A quick review in anatomy

1. Anatomy, Bones &
Joints
By:
Hossein Khorrami PhD.
khorrami4@yahoo.com
http://www.scribd.com/khorrami4
https://www.slideshare.net/khorrami4

3. Anatomical position
 most widely used &
accurate for all aspects
of the body
 standing in an upright
posture, facing straight
ahead, feet parallel and
close, & palms facing
forward

4. Anatomical planes
 Median
 Frontal (coronal)
 Transverse

5. Body Planes and
Sections
 Coronal (frontal) plane - Lies vertically and divides
body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts
 Sagittal plane – lies vertically and divides the body into
left and right sides.
 Median (midsagittal) plane - Specific sagittal plane that
lies vertically in the midline
 Transverse plane - runs horizontally and divides body
into superior (up) and inferior (down) parts

6. Orientation and Directional Terms

7. Anatomical directional terms
• Anterior
 in front or in the front part
 Anteroinferior
 in front & below
 Anterosuperior
 in front & above
 Posterior
 behind, in back, or in the rear
 Posteroinferior
 behind & below; in back &
below
 Posterolateral
 behind & to one side,
specifically to the outside

8. Orientation and Directional Terms

9. Orientation and Directional Terms

10. Regional Terms

11. Regional Terms

12. Body Cavities and Membranes
 Dorsal body cavity
 Cranial cavity
 Cranial cavity
houses the brain
 Vertebral cavity
 Vertebral cavity
runs through the
vertebral column
and encloses the
spinal cord

13. Body Cavities and Membranes
 Ventral body cavity
 Thoracic cavity
 Two lateral parts each
containing a lung
surrounded by a
pleural cavity
 Mediastinum –
contains the heart
surrounded by the
pericardial sac

14. Body Cavities and Membranes
 Ventral body cavity
 Abdominopelvic
cavity
 Abdominal cavity –
contains the liver,
stomach, kidneys, and
other organs
 Pelvic cavity –
contains the bladder,
some reproductive
organs, and rectum

15. Body Cavities and Membranes
 Serous cavities – a slit-like space lined by a
serous membrane
 Pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum
 Parietal serosa – outer wall of the cavity
 Visceral serosa covers the visceral organs

16. Body Cavities and Membranes

17. Other Body Cavities
 Oral cavity
 Nasal cavity
 Orbital cavities
 Middle ear cavities
 Synovial cavities

18. Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
 Abdominal regions divide the abdomen into nine
regions

19. Abdominal Quadrants
 Abdominal quadrants divide the abdomen into four
quadrants
 Right upper and left upper quadrants
 Right lower and left lower quadrants

21. Bone functions
 Supportive
 Protection of brain & Sp.cord
 Movement
 Storage, minerals, fat
 Hematopoiesis

22. Bone growth
 Prenatal, after wk 8, starts mineralization
 Postnatal, longitudinal and diameter

23. Classification of Bones
Long bones
 Typically longer than wide
 Have a shaft with heads at both ends
 Contain mostly compact bone
 Examples: Femur, humerus
 Short bones
 Generally cube-shape
 Contain mostly spongy bone
 Examples: Carpals, tarsals

24. Classification of Bones, cont.
 Flat bones
Thin and flattened, usually curved
Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of
spongy bone
 Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum
 Irregular bones
 Irregular in shape
 Do not fit into other bone classification categories
 Example: Vertebrae

26. Bones
The adult skeleton has 206 bones
Two basic types of bone tissue
 Compact bone
 Homogeneous
 Spongy bone
 Small needle-like
pieces of bone
 Many open spaces

27. Long Bone
Diaphysis
 Shaft
 Composed of compact bone
Epiphysis
 Ends of the bone
 Composed mostly of spongy
bone
 Hematopoiesis

29. Structures of a Long Bone
Periosteum
 Outside covering of the
diaphysis
 Fibrous connective tissue
membrane
Sharpey’s fibers
 Secure periosteum to
underlying bone
Arteries
 Supply bone cells with
nutrients

