edward Lee Thorndike was the initiator of the theory of
trial and error learning based on the findings he showed
how to manage a trial-and-error experiment in the
laboratory. In his famous experiment, a cat was placed in
a series of puzzle boxes in order to study the law of effect
in learning. He plotted to learn curves which recorded the
timing for each trial. Thorndike's key observation was that
learning was promoted by positive results, which was
later refined and extended by B. F. Skinner's operant
conditioning.
Trial and error is also a method of problem solving, repair,
tuning, or obtaining knowledge. In the field of computer
science, the method is called generate and test (Brute
force). In elementary algebra, when solving equations, it
is guess and check.This approach can be seen as one of
the two basic approaches to problem-solving, contrasted
with an approach using insight and theory. However,
there are intermediate methods which for example, use
theory to guide the method, an approach known as
guided empiricism.
11.Describe the transfer of learning.
The word transfer is used to describe the effects of past
learning upon present acquisition. In the laboratory and in
the outside world, how well and how rapidly we learn
anything depends to a large extent upon the kinds and
amount of things we have learned previously.
In simple way transfer may be defined as “the partial or
total application or carryover of knowledge, skills, habits,
attitudes from one situation to another situation”.
Hence, carryover of skills of one learning to other learning
is transfer of training or learning. Such transfer occurs
when learning of one set of material influences the
learning of another set of material later. For example, a
person who knows to drive a moped can easily learn to
drive a s
During transfer learning, knowledge is leveraged from a
source task to improve learning in a new task. If the
transfer method ends up decreasing performance of the
new task, it is called a negative transfer. A major challenge
when developing transfer methods is ensuring positive
transfer between related tasks while still avoiding negative
transfer between less related tasks.
When applying knowledge from one task to another, the
original task's characteristics are usually mapped onto
those of the other to specify correspondences. A human
typically provides this mapping, but methods are evolving
that perform the mapping automatically.cooter.

12.What are study habits?How to improve
study habits?
A good study habit is very important for good
academic performance, and such every
parent and teacher would desire their
children to be avid and excited readers.
Therefore, it is essential to create captivating,
inviting and comfortable place for the
students in order to help them cultivate good
study habits. Library, more than any other
place, provides ideal environment and vital
information resources for students to develop
and sustain good study habits necessary for
excellent performance in academic works.
• Find a good studying spot. This is
important
• Stay Away From Your Phone
• No Willpower
• Take a break and take care of yourself
• Organize lectures notes
• Join or create a study group
• Aromatherapy, plants and music
• Leave time for the last-minute review
LongEssay:
1.Define memory.Explain the process and types
of memory.
Memory is the ability to take in information, store it,
and recall it at a later time. In psychology, memory is
broken into three stages: encoding, storage, and
retrieval.
Types of Memory:
Sensory Memory:
Sensory memory allows individuals to retain
impressions of sensory information after the original
stimulus has ceased. One of the most common
examples of sensory memory is fast-moving lights in
darkness: if you’ve ever lit a sparkler on the Fourth of
July or watched traffic rush by at night, the light
appears to leave a trail.

Short-Term Memory:
Short-term memory is also known as working memory. It
holds only a few items (research shows a range of 7 +/- 2
items) and only lasts for about 20 seconds. However,
items can be moved from short-term memory to long-
term memory via processes like rehearsal. An example
of rehearsal is when someone gives you a phone
number verbally and you say it to yourself repeatedly
until you can write it down. If someone interrupts your
rehearsal by asking a question, you can easily forget the
number, since it is only being held in your short-term
memory.
Long-Term Memory
Long-term memories are all the memories we hold for
periods of time longer than a few seconds; long-term
memory encompasses everything from what we learned
in first grade to our old addresses to what we wore to
work yesterday. Long-term memory has an incredibly
vast storage capacity, and some memories can last from
the time they are created until we die.
There are many types of long-term memory. Explicit or
declarative memory requires conscious recall; it consists
of information that is consciously stored or retrieved.
Explicit memory can be further subdivided into semantic
memory (facts taken out of context, such as “Paris is the
capital of France”) and episodic memory (personal
experiences, such as “When I was in Paris, I saw the
Mona Lisa“).
In contrast to explicit/declarative memory, there is also a
system for procedural/implicit memory. These memories
are not based on consciously storing and retrieving
information, but on implicit learning. Often this type of
memory is employed in learning new motor skills. An
example of implicit learning is learning to ride a bike: you
do not need to consciously remember how to ride a
bike, you simply do. This is because of implicit memory.
2.Explain the classification and factors affecting
memory.
a. Ability to retain:
This depends upon good memory traces left in the
brain by past experiences.
b. Good health:
A person with good health can retain the learnt
material better than a person with poor health.
c. Age of the learner:
Youngsters can remember better than the aged.
d. Maturity:
Very young children cannot retain and remember
complex material.
e. Will to remember:
Willingness to remember helps for better retention.
f. Intelligence:
More intelligent person will have better memory than
a dull person,

