What is history?

1. History
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
This article is about the academic discipline. For a general history of human beings,
see Human history. For other uses, see History (disambiguation).
Herodotus (c. 484 BC–c. 425 BC), often considered the "father of history" in the Western world
Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.[1]
—George Santayana
History (from Ancient Greek: ἱστορία, romanized:historíā, lit. 'inquiry; knowledge acquired
by investigation')[2]
is the study and the documentation of the past.[3][4]
Events before
the invention of writing systems are considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella
term comprising past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization,
presentation, and interpretation of these events. Historians seek knowledge of the past
using historical sources such as written documents, oral accounts, art and material
artifacts, and ecological markers.[5]
History is also an academic discipline which uses narrative to describe, examine,
question, and analyze past events, and investigate their patterns of cause and
effect.[6][7]
Historians often debate which narrative best explains an event, as well as the
significance of different causes and effects. Historians also debate the nature of
history as an end in itself, as well as its usefulness to give perspective on the problems
of the present.[6][8][9][10]
Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as
the tales surrounding King Arthur), are usually classified as cultural
heritage or legends.[11][12]
History differs from myth in that it is supported by
verifiable evidence. However, ancient cultural influences have helped spawn variant
interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries and
continue to change today. The modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the

2. study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematic elements of
historical investigation. History is often taught as a part of primary and secondary
education, and the academic study of history is a major discipline in university studies.
Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian, is often considered the "father of history"
in the Western tradition,[13]
although he has also been criticized as the "father of
lies".[14][15]
Along with his contemporary Thucydides, he helped form the foundations for
the modern study of past events and societies.[16]
Their works continue to be read today,
and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused
Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In
East Asia, a state chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals, was reputed to date from
as early as 722 BC, although only 2nd-century BC texts have survived.
Contents
 1Etymology
 2Description
 3History and prehistory
 4Historiography
 5Historical methods
o 5.1Marxian theory
o 5.2Potential shortcomings in the production of history
 6Areas of study
o 6.1Periods
 6.1.1Prehistoric periodization
o 6.2Geographical locations
 6.2.1Regions
o 6.3Military
o 6.4Religious
o 6.5Social
 6.5.1Subfields
o 6.6Cultural
o 6.7Diplomatic
o 6.8Economic
o 6.9Environmental
o 6.10World
o 6.11People's
o 6.12Intellectual
o 6.13Gender
o 6.14Public
 7Historians
 8Judgement
 9Pseudohistory
 10Teaching
o 10.1Scholarship vs teaching
o 10.2Nationalism
o 10.3Bias in school teaching
 11See also

3.  12References
 13Further reading
 14External links
Etymology
History by Frederick Dielman (1896)
The word history comes from historía (Ancient
Greek: ἱστορία, romanized:historíā, lit. 'inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge'[17]
). It was
in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his History of Animals.[18]
The ancestor
word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes'
oath, and in Boeotic inscriptions (in a legal sense, either "judge" or "witness", or similar).
The Greek word was borrowed into Classical Latin as historia, meaning "investigation,
inquiry, research, account, description, written account of past events, writing of history,
historical narrative, recorded knowledge of past events, story, narrative". History was
borrowed from Latin (possibly via Old Irish or Old Welsh) into Old
English as stær ("history, narrative, story"), but this word fell out of use in the late Old
English period.[19]
Meanwhile, as Latin became Old French (and Anglo-
Norman), historia developed into forms such as istorie, estoire, and historie, with new
developments in the meaning: "account of the events of a person's life (beginning of the
12th century), chronicle, account of events as relevant to a group of people or people in
general (1155), dramatic or pictorial representation of historical events (c. 1240), body of
knowledge relative to human evolution, science (c. 1265), narrative of real or imaginary
events, story (c. 1462)".[19]
It was from Anglo-Norman that history was borrowed into Middle English, and this time
the loan stuck. It appears in the 13th-century Ancrene Wisse, but seems to have
become a common word in the late 14th century, with an early attestation appearing
in John Gower's Confessio Amantis of the 1390s (VI.1383): "I finde in a bok compiled |
To this matiere an old histoire, | The which comth nou to mi memoire". In Middle
English, the meaning of history was "story" in general. The restriction to the meaning
"the branch of knowledge that deals with past events; the formal record or study of past
events, esp. human affairs" arose in the mid-15th century.[19]
With the Renaissance,
older senses of the word were revived, and it was in the Greek sense that Francis
Bacon used the term in the late 16th century, when he wrote about natural history. For
him, historia was "the knowledge of objects determined by space and time", that sort of
knowledge provided by memory (while science was provided by reason, and poetry was
provided by fantasy).[20]
In an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like
Chinese (史 vs. 诌) now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in

4. general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages,
which are solidly synthetic and highly inflected, the same word is still used to mean both
"history" and "story". Historian in the sense of a "researcher of history" is attested from
1531. In all European languages, the substantive history is still used to mean both "what
happened with men", and "the scholarly study of the happened", the latter sense
sometimes distinguished with a capital letter, or the word historiography.[18]
The
adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669.[21]
Description
The title page to The Historians' History of the World
Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current
dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons for
their own society. In the words of Benedetto Croce, "All history is contemporary history".
History is facilitated by the formation of a "true discourse of past" through the production
of narrative and analysis of past events relating to the human race.[22]
The modern
discipline of history is dedicated to the institutional production of this discourse.
All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the
historical record.[23]
The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can
most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the
constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive
by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to
represent the "true past"). Part of the historian's role is to skillfully and objectively utilize
the vast amount of sources from the past, most often found in the archives. The process
of creating a narrative inevitably generates a silence as historians remember or
emphasize different events of the past.[24][clarification needed]
The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and at
other times as part of the social sciences.[25]
It can also be seen as a bridge between

5. those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both. Some individual
historians strongly support one or the other classification.[26]
In the 20th century
the Annales school revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines
as economics, sociology, and geography in the study of global history.[27]
Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing
on an oral tradition, and have attempted to answer historical questions through the
study of written documents and oral accounts. From the beginning, historians have also
used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources of
historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is
said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three.[28]
But
writing is the marker that separates history from what comes before.
Archeology is especially helpful in unearthing buried sites and objects, which contribute
to the study of history. Archeological finds rarely stand alone, with narrative sources
complementing its discoveries. Archeology's methodologies and approaches are
independent from the field of history. "Historical archaeology" is a specific branch of
archeology which often contrasts its conclusions against those of contemporary textual
sources. For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of
historical Annapolis, Maryland, US, has sought to understand the contradiction between
textual documents idealizing "liberty" and the material record, demonstrating the
possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth made apparent by the study of the
total historical environment.
There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including
chronologically, culturally, territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not mutually
exclusive, and significant intersections are often present. It is possible for historians to
concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the
modern trend has been toward specialization. The area called Big History resists this
specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. History has often been
studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but also may be studied out of simple
intellectual curiosity.[29]
History and prehistory
Part of a series on
Human history
and prehistory
↑ before Homo (Plioceneepoch)
show