31. Structures of a Long Bone
Articular cartilage
 Covers the external
surface of the epiphyses
 Made of hyaline cartilage
 Decreases friction at joint
surfaces
Figure 5.2a

32. Structures of a Long Bone
Medullary cavity
 Cavity of the shaft
 Contains yellow marrow
(mostly fat) in adults
 Contains red marrow (for
blood cell formation) in
infants
Figure 5.2a

33. Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
Osteon (Haversian System)
A unit of bone
Central (Haversian) canal
Carries blood vessels
and nerves
Perforating (Volkman’s)
canal
Canal perpendicular to
the central canal
Carries blood vessels
and nerves

34. Bone Markings
 Surface features of bones
 Projections and processes – grow out from the bone surface
 Depressions or cavities – indentations
 Sites of attachments for
muscles, tendons, and
ligaments
 Passages for nerves and
blood vessels

35. Changes in the Human
Skeleton
In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
During development, much of this cartilage is
replaced by bone
Cartilage remains in isolated areas
 Bridge of the nose
 Parts of ribs
 Joints

36. Bone Growth
Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone
during childhood
 New cartilage is continuously formed
 Older cartilage becomes ossified
 Cartilage is broken down
 Bone replaces cartilage

37. Bone Growth
Bones are remodeled and lengthened until
growth stops
 Bones change shape somewhat
 Bones grow in width

38. Long Bone Formation and
Growth

39. Types of Bone Cells
Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells
Osteoblasts
 Bone-forming cells
Osteoclasts
 Bone-destroying cells
 Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of
calcium
Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts
and osteoclasts

40. COMPOSITION OF BONE:
Bone
33% organic
28% collagen
5% non
collagenous
proteins
67% inorganic Hydroxyapatite

41. Composition of Bone…
Inorganic component:
 Hydroxyapatite crystals with carbonate content
Organic component:
- Osteoid
 Type I collagen (95%)
 type V collagen (<5%)
Non collagenous proteins
 Osteocalcin,
 Osteopontin,
 Bone sialoprotein,
 Osteonectin.(SPARC)- Cell adhesion ,proliferation,
modulation of cytokine activity.

42. OSTEOCYTES:
Nerve cells
Sense the change in environment and send signals that affect
response of other cells involved in bone remodelling
Maintains balance between
resorption and remodelling
 Bone that forms more rapidly
shows more osteocytes

43. Osteocytic lacunae
Canaliculi- narrow extension of lacunae, permits
diffusion of gases and nutrients
Maintains bone integrity and vitality
Failure of inter connecting system between osteocytes
and osteoblasts leads to sclerosis and death of bone

44. Osteoblasts :
Derived from osteoprogenitor cells
Periosteum serves as important reservoir .
Morphology :
 basophilic
 cuboidal or slightly elongated cells
contain prominent bundles of actin, myosin
BONE CELLS:

46. Osteoblast, Functions
 New bone formation
 Controls bone mineralization at 3 levels
1. In its initial phase, by production of matrix vesicle
2. At a later stage, by controlling the ongoing process of
mineralization
3. By regulating the number of ions available
 Regulation of bone remodeling and mineral metabolism

47. Osteoblasts Functions
 Secrete type I collagen, small amount of type V collagen,
osteonectin, osteopontin, RANKL, osteoprotegerin,
Proteoglycans, latent proteases and growth factors
including bone morphogenic proteins
 Exhibit high levels of alkaline phosphatase -cytochemical
marker

48. BONE LINING CELLS:
Osteoblasts flatten, when bone is not forming and extend
along the bone surface and hence the name
They are present on periosteal as well as endosteal surfaces

49. BONE RESORPTION: Osteoclasts
Sequence of events of bone resorption: Involves 3 phases
First phase -
formation of osteoclast
Second phase-
activation of osteoclast
Third phase -
resorption of bone

50.  Alterations in the osteoclast
 Removal of hydroxyapatite
acidic environment by proton pump
 Degradation of organic matrix
acid phosphatase, cathepsin B
 Removal of degradation products from lacunae
endocytosis
 Translocation of degraded products and extracellular release

52. Removal of hydroxyapatite:
The initial phase involves the dissolution of the mineral phase –
HCl
The protons for the acid arise from the activity of cytoplasmic
carbonic anhydrase II, which is synthesized in osteoclast.
The protons are then released across the ruffled border into the
resorption zone by an ATP consuming proton pump.
 This leads to a fall in pH to 2.5 to 3.0 in the osteoclast resorption
space.