g. Interest:
If a person has more interest, he will learn and retain
better.
h. Over learning:
Experiments have proved that over learning will lead to
better memory.
i. Speed of learning:
Quicker learning leads to better retention,
j. Meaningfulness of the material:
Meaningful materials remain in our memory for longer
period than for nonsense material,
k. Sleep or rest:
Sleep or rest immediately after learning strengthens
connections in the brain and helps for clear memory.
3.Explain the classification of memory and methods of
memorizing.
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is our shortest form of memory. It's
very fleeting - no more than a flash. Sensory memory
acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the five
senses. These images are accurately retained, but only
for a brief moment in time, typically less than half a second.
Short-Term Memory
Short-term memories are slightly less passing than
sensory memories, but they still get dismissed
after a few minutes. The label is quite apt, given
their function. Short-term memory is the part of
our brains that holds onto information until we
need to recall it. If we make mental lists before we
run to Target, it's our short-term memory that will
help us recall the fabric softener or the folding
chair.
Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory is the brain's system for
storing, managing, and recalling information. It is
very complex with different functionality. As
sensory memories only flicker for less than a
second and short-term memories last only a
minute or two, long-term memories include
anything from an event that occurred five minutes
ago to something from 20 years ago.
There are many different forms of long-term
memories. Sometimes they're conscious,
requiring us to actively think in order to recall a
piece of information. Other times they're
unconscious, simply appearing without an active
attempt at recollection, like remembering the
route from home to work without actively
thinking about it.

4.What is forgetting?Explain the theories of
forgetting.
Forgetting or disremembering is the apparent loss or
modification of information already encoded and
stored in an individual's short or long-term memory. It
is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old
memories are unable to be recalled from memory
storage. Problems with remembering, learning and
retaining new information are a few of the most
common complaints of older adults.[1] Studies show
that retention improves with increased rehearsal. This
improvement occurs because rehearsal helps to
transfer information into long-term memory.[2]
Forgetting curves (amount remembered as a function
of time since an event was first experienced) have
been extensively analyzed. The most recent evidence
suggests that a power function provides the closest
mathematical fit to the forgetting function.[3]
Displacement Theory of Forgetting
The displacement theory describes how forgetting
works in short-term memory. Short-term memory
has a limited capacity and can only hold a small
amount of information—up to about seven items—
at one time. Once the memory is full, new
information will replace the old one.
Free recall method
In studies based on the free-recall method,
participants are asked to listen to a list of words and
then try to remember them. The free recall
method, unlike the serial recall one, allows
remembering words in no particular order. These
studies show that the first and the last items on the
list are the easiest ones to remember.
Trace Decay Theory of Forgetting
The trace decay theory was formed by American
psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1914, based on
the early memory work by Hermann Ebbinghaus.
The theory states that if we don’t access memories,
they will fade over time.

ShortEssay:
1.Describe the classification of memory with
examples.
Explicit Memory
When we assess memory by asking a person to
consciously remember things, we are measuring
explicit memory. Explicit memory refers to knowledge
or experiences that can be consciously remembered.
As you can see in Figure 9.2, “Types of Memory,”
there are two types of explicit memory: episodic and
semantic.
Implicit Memory
While explicit memory consists of the things that we
can consciously report that we know, implicit memory
refers to knowledge that we cannot consciously
access. However, implicit memory is nevertheless
exceedingly important to us because it has a direct
effect on our behaviour. Implicit memory refers to the
influence of experience on behaviour, even if the
individual is not aware of those influences. As you can
see in Figure 9.2, “Types of Memory,” there are three
general types of implicit memory: procedural
memory, classical conditioning effects.
2.Explain the factors influencing memory.
a. Ability to retain:
This depends upon good memory traces left in the
brain by past experiences.
b. Good health:
A person with good health can retain the learnt
material better than a person with poor health.
c. Age of the learner:
Youngsters can remember better than the aged.
d. Maturity:
Very young children cannot retain and remember
complex material.
e. Will to remember:
Willingness to remember helps for better retention.