6. Prehistory
show
Recorded history
↓ Future (Holoceneepoch)
 v
 t
 e
Further information: Protohistory
The history of the world is the memory of the past experience of Homo sapiens
sapiens around the world, as that experience has been preserved, largely in written
records. By "prehistory", historians mean the recovery of knowledge of the past in an
area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood.
By studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other artifacts, some information can be
recovered even in the absence of a written record. Since the 20th century, the study of
prehistory is considered essential to avoid history's implicit exclusion of certain
civilizations, such as those of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America.
Historians in the West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on
the Western world.[30]
In 1961, British historian E. H. Carr wrote:
The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is crossed when people
cease to live only in the present, and become consciously interested both in their past
and in their future. History begins with the handing down of tradition; and tradition
means the carrying of the habits and lessons of the past into the future. Records of the
past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations.[31]
This definition includes within the scope of history the strong interests of peoples, such
as Indigenous Australians and New Zealand Māori in the past, and the oral records
maintained and transmitted to succeeding generations, even before their contact with
European civilization.
Historiography
Main article: Historiography

7. The title page to La Historia d'Italia
Historiography has a number of related meanings.[32]
Firstly, it can refer to how history
has been produced: the story of the development of methodology and practices (for
example, the move from short-term biographical narrative toward long-term thematic
analysis). Secondly, it can refer to what has been produced: a specific body of historical
writing (for example, "medieval historiography during the 1960s" means "Works of
medieval history written during the 1960s").[32]
Thirdly, it may refer to why history is
produced: the philosophy of history. As a meta-level analysis of descriptions of the past,
this third conception can relate to the first two in that the analysis usually focuses on the
narratives, interpretations, world view, use of evidence, or method of presentation of
other historians. Professional historians also debate the question of whether history can
be taught as a single coherent narrative or a series of competing narratives.[33][34]
Historical methods
Further information: Historical method
A depiction of the ancient Library of Alexandria

8. Historical method basics
The following questions are used by
historians in modern work.
1. When was the source,
written or unwritten,
produced (date)?
2. Where was it produced
(localization)?
3. By whom was it
produced (authorship)?
4. From what pre-existing
material was it produced
(analysis)?
5. In what original form
was it produced
(integrity)?
6. What is the evidential
value of its contents
(credibility)?
The first four are known as historical
criticism; the fifth, textual criticism; and,
together,external criticism. The sixth and
final inquiry about a source is called
internal criticism.
The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by
which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write
history.
Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC–c. 425 BC)[35]
has generally been acclaimed as the
"father of history". However, his contemporary Thucydides (c. 460 BC–c. 400 BC) is
credited with having first approached history with a well-developed historical method in
his work the History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded
history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, and looked
at cause and effect, rather than as the result of divine intervention (though Herodotus
was not wholly committed to this idea himself).[35]
In his historical method, Thucydides
emphasized chronology, a nominally neutral point of view, and that the human world
was the result of the actions of human beings. Greek historians also viewed history
as cyclical, with events regularly recurring.[36]
There were historical traditions and sophisticated use of historical method in ancient
and medieval China. The groundwork for professional historiography in East Asia was
established by the Han dynasty court historian known as Sima Qian (145–90 BC),
author of the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji). For the quality of his written work,
Sima Qian is posthumously known as the Father of Chinese historiography. Chinese
historians of subsequent dynastic periods in China used his Shiji as the official format
for historical texts, as well as for biographical literature.[citation needed]

9. Saint Augustine was influential in Christian and Western thought at the beginning of the
medieval period. Through the Medieval and Renaissance periods, history was often
studied through a sacred or religious perspective. Around 1800, German philosopher
and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a
more secular approach in historical study.[29]
In the preface to his book, the Muqaddimah (1377), the Arab historian and early
sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, warned of seven mistakes that he thought that historians
regularly committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of
interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of
another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the
principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly,
to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a
culture of the past. Ibn Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and uncritical
acceptance of historical data". As a result, he introduced a scientific method to the study
of history, and he often referred to it as his "new science".[37]
His historical method also
laid the groundwork for the observation of the role
of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history,[38]
and he is thus
considered to be the "father of historiography"[39][40]
or the "father of the philosophy of
history".[41]
In the West, historians developed modern methods of historiography in the 17th and
18th centuries, especially in France and Germany. In 1851, Herbert
Spencer summarized these methods:
From the successive strata of our historical deposits, they [Historians] diligently gather
all the highly colored fragments, pounce upon everything that is curious and sparkling
and chuckle like children over their glittering acquisitions; meanwhile the rich veins of
wisdom that ramify amidst this worthless debris, lie utterly neglected. Cumbrous
volumes of rubbish are greedily accumulated, while those masses of rich ore, that
should have been dug out, and from which golden truths might have been smelted, are
left untaught and unsought[42]
By the "rich ore" Spencer meant scientific theory of history. Meanwhile, Henry Thomas
Buckle expressed a dream of history becoming one day science:
In regard to nature, events apparently the most irregular and capricious have been
explained and have been shown to be in accordance with certain fixed and universal
laws. This have been done because men of ability and, above all, men of patient,
untiring thought have studied events with the view of discovering their regularity, and if
human events were subject to a similar treatment, we have every right to expect similar
results[43]
Contrary to Buckle's dream, the 19th-century historian with greatest influence on
methods became Leopold von Ranke in Germany. He limited history to "what really
happened" and by this directed the field further away from science. For Ranke, historical
data should be collected carefully, examined objectively and put together with critical
rigor. But these procedures "are merely the prerequisites and preliminaries of science.
The heart of science is searching out order and regularity in the data being examined
and in formulating generalizations or laws about them."[44]