53. As age increases resorption exceeds
Cortical bone turnover -5% per year
 Trabecular and endosteal surface – 15% per year
Coupling
The processes of bone synthesis and bone breakdown go on
simultaneously and the status of the bone represents the net result
of a balance between the two processes

54. Hormones and coupling
With the exception of calcitonin, all the hormones, cytokines, and
growth factors that act on bone, as an organ, mediate their activity
through osteoblasts
Resorbing hormones act directly on osteoblasts, which then
produce other factors that regulate osteoclast activity
This results in both bone formation and bone resorption being
coupled

55. To prevent accumulation of damaged bone by regenerating
new bone
Allowing to respond to the changes in mechanical forces
Mineral homeostasis
Functions of remodeling

57. Sequence of events in bone remodelling:

58. Bone remodeling

59. Bone formation
 Piezoelectric effect
 GH
 Insulin
 Estrogen
 Androgen
 Vitamin D
 TGF-beta
 PDGF
 Calcitonin
 PTH

60. Hormonal Control of Blood Ca
PTH;
calcitonin
secreted
Calcitonin
stimulates
calcium salt
deposit
in bone
Parathyroid
glands release
parathyroid
hormone (PTH)
Thyroid
gland
Thyroid
gland
Parathyroid
glands
Osteoclasts
degrade bone
matrix and release
Ca2+ into blood
Falling blood
Ca2+ levels
Rising blood
Ca2+ levels
Calcium homeostasis of blood: 9–11 mg/100 ml
PTH

61. MEDIATORS OF BONE REMODELLING:
 Parathyroid hormone
 Calcitonin
 Vitamin D metabolites i.e., 1, 25-dihydroxycholecalciferol
 Cytokines
 Prostaglandins
 Growth factors
 Corticosteroids
 Mechanical factors
 Bacterial products

62. Pathologies caused due to improper control of remodelling are:
•Osteoporosis
•Osteopetrosis*
•Malignant bone tumors
•Inflammatory joint diseases
*Osteopetrosis is a bone disease that makes bones abnormally
dense and prone to fracture
Autosomal Dominant Osteopetrosis(ADO)

63. Response to Mechanical Stress
 Trabeculae form along lines of stress
 Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active
muscles attach

64. Response to Mechanical Stress
 Wolff’s law: a bone grows or remodels in response to the
forces or demands placed upon it
 Observations supporting Wolff’s law include
 Long bones are thickest midway along the shaft
(where bending stress is greatest)
 Curved bones are thickest where they are most
likely to buckle

65. Response to Mechanical Stress

66. The Skeletal System

67. Bones
270-300 bones at birth
 Almost 206-213 in adults
 Head: 22
 Skull: 8
 Facial bones: 14
 Hyoid
 Upper limbs: 64 ( 10+54)
 Pelvic girdle: 3x2
 Lower limb: 60 (8+52)
 Vertebrae: 33(7+12+5+5+4)
 Ribs: 24
 Sternum
 Middle ear: 6

68. •Cranial and Facial Bones (22):
•frontal bone
•parietal bone (2)
•temporal bone (2)
•occipital bone
•sphenoid bone
•ethmoid bone
•mandible
•maxilla (2)
•palatine bone (2)
•zygomatic bone (2)
•nasal bone (2)
•lacrimal bone (2)
•vomer
•inferior nasal conchae (2)

69. Ear bones

70. Joint definition
 Joints connect the components of the skeletal
system together
 They give the skeletal system flexibility, and allow
muscles to direct movements by moving bones in
different directions