3.Explain the theories of forgetting.
Displacement Theory of Forgetting
The displacement theory describes how
forgetting works in short-term memory. Short-
term memory has a limited capacity and can only
hold a small amount of information—up to about
seven items—at one time. Once the memory is
full, new information will replace the old one.
Free recall method
In studies based on the free-recall method,
participants are asked to listen to a list of words
and then try to remember them. The free recall
method, unlike the serial recall one, allows
remembering words in no particular order. These
studies show that the first and the last items on
the list are the easiest ones to remember.
Trace Decay Theory of Forgetting
The trace decay theory was formed by American
psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1914, based on
the early memory work by Hermann Ebbinghaus.
The theory states that if we don’t access
memories, they will fade over time.
4.Explain the biological causes of forgetting.
Biological or organic causes are the basis for a lot of
forgetting. This Usually refers to damage to the brain
brought about by: Disease Injury Stroke Malnutrition
Seizure Chemical Damage – due to drugs ( including
alcohol). Memory loss due to any of these causes is
referred to as organic amnesia. This is usually partial &
selective. Total amnesia ( no memory of anything at all )
is extremely rare. Anterograde amnesia When the
memory loss is only of events that occur after brain
damage. Retrograde amnesia When the memory loss is
only of events that occur before brain damage.
Anterograde & Retrograde effects on the Forgetting
Curve: - Anterograde amnesia prevents the formation of
new memories, but what existed in memory prior to the
onset of amnesia remains much the same. -For material
already in memory, forgetting would occur as predicted
by the curve. -Any memories that are being consolidated
at the time of the brain trauma would be lost. See
articles (handouts) -With retrograde amnesia, new
learning is possible but recall of previously learned
information is impaired. -It is expected that memory for
the new material would be forgotten in a similar way to
that suggested by the forgetting curve. -Memory of
information stored prior to the amnesiac event would be
affected, and the effect would depend on the type &
severity of the brain damage.

5.Explain the methods of memorizing.
Method # 1. Repeated Recitation:
Repetition or re-reading a lesson fixes it durably. But
recitation fixes it more durably. Recitation means
reciting to oneself. Let the reader read his lesson twice
or thrice, and then recite it to himself, prompting
himself when he fails.
Method # 2. Spaced and Un-Spaced Learning:
Should we repeat a lesson till we have mastered it at
one sitting? Or, should we learn it once or twice a day
till we have mastered it? Spaced repetitions are more
effective than un-spaced learning. The greater is the
interval between one repetition and another at one
sitting the less is the time required to memorize the
matter.
Method # 3. Intention to Remember:
Learning a matter effectively requires the intention to
remember. Unintentional learning is ineffective. The
will to learn is necessary if any learning is to be
accomplished. The testimony of eye-witnesses is very
unreliable except for facts that were definitely noted
by them at the time of the occurrence of an event.
6.Explain different ways to improve memory.
1. Do brain training
There are many brain training activities online that
may help improve a person’s memory.
In a similar way to muscles, the brain needs regular
use to stay healthy. Mental workouts are just as
essential to gray matter as other factors, and
challenging the mind can help it grow and expand,
which may improve memory.
A large trial from the journal PLoS OneTrusted
Source found that people who did just 15 minutes of
brain training activities at least 5 days a week had
improvements in brain function.
2. Exercise
Physical exercise has a direct impact on brain health.
As the author of research in the Journal of Exercise
RehabilitationTrusted Source notes, regular exercise
reduces the risk of cognitive decline with age and
protects the brain against degeneration.
The results of a 2017 studyTrusted Source suggest
that aerobic exercise can improve memory function
in people with early Alzheimer’s disease. The control
group did nonaerobic stretching and toning.