10. As Historians like Ranke and many who followed him have pursued it, no, history is not
a science. Thus if Historians tell us that, given the manner in which he practices his
craft, it cannot be considered a science, we must take him at his word. If he is not doing
science, then, whatever else he is doing, he is not doing science. The traditional
Historian is thus no scientist and history, as conventionally practiced, is not a science.[45]
In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives,
which often tended to glorify the nation or great men, to more objective and complex
analyses of social and intellectual forces. A major trend of historical methodology in the
20th century was a tendency to treat history more as a social science rather than as
an art, which traditionally had been the case. Some of the leading advocates of history
as a social science were a diverse collection of scholars which included Fernand
Braudel, E. H. Carr, Fritz Fischer, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Hans-Ulrich
Wehler, Bruce Trigger, Marc Bloch, Karl Dietrich Bracher, Peter Gay, Robert
Fogel, Lucien Febvre, and Lawrence Stone. Many of the advocates of history as a
social science were or are noted for their multidisciplinary approach. Braudel combined
history with geography, Bracher history with political science, Fogel history with
economics, Gay history with psychology, Trigger history with archeology, while Wehler,
Bloch, Fischer, Stone, Febvre, and Le Roy Ladurie have in varying and differing ways
amalgamated history with sociology, geography, anthropology, and economics.
Nevertheless, these multidisciplinary approaches failed to produce a theory of history.
So far only one theory of history came from the pen of a professional
Historian.[46]
Whatever other theories of history we have, they were written by experts
from other fields (for example, Marxian theory of history). More recently, the field
of digital history has begun to address ways of using computer technology to pose new
questions to historical data and generate digital scholarship.
In sincere opposition to the claims of history as a social science, historians such
as Hugh Trevor-Roper, John Lukacs, Donald Creighton, Gertrude Himmelfarb,
and Gerhard Ritter argued that the key to the historians' work was the power of
the imagination, and hence contended that history should be understood as an art.
French historians associated with the Annales School introduced quantitative history,
using raw data to track the lives of typical individuals, and were prominent in the
establishment of cultural history (cf. histoire des mentalités). Intellectual historians such
as Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte and George Mosse have argued for the significance
of ideas in history. American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on
formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic groups. Another genre of social
history to emerge in the post-WWII era was Alltagsgeschichte (History of Everyday
Life). Scholars such as Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw and Detlev Peukert sought to
examine what everyday life was like for ordinary people in 20th-century Germany,
especially in the Nazi period.
Marxist historians such as Eric Hobsbawm, E. P. Thompson, Rodney Hilton, Georges
Lefebvre, Eugene Genovese, Isaac Deutscher, C. L. R. James, Timothy Mason, Herbert
Aptheker, Arno J. Mayer, and Christopher Hill have sought to validate Karl Marx's
theories by analyzing history from a Marxist perspective. In response to the Marxist
interpretation of history, historians such as François Furet, Richard Pipes, J. C. D.
Clark, Roland Mousnier, Henry Ashby Turner, and Robert Conquest have offered anti-

11. Marxist interpretations of history. Feminist historians such as Joan Wallach
Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda
Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, and Lynn Hunt have argued for the importance of
studying the experience of women in the past. In recent years, postmodernists have
challenged the validity and need for the study of history on the basis that all history is
based on the personal interpretation of sources. In his 1997 book In Defence of
History, Richard J. Evans defended the worth of history. Another defense of history from
postmodernist criticism was the Australian historian Keith Windschuttle's 1994
book, The Killing of History.
Today, most historians begin their research process in the archives, on either a physical
or digital platform. They often propose an argument and use their research to support
it. John H. Arnold proposed that history is an argument, which creates the possibility of
creating change.[5]
Digital information companies, such as Google, have sparked
controversy over the role of internet censorship in information access.[47]
Marxian theory
Main article: Marx's theory of history
The Marxist theory of historical materialism theorises that society is fundamentally
determined by the material conditions at any given time – in other words, the
relationships which people have with each other in order to fulfill basic needs such as
feeding, clothing and housing themselves and their
families.[48]
Overall, Marx and Engels claimed to have identified five successive stages of
the development of these material conditions in Western Europe.[49]
Marxist
historiography was once orthodoxy in the Soviet Union, but since the collapse of
communism there in 1991, Mikhail Krom says it has been reduced to the margins of
scholarship.[50]
Potential shortcomings in the production of history
Many historians believe that the production of history is embedded with bias because
events and known facts in history can be interpreted in a variety of ways. Constantin
Fasolt suggested that history is linked to politics by the practice of silence itself.[51]
He
also said: "A second common view of the link between history and politics rests on the
elementary observation that historians are often influenced by politics."[51]
According
to Michel-Rolph Trouillot, the historical process is rooted in the archives, therefore
silences, or parts of history that are forgotten, may be an intentional part of a narrative
strategy that dictates how areas of history are remembered.[24]
Historical omissions can
occur in many ways and can have a profound effect on historical records. Information
can also purposely be excluded or left out accidentally. Historians have coined multiple
terms that describe the act of omitting historical information, including:
"silencing",[24]
"selective memory",[52]
and erasures.[53]
Gerda Lerner, a twentieth century
historian who focused much of her work on historical omissions involving women and
their accomplishments, explained the negative impact that these omissions had on
minority groups.[52]
Environmental historian William Cronon proposed three ways to combat bias and
ensure authentic and accurate narratives: narratives must not contradict known fact,

12. they must make ecological sense (specifically for environmental history), and published
work must be reviewed by scholarly community and other historians to ensure
accountability.[53]
Areas of study
Particular studies and fields
These are approaches to history; not listed
are histories of otherfields, such as history
of science, history of
mathematics and history of philosophy.
 Ancient history: the study of
history from the beginning of
human history until the Early
Middle Ages.
 Atlantic history: the study of
the history of people living
on or near the Atlantic
Ocean.
 Art history: the study of
changes in and the social
context of art.
 Comparative history: the
historical analysis of social
and cultural entities not
confined to national
boundaries.
 Contemporary history: the
study of recent historical
events.
 Counterfactual history: the
study of historical events as
they might have happened in
different causal
circumstances.
 Cultural history: the study of
culture in the past.
 Digital history: the use of
computing technologies to do
massive searches in published
sources.
 Economic history: the use of
economic models fitted to the
past.
 Intellectual history: the study
of ideas in the context of the
cultures that produced them
and their development over
time.