71. Joints
Articulations of bones
Functions of joints
 Hold bones together
 Allow for mobility
Ways joints are classified
 Functionally
 Structurally

72. Functional Classification of
Joints
Synarthrosis –
immovable(minimal) joints
Amphiarthrosis – slightly
moveable joints
Diarthrosis – freely
moveable joints

73. Synarthrosis
Min

74. Functional classification,
187 joints in body
 Synarthrosis are almost immovable joints; these joints
are common where protection of delicate internal
structures
 Skull, mandible
 Amphiarthrosis are slightly movable joints; connected
by broad flattened disks of fibrocartilage, of a more or
less complex structure, which adhere to the ends of
each bone
 Vertebrae, pubic symphysis, sternocostal joint
 Diarthrosis are freely movable joints; these joints
dominate in the limbs and areas of the body where
movement is important

75. Amphiarthrosis

76. Diarthrosis

77. Structural classification
 Fibrous joints allow very little movement, and are composed of fibrous (dense)
connective tissue
 skull sutures, tibia and fibula
 Cartilaginous joints allow very little or no movement, and are characterized by
a connection between adjoining bones made of cartilage, no joint cavity
 1. Fibrocarlilage: epiphyseal plate of growing bones is an immovable cartilaginous
joint
 2. Hyaline cartilage: pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints and connection between
the first rib and sternum are slightly movable cartilaginous joints
 Synovial joints are the most complex of the joint types
 Characterized by articular (hyaline) cartilage covering the ends of bones, a fibrous
articular capsule (composed of fibrous connective tissue) lined with synovial
membrane, a joint cavity containing synovial fluid and reinforcing ligaments to hold the
bones together
 Between the bones of the limbs
 Bursae: flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane that develop in areas of
friction
 Tendon sheaths are special bursae that wrap around tendons in areas of friction

79. Fibrous Joints
Bones united by fibrous
tissue
Examples
 Sutures
 Syndesmoses
 Allows more
movement than
sutures
 Example: distal
end of tibia and
fibula

81. Cartilaginous Joints
Bones connected by cartilage
Examples
 Pubic
symphysis
 Intervertebral
joints

82. Synovial Joints
Articulating bones are
separated by a joint
cavity
Synovial fluid is found in
the joint cavity

83. Synovial joints
 Some synovial joints such as knee and hip have
fatty pads between the fibrous capsule and the
bone
 Some have discs or wedges of fibrocartilage
separating the articular surface of bones (menisci of
knee)
 Some synovial joints have bursa which is a fluid
filled sac containing the synovial fluid to decrease
the friction

84. Features of Synovial Joints
Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers the ends
of bones
Joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous articular
capsule
Have a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid
Ligaments reinforce the joint

85. Structures Associated with the Synovial
Joint
Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs
 Lined with synovial membranes
 Filled with synovial fluid
 Not actually part of the joint
Tendon sheath
 Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon

86. The Synovial Joint

87. Which Joints have
Bursae
 Shoulder
 Elbow
 Hip
 Knee
 Heel
 Big toe
 …

88. Synovial joints classification
 Nonaxial(plane): carpal bones
 Uniaxial joint: one degree of freedom
 Hinge: elbow, PIP, DIP
 Pivot: Atlas & Axis
 Biaxial joint:
 Saddle: thumb carpal-metacarpal
 Condyloid: MCP in fingers
 Triaxial joint(multiaxial joint)
 Ball & socket: humeroscapular
 Hip