LongEssay:
1.Define thinking.Explain favourable elements in
thinking.
Cognitive abilities like thinking, reasoning and problem-
solving may be considered to be some of the chief
characteristics which distinguish human beings from
other species including the higher animals.
The challenges and problems faced by the individual or
by society, in general are solved through series of efforts
involving thinking and reasoning. The powers of thinking
and reasoning may thus be considered to be the essential
tools for the welfare and meaningful existence of the
individual as well as society.
Types of Thinking
Perceptual or Concrete Thinking
Perceptual thinking is the simplest form of thinking that
primarily utilities our perception – interpretation of the
information absorbed by our senses – to create thoughts.
It is also alternatively known as concrete thinking
because our thoughts reflect our perception of concrete
objects, exact interpretations or the literal meaning of
language rather than applying other concepts or ideas to
decipher the same information.
Creative Thinking
Creative Thinking is an integral element in the
professional world, especially in the fields of art
and science. The ability to think creatively is
displayed in all aspects of life, specifically in
situations where one needs to think
unconventionally in order to solve a problem.
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is one of the most complex
thinking processes that requires higher cognitive
skills and abilities such as reflection and
reconstruction of thoughts and experiences so
that we may interpret, analyse, evaluate and
make inferences in a purposefully self-regulatory
manner that is unbiased. Critical thinkers need to
separate themselves from their inherent
prejudices and belief systems in order to arrive at
the truth of a problem.
Reflective Thinking
Reflective thinking is utilised when we are trying
to solve complex problems. In order to do so, our
brain reorganises all of our experiences pertinent
to a specific situation in an attempt to relate
experiences and ideas to find viable solutions to
the challenges we face. Reflective thinking may
therefore be understood as an introspective
cognitive process.

ShortEssay:
1.Describethestagesofdevelopmentofthinking.
Concrete Operational Stage
At this time, elementary-age and preadolescent children
-- ages 7 to 11 -- show logical, concrete
reasoning.Children's thinking becomes less focused on
themselves. They're increasingly aware of external
events.
They begin to realize that their own thoughts and
feelings are unique and may not be shared by others or
may not even be part of reality.But during this stage,
most children still can't think abstractly or
hypothetically.
Formal Operational Stage
Adolescents who reach this fourth stage of intellectual
development -- usually at age 11-plus -- are able to use
symbols related to abstract concepts, such as algebra
and science. They can think about things in systematic
ways, come up with theories, and consider possibilities.
They also can ponder abstract relationships and
concepts such as justice.
2.Explain the levels of thinking.
1. Gathering knowledge consists of acquiring basic
pieces of information. Asking children to identify
and describe objects encourages thinking on this
level.
2. Comprehending and confirming involves looking
at the meaning of the knowledge that has been
gathered and drawing conclusions from it. A good
question to encourage this level of thinking might
be, for example, "The yellow sponge floats. What
about the other sponges?"
3. Applying entails using what has been learned in
new situations. Asking children to consider a newly
learned fact as they build or make something can
foster this level of thinking.
4. Analyzing involves thinking about a whole in
terms of its various parts. You can encourage this
level of thinking by asking children what materials
could be used for a particular classroom project.
5. Synthesizing consists of putting parts together to
form a whole. Asking children how to use an array
of materials to create something, for example,
invites thinking on this level.
6. Evaluating entails making comparisons and
judgments. You can encourage this level of thinking
by asking children which of the materials they used
worked the best.To read more about these six levels
of thinking, see Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
by Benjamin S. Bloom (Longman).

3.Explain the types of thinking.
Creative Thinking
Creative Thinking is an integral element in the
professional world, especially in the fields of art and
science. The ability to think creatively is displayed in all
aspects of life, specifically in situations where one needs
to think unconventionally in order to solve a problem.
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is one of the most complex thinking
processes that requires higher cognitive skills and abilities
such as reflection and reconstruction of thoughts and
experiences so that we may interpret, analyse, evaluate
and make inferences in a purposefully self-regulatory
manner that is unbiased. Critical thinkers need to
separate themselves from their inherent prejudices and
belief systems in order to arrive at the truth of a problem.
Reflective Thinking
Reflective thinking is utilised when we are trying to solve
complex problems. In order to do so, our brain
reorganises all of our experiences pertinent to a specific
situation in an attempt to relate experiences and ideas to
find viable solutions to the challenges we face. Reflective
thinking may therefore be understood as an introspective
cognitive process.
4. Briefly describe the tools of thinking.
These tools are:
a. Images:
Image is a mental picture formed in the mind in the
absence of stimulus. This takes place when we try to
remember the experience of stimulus. We are able to
think on the basis of these images.
b. Concepts:
Thinking always takes place by using the concepts in the
mind. Without concepts there cannot be thinking,
because everything around us is recorded in the brain in
the form of concepts.
c. Language:
In thinking we not only use concepts, but also language.
Generally we think in our mother tongue or the
language which is very familiar to us. Our thinking will
flow like stream because of language.
d. Symbols:
Symbols like national flag, national animal, logo of a
game or organisation, etc, are symbols of certain things.
We use these symbols while thinking.
e. Brain:
Finally it is the brain which is the seat of all mental
processes. Since thinking is also a higher mental process,
the role of brain is crucial. All our experiences are stored
in the brain as engrams. Our thinking takes place on the
basis of these engrams. Hence, it is quite obvious that
brain is an essential tool of thinking.