13.  Maritime history: the study of
maritime transport and all
connected subjects.
 Material history: the study of
objects and the stories they
can tell.
 Modern history: the study of
Modern Times, the era after
the Middle Ages.
 Military history: the study of
warfare, historical wars,
and Naval history, which is
sometimes considered to be a
sub-branch of military
history.
 Oral history: the collection
and study ofhistorical
information by utilizing
spoken interviews with
people who have lived past
events.
 Palaeography: the study of
ancient texts.
 People's history: historical
work from the perspective of
common people.
 Political history: the study of
politics in the past.
 Psychohistory:the study of
the psychologicalmotivations
for historical events.
 Pseudohistory:studies about
the past that fall outside the
domain of mainstream history
(sometimes equivalent
to pseudoscience).
 Social history: the study of
the process ofsocial change
throughout history.
 Women's history: the history
of female human
beings.Gender history is
related and covers the
perspective of gender.
 World history: the study of
history from a global
perspective,with special
attention to non-Western
societies.
Periods
Main article: Periodization

14. Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular
blocks of time. Historians give these periods of time names in order to allow "organising
ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used by historians.[54]
The names given to
a period can vary with geographical location, as can the dates of the beginning and end
of a particular period. Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time
they represent depends on the dating system used. Most periods are constructed
retrospectively and so reflect value judgments made about the past. The way periods
are constructed and the names given to them can affect the way they are viewed and
studied.[55]
Prehistoric periodization
The field of history generally leaves prehistory to archeologists, who have entirely
different sets of tools and theories. In archeology, the usual method for periodization of
the distant prehistoric past is to rely on changes in material culture and technology,
such as the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, with subdivisions that are also based
on different styles of material remains. Here prehistory is divided into a series of
"chapters" so that periods in history could unfold not only in a relative chronology but
also narrative chronology.[56]
This narrative content could be in the form of functional-
economic interpretation. There are periodizations, however, that do not have this
narrative aspect, relying largely on relative chronology, and that are thus devoid of any
specific meaning.
Despite the development over recent decades of the ability through radiocarbon
dating and other scientific methods to give actual dates for many sites or artefacts,
these long-established schemes seem likely to remain in use. In many cases
neighboring cultures with writing have left some history of cultures without it, which may
be used. Periodization, however, is not viewed as a perfect framework, with one
account explaining that "cultural changes do not conveniently start and stop
(combinedly) at periodization boundaries" and that different trajectories of change need
to be studied in their own right before they get intertwined with cultural phenomena.[57]
Geographical locations
Particular geographical locations can form the basis of historical study, for
example, continents, countries, and cities. Understanding why historic events took place
is important. To do this, historians often turn to geography. According to Jules
Michelet in his book Histoire de France (1833), "without geographical basis, the people,
the makers of history, seem to be walking on air".[58]
Weather patterns, the water supply,
and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For
example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization,
studying the geography of Egypt is essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the
banks of the Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich
soil could help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant
everyone did not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped
develop the civilization. There is also the case of climate, which historians like Ellsworth
Huntington and Ellen Churchill Semple cited as a crucial influence on the course of
history. Huntington and Semple further argued that climate has an impact on racial
temperament.[59]

15. Regions
 History of Africa begins with the first emergence of modern human beings on
the continent, continuing into its modern present as a patchwork of diverse
and politically developing nation states.
 History of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America,
including Central America and the Caribbean.
o History of North America is the study of the past passed down from
generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's northern
and western hemisphere.
o History of Central America is the study of the past passed down
from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's
western hemisphere.
o History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest evidence where
7,000-year-old remains have been found.
o History of South America is the study of the past passed down from
generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's southern
and western hemisphere.
 History of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent,
known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe.
 History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal
regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe,
linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of Central Asia and
Eastern Europe.
o History of Europe describes the passage of time from humans
inhabiting the European continent to the present day.
o History of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several
distinct peripheral coastal regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the
Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe.
 History of East Asia is the study of the past passed down
from generation to generation in East Asia.
 History of the Middle East begins with the earliest
civilizations in the region now known as the Middle East
that were established around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia
(Iraq).
 History of India is the study of the past passed down
from generation to generation in the Sub-Himalayan
region.
 History of Southeast Asia has been characterized as
interaction between regional players and foreign powers.
 History of Oceania is the collective history of Australia, New Zealand and the
Pacific Islands.
o History of Australia starts with the documentation of the Makassar
trading with Indigenous Australians on Australia's north coast.

16. o History of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it
was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a
distinct Māori culture centered on kinship links and land.
o History of the Pacific Islands covers the history of the islands in the
Pacific Ocean.
Military
Main article: Military history
Military history concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of
combat.[60]
The "new military history" since the 1970s has been concerned with soldiers
more than generals, with psychology more than tactics, and with the broader impact of
warfare on society and culture.[61]
Religious
Main article: History of religion
The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians
for centuries, and continues to be taught in seminaries and academe. Leading journals
include Church History, The Catholic Historical Review, and History of Religions. Topics
range widely from political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology and
liturgy.[62]
This subject studies religions from all regions and areas of the world where
humans have lived.[63]
Social
Main article: Social history
Social history, sometimes called the new social history, is the field that includes history
of ordinary people and their strategies and institutions for coping with life.[64]
In its
"golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and
still is well represented in history departments. In two decades from 1975 to 1995, the
proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history
rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to
30%.[65]
In the history departments of British universities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty
members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves with social history while political
history came next with 1425 (25%).[66]
The "old" social history before the 1960s was a
hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political
movements, like Populism, that were "social" in the sense of being outside the elite
system. Social history was contrasted with political history, intellectual history and the
history of great men. English historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point
between economic and political history, reflecting that, "Without social history, economic
history is barren and political history unintelligible."[67]
While the field has often been
viewed negatively as history with the politics left out, it has also been defended as
"history with the people put back in".[68]
Subfields
The chief subfields of social history include:
 Black history

17.  Demographic history
 Ethnic history
 Gender history
 History of childhood
 History of education
 History of the family
 Labor history
 LGBT history
 Rural history
 Urban history
o American urban history
 Women's history
Cultural
Main article: Cultural history
Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It
typically combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at language,
popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It
examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts
of a group of people. How peoples constructed their memory of the past is a major
topic. Cultural history includes the study of art in society as well is the study of images
and human visual production (iconography).[69]
Diplomatic
Main article: Diplomatic history
Diplomatic history focuses on the relationships between nations, primarily regarding
diplomacy and the causes of wars.[70]
More recently it looks at the causes of peace and
human rights. It typically presents the viewpoints of the foreign office, and long-term
strategic values, as the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type
of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or
across state boundaries over time. Historian Muriel Chamberlain notes that after the
First World War, "diplomatic history replaced constitutional history as the flagship of
historical investigation, at once the most important, most exact and most sophisticated
of historical studies".[71]
She adds that after 1945, the trend reversed, allowing social
history to replace it.
Economic
Main articles: Economic history and Business history
Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in
recent years academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics
departments and away from traditional history departments.[72]
Business history deals
with the history of individual business organizations, business methods, government
regulation, labour relations, and impact on society. It also includes biographies of
individual companies, executives, and entrepreneurs. It is related to economic history.
Business history is most often taught in business schools.[73]