89. Types of Synovial Joints Based on
Shape

90. Types of Synovial Joints Based on Shape

91. • Plane joints connect two flat surfaces of bone to one another, and only allow
side-to-side movement with no rotation, so called nonaxial joints. Flat wrist
bones, Acromioclavicular joint(ACJ)
• Hinge joints connect a cylindrical bone end to a concave portion of another
bone. Rotation can occur in only one plane (like a door hinge), so called uniaxial
joints. Elbow and ankle, PIP, DIP
• Pivot joints connect the rounded end of one bone to a ring or sheath formed by
another bone, so are uniaxial joints. Radius & ulna, atlas & axis
• Condyloid joints fit the rounded convex articular surface of one bone into the
rounded concave surface of another bone. Allow side to side and forwards-
backwards movements, similarly to saddle joints, so are biaxial joints.
Knuckles(MCP)
• Saddle joints are characterized by concave and convex surfaces on both
articular surfaces. Allow side to side and forwards-backwards movements, but no
rotation, so are biaxial joints. Carpal & metacarpal of the
thumb **SternoClavicular**(with rotational mvmnt)
• Ball-and-socket joints join the spherical end of one bone to the concave,
rounded socket of another bone. Allow movement in all axes and rotation, and

95. Motion depends on:
 Joints
 Muscle and tendon
 Ligaments
 Capsule
 Skin
 Other soft tissues such as vessels, adipose tissue,
nerves & etc.

96. Capsular joint
 Joint mobilization
 Capsular excess
 Joint play

97. The Axial Skeleton
Forms the longitudinal part of the body
Divided into three parts
 Skull
 Vertebral column
 Bony thorax

98. The Axial Skeleton

99.  Sometimes these paired
bones will show the same
motions, sometimes
opposite, depending on the
pair Clinically, this means
that problems in one bone
can often be driven by its
paired bone
 For instance, if a person
chronically has problems
with their C1 in the upper
neck, one should also
address problems in its pair;
the L5 in the low back
Lovett Reactor System
Postural Homeostasis

100.  Spinal Coupling:
 C1 should move in a similar direction as L5
 C2 should move in a similar direction as L4
 C3 should move in a similar direction as L3
 C4 should move in the opposite direction as L2
 C5 should move in the opposite direction as L1
 This continues downward to T5 which moves in the opposite direction
as T6

102.  Pelvic-Cranial Coupling:
 Sacrum should move in the opposite direction as the occiput
 The ilium should move in the opposite direction to the
ipsilateral temporal bone (e.g., an anteriorly rotated left ilium
should automatically rotate the left temporal bone posteriorly)
 The coccyx should move in the same direction as the
sphenoid bone
 In essence, the Lovett Reactor is a description of what
occurs in the pelvis, vertebrae and cranial bones when the
Righting Reflex is working correctly

105. The Vertebral
Column
Vertebrae separated by
intervertebral discs
The spine has a normal
curvature
Each vertebrae is given a
name according to its location
4 Curves
 Primary: Thoracic &
Sacrococcygeal
 Secondary: Cervical & Lumbar

108. Structure of a Typical
Vertebrae
 7 processes
 Body

109. Cervical vertebrae
 Unlike the other parts of the spine, the cervical
spine has TRANSVERSE FORAMINA in each vertebra
for the vertebral arteries
 Classify to upper and lower parts
 Y-shape spinous process(C3-C6)
 U-shape transverse processes for cervical spinal
nerves
 Transverse foramen for paravertebral artery
 Larger spinous process at C7

112. Cervical, Upper part
 The upper cervical spine consists of the atlas (C1) and
the axis (C2)
 These first 2 vertebrae are quite different from the rest of
the cervical spine
 The atlas articulates superiorly with the occiput (the
atlanto-occipital joint) and inferiorly with the axis (the
atlantoaxial joint), synovial joints
 The atlantoaxial joint is responsible for 50% of all
cervical rotation; the atlanto-occipital joint is responsible
for 50% of flexion and extension
 The unique features of C2 anatomy and its articulations
complicate assessment of its pathology

113. Cervical

114. Atlas & Axis
Zygapophyseal Joint

115. Steel’s Rule of Thirds
 At the level of the atlas, the odontoid process, the
subarachnoid space, and spinal cord each occupy
one third of the area of the spinal canal

116. Axis
 The axis is composed of a vertebral body, heavy
pedicles, laminae, and transverse processes, which
serve as attachment points for muscles
 The axis articulates with the atlas via its superior
articular facets, which are convex and face upward and
outward