LongEssay:
1.Define intelligence.Explain any two theories
of intelligence.
Intelligence has been defined in many ways: higher
level abilities (such as abstract reasoning, mental
representation, problem solving, and decision
making), the ability to learn, emotional knowledge,
creativity, and adaptation to meet the demands of
the environment effectively.
Theories of Intelligence
Different researchers have proposed a variety of
theories to explain the nature of intelligence. Here
are some of the major theories of intelligence that
have emerged during the last 100 years.
General Intelligence
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945)
described a concept he referred to as general
intelligence or the g factor. After using a technique
known as factor analysis to examine some mental
aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on
these tests were remarkably similar.
People who performed well on one cognitive test
tended to perform well on other tests, while those
who scored badly on one test tended to score badly
on others. He concluded that intelligence is a general
cognitive ability that can be measured and
numerically expressed.
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard
Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner
proposed that the traditional idea of intelligence, based on
IQ testing, did not fully and accurately depict a person's
abilities. His theory proposed eight different intelligences
based on skills and abilities that are valued in different
cultures:5
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control your
body movements and to handle objects skillfully
Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and
respond appropriately to the moods, motivations, and
desires of others
Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and
in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking
processes
Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think
conceptually and abstractly, and the capacity to discern
logically or numerical patterns
Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate
rhythm, pitch, and timbre
Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and
categorize animals, plants, and other objects in nature
Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills
and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings, and rhythms of
words
Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images
and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly

2.Explain factor theories of intelligence.
Charles Edward Spearman proposed his two-factor
theory of intelligence in 1904. He was the first who
introduced the concept of general intelligence called
the ”g” factor. To develop his theory, he analyzed
different mental aptitude and cognitive tests given by
the participants. He noticed that the scores of the
same participants were almost similar in every test.
Those who had a good score in one aptitude test had
also scored well in other aptitude tests, and those
who performed badly in one test also performed
similarly in other tests, which represents that there
exists a factor that is common to all the intellectual
and cognitive abilities of the person. Using the factor
analysis technique, a technique through which
various correlated variables are reduced to the lower
number of factors, he examined the cognitive tests
and concluded that factors related to intelligence can
be measured and expressed numerically, its
mathematical explanation is discussed further in this
article. Spearman stated that various mental traits
are not independent of each other, and there exists a
common factor in all the cognitive abilities of the
person, he called this common factor a general factor
or ”g” factor. He proposed that intelligence consists
of two factors, i.e., the ”g” factor (general ability) and
the ”s” factor (specific ability), where the ”g” factor is
involved in every general mental ability task of the
person, and the ”s” factor is responsible for only the
specific intellectual abilities of the person. It is to be
noted that although the name of this theory is two-
factor, there are more than just two factors as the s
factor has various sub-factors, depending upon the
number of specific abilities in each test. It means
that there are two different ‘kinds of factors,’ i.e., a
general factor and specific factors. The specific
abilities of a person may be drawing interference,
coding abilities, mathematical abilities, and so on.
3.Explain the classification of intelligence tests.
(1) Individual Verbal Tests:
In this type of intelligence tests one person
appears the test at a time for whom it is meant.
The teste is required to use language while
attending the test items. Here the subject’s
response may be given to oral form or written
form.
(ii) Individual Non-verbal Tests:
This test is administered to one person at a time
for whom it is meant. It is designed for thatperson
who is unable to read and write the language of
the test and it is meant for youngchildren also. It
includes different activities like completing
pictures, arranging pictures correctly, setting
blocks, cubes etc.
(iii) Group Verbal Tests:
The group-verbal tests on intelligence are
administered to a large number of subjects at a
time
who can read and write the language of the test.
The subjects are warned to make their
pencils and pens ready before administration of
the test. Here time limit of the test is almost
all equal to every student.

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