18. Environmental
Main article: Environmental history
Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of
the environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon
it.[74]
It is an offshoot of the environmental movement, which was kickstarted by Rachel
Carson's Silent Spring in the 1960s.
World
Main article: World history
See also: Human history and Universal history
World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. World
history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in
the United States,[75]
Japan[76]
and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that
students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.
It has led to highly controversial interpretations by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J.
Toynbee, among others.
The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every quarter
since 1990.[77]
The H-World discussion list[78]
serves as a network of communication
among practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars, announcements,
syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews.
People's
Main article: People's history
A people's history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical
events from the perspective of common people. A people's history is the history of the
world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups
not included in the past in other types of writing about history are the primary focus,
which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed, the poor, the nonconformists, and
the otherwise forgotten people. The authors are typically on the left and have a socialist
model in mind, as in the approach of the History Workshop movement in Britain in the
1960s.[79]
Intellectual
Main article: Intellectual history
Intellectual history and the history of ideas emerged in the mid-20th century, with the
focus on the intellectuals and their books on the one hand, and on the other the study of
ideas as disembodied objects with a career of their own.[80][81]
Gender
Main articles: Gender history and LGBT history
Gender history is a subfield of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past from
the perspective of gender. The outgrowth of gender history from women's
history stemmed from many non-feminist historians dismissing the importance of
women in history. According to Joan W. Scott, "Gender is a constitutive element of

19. social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes, and gender is a
primary way of signifying relations of power",[82]
meaning that gender historians study the
social effects of perceived differences between the sexes and how all genders utilize
allotted power in societal and political structures. Despite being a relatively new field,
gender history has had a significant effect on the general study of history. Gender
history traditionally differs from women's history in its inclusion of all aspects of gender
such as masculinity and femininity, and today's gender history extends to include people
who identify outside of that binary. LGBT history deals with the first recorded instances
of same-sex love and sexuality of ancient civilizations, and involves the history
of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) peoples and cultures around the
world.[83]
Public
Main article: Public history
Public history describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some
training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized
academic settings. Public history practice has quite deep roots in the areas of historic
preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other related
fields. The term itself began to be used in the U.S. and Canada in the late 1970s, and
the field has become increasingly professionalized since that time. Some of the most
common settings for public history are museums, historic homes and historic sites,
parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all levels of
government.[84]
Historians
For a more comprehensive list, see List of historians.
Benedetto Croce

20. Ban Zhao, courtesy name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian.
Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information
about past events. They discover this information through archeological evidence,
written primary sources, verbal stories or oral histories, and other archival material.
In lists of historians, historians can be grouped by order of the historical period in which
they were writing, which is not necessarily the same as the period in which they
specialized. Chroniclers and annalists, though they are not historians in the true sense,
are also frequently included.
Judgement
See also: Ash heap of history
Since the 20th century, Western historians have disavowed the aspiration to provide the
"judgement of history".[85]
The goals of historical judgements or interpretations are
separate to those of legal judgements, that need to be formulated quickly after the
events and be final.[86]
A related issue to that of the judgement of history is that
of collective memory.
Pseudohistory
Main article: Pseudohistory
Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but
which depart from standard historiographical conventions in a way which undermines
their conclusions. It is closely related to deceptive historical revisionism. Works which
draw controversial conclusions from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence,
particularly in the fields of national, political, military, and religious affairs, are often
rejected as pseudohistory.

21. Teaching
Scholarship vs teaching
A major intellectual battle took place in Britain in the early twentieth century regarding
the place of history teaching in the universities. At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship
was downplayed. Professor Charles Harding Firth, Oxford's Regius Professor of history
in 1904 ridiculed the system as best suited to produce superficial journalists. The Oxford
tutors, who had more votes than the professors, fought back in defense of their system
saying that it successfully produced Britain's outstanding statesmen, administrators,
prelates, and diplomats, and that mission was as valuable as training scholars. The
tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War. It forced aspiring young
scholars to teach at outlying schools, such as Manchester University, where Thomas
Frederick Tout was professionalizing the History undergraduate programme by
introducing the study of original sources and requiring the writing of a thesis.[87][88]
In the United States, scholarship was concentrated at the major PhD-producing
universities, while the large number of other colleges and universities focused on
undergraduate teaching. A tendency in the 21st century was for the latter schools to
increasingly demand scholarly productivity of their younger tenure-track faculty.
Furthermore, universities have increasingly relied on inexpensive part-time adjuncts to
do most of the classroom teaching.[89]
Nationalism
From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history
to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States after World
War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western
Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe. In the U.S. after
1980, attention increasingly moved toward teaching world history or requiring students
to take courses in non-western cultures, to prepare students for life in a globalized
economy.[90]
At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to
social science or to the humanities. Many view the field from both perspectives.
The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the Nouvelle histoire as
disseminated after the 1960s by Cahiers pédagogiques and Enseignement and other
journals for teachers. Also influential was the Institut national de recherche et de
documentation pédagogique, (INRDP). Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of teacher
training, said pupils children should learn about historians' approaches as well as facts
and dates. Louis François, Dean of the History/Geography group in the Inspectorate of
National Education advised that teachers should provide historic documents and
promote "active methods" which would give pupils "the immense happiness of
discovery." Proponents said it was a reaction against the memorization of names and
dates that characterized teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists protested
loudly it was a postmodern innovation that threatened to leave the youth ignorant of
French patriotism and national identity.[91]
Bias in school teaching