118. Axis
 At birth, a vestigial cartilaginous disc space called the
neurocentral synchondrosis separates the odontoid process
from the body of C2
 The synchondrosis is seen in virtually all children aged 3 years
and is absent in those aged 6 years
 The apical portion of the dens ossifies by age 3-5 years and
fuses with the rest of the structure around age 12 years
 This synchondrosis should not be confused with a fracture

119. Lower Cervical Spine

120. Joint of Luschka

121. Joint of Luschka
 Between C3-C7
 The joint believed to be
the result of degenerative
changes in the annulus,
which lead to fissuring in
the annulus and the
creation of the joint
 Can develop osteophytic
spurs, which can narrow
the intervertebral foramina

122. Facet Joints
 The facet joints in the cervical spine are Diarthrodial
synovial joints with fibrous capsules
 The joint capsules are more lax in the lower cervical
spine than in other areas of the spine to allow
gliding movements of the facets
 The joints are inclined at an angle of 45° from the
horizontal plane and 85° from the sagittal plane
 This alignment helps prevent
excessive anterior translation and is
important in weight-bearing

123. Intervertebral Discs
 These disks are composed of 4 parts: the nucleus
pulposus in the middle, the annulus fibrosis surrounding
the nucleus, and 2 end plates that are attached to the
adjacent vertebral bodies
 They serve as force dissipators, transmitting compressive
loads throughout a range of motion
 The disks are thicker anteriorly and therefore contribute to
normal cervical lordosis

129. Regional
Characteristics of
Vertebrae

130. Structure of a Typical
Vertebrae

131. Rule of Threes

133. Facet Joints*
 To guide and limit mvmts in vertebral segments
 Cartilage
 Synovial fluid
 Nerve & blood vessels
 Ligaments
 *Zygapophyseal(Z-joint)

134. Facet Joint Orientation, Cervical
 Cervical Region: 45 degrees; all movements are
possible such as flexion, extension, lateral flexion, and
rotation
 The articulating facets in the cervical vertebrae face
45o to the transverse plane and lie parallel to the
frontal plane, with the superior articulating process
facing posterior and up and the inferior articulating
processes facing anteriorly and down

135. Facet Joint Orientation, Thoracic
 Thoracic Region; lateral flexion
and rotation; least
flexion/extension
 The facet joints between
adjacent thoracic vertebrae are
angled at 60° to the
transverse(Hor) plane and 20°
to the frontal plane, with the
superior facets facing posterior
and a little up and laterally and
the inferior facets facing
anteriorly, down, and medially

138. Costovertebral Joints

143. Ribs Classification
 Typical
 Ribs 3-10(3-9)
 shaft (or body), head, neck, groove, tubercle, and anterior
extremity
 Atypical
 Ribs 1, 2, 10, 11, and 12


144. Atypical Ribs
 Rib1
 One facet on its head
 Subclavian groove for art & vein
 Scalene tubercle
 Rib2
 Two articular facet on head
 Tuberosity for serratus ant

146. Ribs

148. Facet Joint Orientation, Lumbar
 Lumbar Region: 90 degrees; sagittal plane;
only flexion and extension, limited rotation,
least lat flexion
 The facet joints in the lumbar region lie in
the sagittal plane; the articulating facets are
at right angles to the transverse plane and
45° to the frontal plane
 The superior facets face medially, and the
inferior facets face laterally, this changes at
the lumbosacral junction, where the
apophyseal joint moves into the frontal
plane and the inferior facet on L5 faces front
 This change in orientation keeps the
vertebral column from sliding forward on the
sacrum

154. Discus
 Nucleus pulposus
 Annulus fibrosus

157. Discus
 Pressure on lumbar disc
 Lying or standing: 17 PSI
 Sitting or bending to lift: up to 300 PSI

158. Disc Problems
 Disc Prolapse: annulus fibrosus is intact
 Disc Protrusion: annulus fibrosus involved
 Disc Herniation: tearing annulus fibrosus & bulge
out nucleus