22. History books in a bookstore
In several countries’ history textbooks are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism, and
give students the official narrative about national enemies.[92]
In many countries, history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and are
written to put the national heritage in the most favorable light. For example, in Japan,
mention of the Nanking Massacre has been removed from textbooks and the entire
Second World War is given cursory treatment. Other countries have
complained.[93]
Another example includes Turkey, where there is no mention of
the Armenian Genocide in Turkish textbooks as a result of the denial of the genocide.[94]
It was standard policy in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist
historiography.[95][96]
In the United States, textbooks published by the same company often differ in content
from state to state.[97]
An example of content that is represented different in different
regions of the country is the history of the Southern states, where slavery and
the American Civil War are treated as controversial topics. McGraw-Hill Education for
example, was criticized for describing Africans brought to American plantations as
"workers" instead of slaves in a textbook.[98]
Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks,
sometimes with success.[99][100]
In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is
characterized not by superpatriotism but rather by an "almost pacifistic and deliberately
unpatriotic undertone" and reflects "principles formulated by international organizations
such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards human rights,
democracy and peace." The result is that "German textbooks usually downplay national
pride and ambitions and aim to develop an understanding of citizenship centered on
democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and Europeanness."[101]
See also
 Outline of history
 Glossary of history
 History portal
References

23. 1. ^ George Santayana, "The Life of Reason", Volume One, p. 82, BiblioLife, ISBN 978-0-559-
47806-2
2. ^ Joseph, Brian; Janda, Richard, eds. (2008) [2004]. The Handbook of Historical Linguistics.
Blackwell Publishing. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-4051-2747-9.
3. ^ "History Definition". Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 21
January 2014.
4. ^ "What is History & Why Study It?". Archived from the original on 1 February 2014.
Retrieved 21 January 2014.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b Arnold, John H. (2000). History: A Very Short Introduction. NewYork: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 019285352X.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b Professor Richard J. Evans (2001). "The Two Faces of E.H. Carr". History in
Focus, Issue 2: What is History?. University of London. Archived from the original on 9
August 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2008.
7. ^ Professor Alun Munslow(2001). "What History Is". History in Focus, Issue 2: What is
History?. University of London. Archived from the original on 9 August 2011. Retrieved 10
November 2008.
8. ^ Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History (4th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.
p. 52. ISBN 978-1-4058-2351-7.
9. ^ Stearns, Peter N.; Seixas, Peter Carr; Wineburg, Samuel S. (2000). Knowing, teaching, and
learning history : national and international perspectives. Internet Archive. NewYork
University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8147-8141-8.
10. ^ Nash l, Gary B. (2000). "The "Convergence" Paradigm in Studying Early American History in
Schools". In Peter N. Stearns; Peters Seixas; Sam Wineburg (eds.). Knowing Teaching and
Learning History, National and International Perspectives. NewYork & London: NewYork
University Press. pp. 102–115. ISBN 978-0-8147-8141-8.
11. ^ Seixas, Peter (2000). "Schweigen! die Kinder!". In Peter N. Stearns; Peters Seixas; Sam
Wineburg (eds.). Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and International
Perspectives. NewYork & London: NewYork University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-8147-
8141-8.
12. ^ Lowenthal, David (2000). "Dilemmas and Delights of Learning History". In Peter N. Stearns;
Peters Seixas; Sam Wineburg (eds.). Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and
International Perspectives. NewYork & London: NewYork University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-
0-8147-8141-8.
13. ^ Halsall, Paul. "Ancient History Sourcebook: 11th Brittanica: Herodotus". Internet History
Sourcebooks Project. Fordham University. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020.
Retrieved 3 December 2020.
14. ^ Vives, Juan Luis; Watson, Foster (1913). Vives, on education : a translation of the De
tradendis disciplinis of Juan Luis Vives. Robarts - University of Toronto. Cambridge : The
University Press.
15. ^ Juan Luis Vives (1551). Ioannis Ludouici Viuis Valentini, De disciplinis libri 20. in tres tomos
distincti, quorum ordinem versa pagella iudicabit. Cum indice copiosissimo (in Latin). National
Central Library of Rome. apud Ioannem Frellonium.
16. ^ Majoros, Sotirios (29 November 2019). All About Me: The Individual.
FriesenPress. ISBN 978-1-5255-5801-6. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022.
Retrieved 10 May 2022.
17. ^ ἱστορία
18. ^ Jump up to:a b Ferrater-Mora, José. Diccionario de Filosofia. Barcelona: Editorial Ariel, 1994.
19. ^ Jump up to:a b c "history, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press, December 2014. 9 March
2015.
20. ^ Cf. "history, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press, December 2014. 9 March 2015.
21. ^ Whitney, W.D. The Century dictionary; an encyclopedic lexicon of the English
language Archived 2 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine. New York: The Century Co,
1889.
22. ^ W.D. Whitney, (1889). The Century dictionary; an encyclopedic lexicon of the English
language Archived 2 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine. p. 2842 Archived 20 January
2021 at the Wayback Machine.

24. 23. ^ WordNet Search – 3.0 Archived 17 September 2005 at the Wayback Machine, "History".
24. ^ Jump up to:a b c Trouillot, Michel-Rolph (1995). "The Three Faces of Sans Souci: The Glories
and the Silences in the Haitian Revolution". Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of
History. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 31–69. ASIN B00N6PB6DG.
25. ^ Scott Gordon and James Gordon Irving, The History and Philosophy of Social Science.
Routledge 1991. p. 1. ISBN 0-415-05682-9
26. ^ Ritter, H. (1986). Dictionary of concepts in history. Reference sources for the social
sciences and humanities, no. 3. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. p. 416.
27. ^ Appelrouth, Scott; Edles, Laura Desfor (29 November 2010). Sociological Theory in the
Contemporary Era: Text and Readings. Pine Forge Press. ISBN 978-1-4129-8761-
5. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2022.
28. ^ Michael C. Lemon (1995). The Discipline of History and the History of Thought. Routledge.
p. 201. ISBN 0-415-12346-1
29. ^ Jump up to:a b Graham, Gordon (1997). "Chapter 1". The Shape of the Past. University of
Oxford.
30. ^ Jack Goody (2007) The Theft of History Archived 15 September 2015 at the Wayback
Machine (from Google Books)
31. ^ Carr, Edward H. (1961). What is History?, p. 108, ISBN 0-14-020652-3
32. ^ Jump up to:a b "What is Historiography? – Culturahistorica.org". Archived from the original on
27 January 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
33. ^ Ernst Breisach, Historiography: Ancient, medieval, and modern (University of Chicago
Press, 2007).
34. ^ Georg G. Iggers, Historiography in the twentieth century: From scientific objectivity to the
postmodern challenge (2005).
35. ^ Jump up to:a b Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C.; Jeremy A. Sabloff (1979). Ancient Civilizations: The
Near East and Mesoamerica. Benjamin-Cummings Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-88133-834-
8.
36. ^ Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C.; Jeremy A. Sabloff (1979). Ancient Civilizations: The Near East
and Mesoamerica. Benjamin-Cummings Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-88133-834-8.
37. ^ Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, N.J. Dawood (1967), The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to
History, p. x, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01754-9.
38. ^ H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
39. ^ Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co.
Publishers. ISBN 1-85065-356-9.
40. ^ Enan, Muhammed Abdullah (2007). Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Works. The Other Press.
p. v. ISBN 978-983-9541-53-3.
41. ^ S.W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of
Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3).
42. ^ Cited in Robert Carneiro, The Muse of History and the Science of Culture, New York:
Kluwer Publishers, 2000, p 160.
43. ^ Cited in Muse of History, p 158-159.
44. ^ Muse of History, p 147.
45. ^ Muse of History, p 150.
46. ^ Max Ostrovski, The Hyperbole of the World Order, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006.
47. ^ King, Michelle T. (2016). "Working With/In the Archives". Research Methods for
History (2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
48. ^ See, in particular, Marx and Engels, The German Ideology Archived 22 October 2017 at
the Wayback Machine
49. ^ Marx makes no claim to have produced a master key to history. Historical materialism is not
"an historico-philosophic theory of the marche generale imposed by fate upon every people,
whatever the historic circumstances in which it finds itself" (Marx, Karl: Letter to editor of the
Russian paper Otetchestvennye Zapiskym, 1877). His ideas, he explains, are based on a
concrete study of the actual conditions that pertained in Europe.
50. ^ Mikhail M. Krom, "From the Center to the Margin: the Fate of Marxism in Contemporary
Russian Historiography," Storia della Storiografia (2012) Issue 62, pp. 121–130