159. Herniation Stages
 1) Disc Degeneration: chemical changes
associated with aging causes discs to
weaken, but without a herniation
 2) Prolapse: the form or position of the
disc changes with some slight
impingement into the spinal canal. Also
called a bulge or protrusion
 3) Extrusion: the gel-like nucleus pulposes
breaks through the annulus fibrosus but
remains within the disc
 4) Sequestration: nucleus pulposus
breaks through the annulus fibrosus and
lies outside the disc in the spinal canal

160. Disc problem, Risk Factors
 Aging
 Decrease bone density, muscle & ligament weakness
 Improper lifting
 Bad posture
 Smoking
 Strenuous repetitive activities
 Obesity
 Sudden pressure

161. Lumbar Area Problems
 Lordosis
 Disc problems
 Facet joints problems(dysfunction)
 Degenerative vertebrae secondary to degenerative
disc
 Spondylolisthesis

162. Posterior Longitudinal Ligament
 From C2 to sacrum
 Long and
important ligament located
immediately posterior to the
vertebral bodies (to which it
attaches loosely) and
intervertebral discs
 Extends from the back of the
sacrum inferiorly and
gradually broadens as it
ascends

163. Facet Joint Syndrome
 OA
 Disc degeneration
 Pressure overload
 Aging

164. Facet Joint Syndrome
 Narrowing the joint space
 Friction and destroying articular cartilage and the
fluid
 Wear away cartilage
 Bone spurs
 Compress nerve
 More bone spurs extend to the spinal canal
 Spinal stenosis

165. Facet Joint Symptoms
 Difficulty in head rotation
 Difficulty in straightening back and get up of a chair
 Pain, numbness, muscle weakness,..

166. FJS Treat
 Ice, to reduce inflammation
 Ultrasound, Electrostimulation to reduce muscle
spasm
 Massage, traction, mobilization to increase ROM
and reduce pain
 Exercise for more stability

167. Spondylolisthesis
 Birth defect
 Rapid growth during adolescence
 Football
 Weightlifting
 Wrestling
 Gymnastics
 Track and field…

168. The Bony Thorax
Forms a cage to
protect major organs

169. The Bony Thorax
Made-up of three
parts
 Sternum
 Ribs
 Thoracic
vertebrae

170. Sternum

172. Sternoclavicular Joint
 Plane style synovial joint
 Fibrocartilage joint disk
 Ligaments
 Anterior sternoclavicular ligament
 Posterior sternoclavicular ligament
 Costoclavicular lig
 Interclavicular lig

173. Sternoclavicular Joint

174. The Appendicular Skeleton
Pectoral girdle
Limbs (appendages)
Pelvic girdle

175. The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
Composed of two bones
 Clavicle – collarbone
 Scapula – shoulder blade
These bones allow the upper limb to have
exceptionally free movement

176. Bones of the Shoulder Girdle

177. Acromioclavicular Joint
 To allow the scapula additional range of rotation on
the thorax
 Allow for adjustments of the scapula (tipping and
internal/external rotation) outside the initial plane of
the scapula in order to follow the changing shape of
the thorax as arm movement occurs
 The joint allows transmission of forces from the
upper extremity to the clavicle

178. Clavicle

179. Bones of the Shoulder Girdle

182. Fibonacci

184. Bones of the Upper Limb
The arm is formed by a
single bone
 Humerus

185. Bones of the Upper Limb
The forearm has two bones
 Ulna
 Radius

186. Right Hand

188. Bones of the Upper Limb
The hand
 Carpals – wrist
 Metacarpals – palm
 Phalanges – fingers
So Long To Pinky, Here Comes The Thumb

189. Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
Hip bones
Composed of three pair of fused bones
 Ilium
 Ischium
 Pubic bone
The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
Protects several organs
 Reproductive organs
 Urinary bladder
 Part of the large intestine