25. 51. ^ Jump up to:a b Fasolt, Constantin (2004). The Limits of History. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press. pp. xiii–xxi. ISBN 0226239101.
52. ^ Jump up to:a b Lerner, Gerda (1997). Why History Matters: Life and Thought. New York:
Oxford University Press. pp. 199–211. ISBN 0195046447.
53. ^ Jump up to:a b Cronon, William (1992). "A Place for Stories: Nature, History, and
Narrative". The Journal of American History. 78 (4): 1347–
1376. doi:10.2307/2079346. JSTOR 2079346.
54. ^ Marwick, Arthur (1970). The Nature of History. The Macmillan Press LTD. p. 169.
55. ^ Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History. Pearson Education Limited. pp. 168–169.
56. ^ Lucas, Gavin (2005). The Archaeology of Time. Oxon: Routledge. p. 50. ISBN 0-415-31197-
7.
57. ^ Arnoldussen, Stijn (2007). A Living Landscape: Bronze Age Settlement Sites in the Dutch
River Area (c. 2000–800 BC). Leiden: Sidestone Press. p. 468. ISBN 978-90-8890-010-5.
58. ^ Darby, Henry Clifford (2002). The Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England,
France and the United States. Exeter: University of Exeter Press. p. 14. ISBN 0-85989-699-4.
59. ^ Rao, B.V. (2007). World history from early times to AD 2000. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers
Pvt. Ltd. p. 5. ISBN 978-81-207-3188-2.
60. ^ Howard, Michael; Bond, Brian; Stagg, J. C. A.; Chandler, David; Best, Geoffrey; Terrine,
John (1988). What is Military History … ?. What is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education
UK. pp. 4–17. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2. ISBN 978-0-333-42226-
7. S2CID 156592827. Archived from the original on 9 June 2018. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
61. ^ Pavkovic, Michael; Morillo, Stephen (2006). What is Military History?. Oxford: Polity Press.
pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-7456-3390-9.
62. ^ Cochrane, Eric (1975). "What Is Catholic Historiography?". Catholic Historical
Review. 61 (2): 169–190. JSTOR 25019673.
63. ^ For example see Gajano, Sofia Boesch; Caliò, Tommaso (1998). "Italian Religious
Historiography in the 1990s". Journal of Modern Italian Studies. 3 (3): 293–
306. doi:10.1080/13545719808454982.
64. ^ Peter Stearns, ed. Encyclopedia of Social History (1994)
65. ^ Diplomatic dropped from 5% to 3%, economic history from 7% to 5%, and cultural history
grew from 14% to 16%. Based on full-time professors in U.S. history departments. Haber,
Stephen H.; Kennedy, David M.; Krasner, Stephen D. (1997). "Brothers under the Skin:
Diplomatic History and International Relations". International Security. 22 (1). p.
42. doi:10.1162/isec.22.1.34. JSTOR 2539326. S2CID 57570041.
66. ^ "Teachers of History in the Universities of the UK 2007 – listed by research interest".
Archived from the original on 30 May 2006.
67. ^ G.M. Trevelyan (1973). "Introduction". English Social History: A Survey of Six Centuries
from Chaucer to Queen Victoria. Book Club Associates. p. i. ISBN 978-0-582-48488-7.
68. ^ Mary Fulbrook (2005). "Introduction: The people's paradox". The People's State: East
German Society from Hitler to Honecker. London: Yale University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-
300-14424-6.
69. ^ The first World Dictionary of Images: Laurent Gervereau (ed.), "Dictionnaire mondial des
images", Paris, Nouveau monde, 2006, 1120p, ISBN 978-2-84736-185-8. (with 275
specialists from all continents, all specialities, all periods from Prehistory to nowadays);
Laurent Gervereau, "Images, une histoire mondiale", Paris, Nouveau monde, 2008,
272p., ISBN 978-2-84736-362-3
70. ^ Watt, D. C.; Adams, Simon; Bullen, Roger; Brauer, Kinley; Iriye, Akira (1988). What is
Diplomatic History … ?. What is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 131–
142. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12. ISBN 978-0-333-42226-7. Archived from the
original on 28 January 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
71. ^ Muriel E Chamberlain, Pax Britannica'? British Foreign Policy 1789–1914 (1988) p. 1
72. ^ Robert Whaples, "Is Economic History a Neglected Field of Study?," Historically Speaking
(April 2010) v. 11#2 pp. 17–20, with responses pp. 20–27
73. ^ Franco Amatori, and Geoffrey Jones, eds. Business History Around the World (2003) online
edition Archived 19 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine

26. 74. ^ J.D. Hughes, What is Environmental History (2006) excerpt and text search Archived 22
April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
75. ^ Ainslie Embree and Carol Gluck, eds., Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for
Teaching (M.E. Sharpe, 1997)
76. ^ Shigeru Akita, "World History and the Emergence of Global History in Japan,"Chinese
Studies in History, Spring 2010, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp. 84–96
77. ^ "Journal of World History". Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 7
February 2011.
78. ^ "H-World". www.h-net.org. Archived from the original on 10 March 2011. Retrieved 7
February 2011.
79. ^ Wade Matthews (2013). The New Left, National Identity, and the Break -up of Britain. Brill.
pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-90-04-25307-0. Archived from the original on 28 September 2020.
Retrieved 8 May 2016.
80. ^ Grafton, Anthony (2006). "The History of Ideas: Precept and Practice, 1950–2000 and
beyond" (PDF). Journal of the History of Ideas. 67 (1): 1–
32. doi:10.1353/jhi.2006.0006. S2CID 143746040. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 June
2016. Retrieved 6 December 2015.
81. ^ Horowitz, Maryanne Cline, ed. (2004). New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Vol. 6.
82. ^ Wallach Scott, Joan (1988). "Gender: A Useful Category of Analysis". Gender and the
Politics of History. NewYork: Columbia University Press. pp. 28–50. ISBN 0231188013.
83. ^ "History of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Social
Movements". www.apa.org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2021. Retrieved 20
January 2021.
84. ^ Glassberg, David (1996). "Public History and the Study of Memory". The Public
Historian. 18 (2): 7–23. doi:10.2307/3377910. JSTOR 3377910.
85. ^ Curran, Vivian Grosswald (2000) Herder and the Holocaust: A Debate About Difference and
Determinism in the Context of Comparative Law in F.C. DeCoste, Bernard Schwartz
(eds.) Holocaust's Ghost: Writings on Art, Politics, Lawand Education pp. 413–
415 Archived 12 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine
86. ^ Curran, Vivian Grosswald (2000) Herder and the Holocaust: A Debate About Difference and
Determinism in the Context of Comparative Law in F.C. DeCoste, Bernard Schwartz
(eds.) Holocaust's Ghost: Writings on Art, Politics, Lawand Education p. 415 Archived 12
September 2015 at the Wayback Machine
87. ^ Ivan Roots, "Firth, Sir Charles Harding (1857–1936)", Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography (Oxford University Press, 2004) Online; accessed 10 Nov2014 Archived 30 July
2022 at the Wayback Machine
88. ^ Reba Soffer, "Nation, duty, character and confidence: history at Oxford, 1850–
1914." Historical Journal (1987) 30#01 pp. 77–104.
89. ^ Frank Donoghue, The Last Professors: The Corporate University and the Fate of the
Humanities (2008)
90. ^ Jacqueline Swansinger, "Preparing Student Teachers for a World History Curriculum in New
York," History Teacher, (November 2009), 43#1 pp. 87–96
91. ^ Abby Waldman, " The Politics of History Teaching in England and France during the
1980s," History Workshop Journal Issue 68, Autumn 2009 pp. 199–221 online
92. ^ Jason Nicholls, ed. School History Textbooks across Cultures: International Debates and
Perspectives (2006)
93. ^ Claudia Schneider, "The Japanese History Textbook Controversy in East Asian
Perspective," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, May 2008,
Vol. 617, pp. 107–122
94. ^ Guillory, John (2015). The Common Core and the Evasion of Curriculum (vol 130 ed.).
PMLA. pp. 666–672.
95. ^ "Problems of Teaching Contemporary Russian History," Russian Studies in History, Winter
2004, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp. 61–62
96. ^ Wedgwood Benn, David (2008). "Blackwell-Synergy.com". International Affairs. 84 (2): 365–
370. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2008.00708.x.

27. 97. ^ Goldstein, Dana (12 January 2020). "Two States. Eight Textbooks. Two American
Stories". The NewYork Times. Archived from the original on 5 May 2020. Retrieved 5
May 2020.
98. ^ Fernandez, Manny; Hauser, Christine (5 October 2015). "Texas Mother Teaches Textbook
Company a Lesson on Accuracy". The NewYork Times. Archived from the original on 15 July
2018. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
99. ^ "Teaching History in Schools: the Politics of Textbooks in India," History Workshop Journal,
April 2009, Issue 67, pp. 99–110
100. ^ Tatyana Volodina, "Teaching History in Russia After the Collapse of the
USSR," History Teacher, February 2005, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp. 179–188
101. ^ Simone Lässig and Karl Heinrich Pohl, "History Textbooks and Historical
Scholarship in Germany," History Workshop Journal Issue 67, Spring 2009 pp. 128–
129 online at project MUSE
Further reading
 Norton, Mary Beth; Gerardi, Pamela, eds. (1995). The American Historical Association's Guide to
Historical Literature (3rd ed.). Oxford U.P; Annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important
English language history books in all fields and topics.
 Benjamin, Jules R. (2009). A Student's Guide to History.
 Carr, E.H. (2001). What is History?. With a newintroduction by Richard J. Evans.
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-97701-7.
 Cronon, William (2013). "Storytelling". American Historical Review. 118 (1): 1–
19. doi:10.1093/ahr/118.1.1. Archived from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 24 July 2016;
Discussion of the impact of the end of the Cold War upon scholarly research funding, the impact
of the Internet and Wikipedia on history study and teaching, and the importance of storytelling in
history writing and teaching.
 Evans, Richard J. (2000). In Defence of History. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-31959-8.
 Furay, Conal; Salevouris, Michael J. (2010). The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide.
 Kelleher, William (2008). Writing History: A Guide for Students; excerpt and text search. {{cite
book}}: External link in |postscript= (help)
 Lingelbach, Gabriele (2011). "The Institutionalization and Professionalization of History in Europe
and the United States". The Oxford History of Historical Writing. Vol. 4: 1800–1945. pp. 78–
. ISBN 9780199533091. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
 Presnell, Jenny L. (2006). The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to Research for History
Students; excerpt and text search. {{cite book}}: External link in |postscript= (help)
 Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History. ISBN 1-4058-2351-8.
 Woolf, D.R. (1998). A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing. Vol. 2. Garland Reference Library
of the Humanities; excerpt and text search. {{cite book}}: External link
in |postscript= (help)
 Williams, H.S., ed. (1907). The Historians' History of the World. Vol. Book 1. Archived from the
original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2015; This is Book 1 of 25 Volumes.
External links
 Best history sites .net
 BBC History Site
 Internet History Sourcebooks Project See also Internet History Sourcebooks
Project. Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts for
educational use
 The History Channel Online

28.  History Channel UK
show
Time
show
Humanities
show
Social sciences
show
Chronology
show
Theories of history
History at Wikipedia's sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity

29. Data from Wikidata
show
Authority control
Categories:
 History
 Humanities
 Main topic articles