190. The Pelvis

191. The Pelvis: Right Coxal Bone

192. Gender Differences of the
Pelvis

193. Lower Limbs
The thigh has one
bone
 Femur – thigh bone

194. Lower Limbs, distal
The leg has two bones
 Tibia
 Fibula

195. Foot
The foot
 Tarsus – ankle
 Metatarsals – sole
 Phalanges – toes

196. Arches of the Foot
Bones of the foot are
arranged to form three
strong arches
 Two longitudinal
 One transverse

199. Assessment
 Manual muscle test (MMT)
 Range Of Motion (ROM)

200. ROM benefits
 To determine presence of impairment
 Establishing a diagnosis
 Evaluation of progress
 Modify the treatment
 Motivate the patient
 Research

201. Definitions
 Power: work produced /time
 For more power: more repetition
 Strength: contract against external load
 Endurance: perform activities over prolonged
period
 Flexibility: ability to move a single joint or series of
joints smoothly & easily through an unrestricted
pain-free ROM
 Plasticity: property of skeletal muscle that allow for
a new & greater length after a stretch that has been
applied

202. Manual Muscle Testing(MMT)
Grade Result
0 No contraction, no movement
1 Visible contraction, a little
2 Visible contraction, full ROM in elimination of gravity
3 Visible contraction, full ROM against gravity
4 Full ROM with moderate resistance
5 Full ROM with max resistance

203. Joint improvement
 Passive range of motion
 Active range of motion
 Active assistive range of motion
 Strengthening
 Isometric
 Isotonic
 Concentric
 Eccentric
 Stretching

204. Benefits of exercises
 Increase & maintain muscle strength
 Increase endurance
 Improve & maintain ROM
 Increase circulation
 Increase flexibility
 Improve balance & coordination
 Increase CV fitness
 Improve sense of wellbeing

205. Stretching, indications
 Adhesion, contracture, scar tissue
 Decreased ROM(may lead deformity)
 Part of a fitness program to prevent injury
 Warm-up & cool-down exercise

206. Stretching, contra-indications
 Recent fracture, incomplete bony union
 Muscle ossification
 Acute inflammation, infection
 Sharp pain
 Hematoma in muscle or area
 Hypermobility

207. Characters of stretching
 Intensity
 Duration: 30sec
 Frequency: 5-7/day
 Speed: slowly

208. Inflammatory Conditions Associated with
Joints
Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a
blow or friction
Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon sheaths
Arthritis – inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints
 Over 100 different types
 The most widespread crippling disease in the United
States

209. Clinical Forms of Arthritis
Osteoarthritis
 Most common chronic arthritis
 Probably related to normal aging processes
Rheumatoid arthritis
 An autoimmune disease – the immune system attacks
the joints
 Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of certain
joints
 Often leads to deformities

210. Clinical Forms of Arthritis
Gouty Arthritis
 Inflammation of joints is caused by a deposition of
urate crystals from the blood
 Can usually be controlled with diet

211. Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal
System
At birth, the skull bones are incomplete
Bones are joined by fibrous membranes – fontanelles
Fontanelles are completely replaced with bone within two
years after birth

212. The Skull
Two sets of bones
 Cranium
 Facial bones
Bones are joined by sutures
Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable
joint

213. The Skull

215. Human Skull, Superior View

216. Human Skull, Inferior View

217. Paranasal Sinuses
Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal
cavity

218. Paranasal Sinuses
Functions of paranasal sinuses
 Lighten the skull
 Give resonance and amplification to voice

219. The Hyoid Bone
The only bone that does
not articulate with another
bone
Serves as a moveable base
for the tongue

220. The Fetal Skull
The fetal skull is large
compared to the infants
total body length

221. The Fetal Skull
Fontanelles – fibrous
membranes connecting the
cranial bones
 Allow the brain
to grow
 Convert to bone within 24
months after birth

222. Thank you

223. Bone Fractures
A break in a bone
Types of bone fractures
 Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not
penetrate the skin
 Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates
through the skin
Bone fractures are treated by reduction and
immobilization
 Realignment of the bone

224. Common Types of Fractures

225. Repair of Bone Fractures
Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch

226. Stages in the Healing of a
Bone Fracture