1. Master's Thesis

ANALYTICAI, DESIGN OF A PARALLEL HYBRID ELECTRIC
POWERTRAIN FOR SPORTS UTILITY VEHICLES AND HEAVY
TRUCKS
A Thesis Presented to
The Faculty of the
Fritz J. and Dolores H.Russ
College of Engineering and Technology
Ohio University
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirement for the Degree
Master of Science
by
Madhava Rao Madireddy
March. 2003
OHIOUNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

lahle of'Contents:
Chapter 1Introduction 6:Bachgl-ound
1 1 Iiltroductio~l
1 2 Purpose of Research
1 3 Ser~esand Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Currellt State of ai-t in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
2 1.1 Production HEVs available for purchase 111 inoclel year 2001
2 1 2 Efforts of Big Three for I-Iybi-idizationof SUVs, cars and trucks
2.1 3 Current Research and Developlneilt efforts for Hybridization
of SlJVs
2 1 3 Cu1-1-entResearch and developinent efforts for Hybridization
of heavy vehicles
2 2 S~inulatioilSoftware for HEVs
2 3 Related Research Work
2 3 Hqbridl~ationstudies Using ADVISOR
Chapter 3 I~itroductionto ADVISOR
3 1 l~ltroductionto ADVISOR
3 2 LTsiilg ADVISOR
3 2 i Defining a Vehicle
3 2 2 Ruil~li~lga Simulatioll

3.2.3 Lookii~gat Results
Chapter 4 Powertrain Specifications
4.1 Scaling the Vehicle Cornpollents
4.2 Engine, Motor and Battery Specifications
4.2 1 SUV SI Engine Specifications
4.2.2 Heavy Truck CI Eilgille Specifications
4.2.3 Motor Specifications
4.2.4 Battery Specificatioils
4.2.5 The problem of SOC
Chapter 5 Design Methodology
5.1 Overall goal of the study
5.2 Design Teclmique elnployed
5.2.1 Teclx~icalOptimizatioil
5.2.2 Cost Based Optiniization
Chapter 6 Simulation, Results and Conclusion
6.1 Control Strategy enlployed
6.2 Simulation and results for average SUV
6.3 Simulation and results for full-size SUV
6.4 Simulation and results for heavy trucks
6.5 Conclusio~l
6.6 Recomil~endationsfor fui-ther si~liulat~onstudies

References
Bibliography and Recommended Readings
Appendices
ADVISOR Documentatioll
JIatlab Files

List of Figures:
1.1Series Hybrid Electric Vehicle
1.2Parallel H~.bridElectric Vehicle
2 2 Toljota Pnus
2 3 Diii~nlerClxysler Citadel
2 4 Dailnler Cluysler ESX3
2 5 Ford Escape HEV
1.6 The GM Precept
2.7 Llitsubishi HV
2.8 Nissan Tino HEV
2.9 Dodge Duranyo
2.10 Ford Prodigy
2.1 1 Transit Bus
2.12.Sterling AT 2500
2.13 Kelln ol-th 800
3.1 Vehicle Input Figure in ADVISOR
3 2 Sinlulation Set Up Figure in ADVISOR
3 3 ADVISOR Results Figure
4.1 SIEngine Torque Speed Characteristics
47 ClEngine Torque Speed Characteristics
4.34Zotor Torque Speed Characteristics

vii
4.3 Panasonic 12V/3SA4HRSealed Lead Acid battery 37
4.5 Battery Open Circuit Voltage Characteristics 40
4.5 Battery Instalitaneous Power vs. SOC 41
6.1 Federal Test Procedure (FTP) Drive Cycle 47
6.2 Fuel Econoniy (mpg) vs. percent hybridization for an average SLY 49
6.3 Acceleration tinie (060111ph) VS. percent hybridization @ different charge 50
capacities of tlie batteries for an average SUV
6.3 Net Value (Combined Fuel Econoniy and Perfomn~ance)vs. percent 51
llybridization for an average SUV
6.5 Cost of Average SUV vs. percent hybridization. 52
6.6 Components of Cost Optimization for average SLY with 25 battery lilodules 53
6.7 Net Value with Cost Consideration vs. percent hybridization 51
6.8 Coillparison of Teclu~icaland Cost Optiiliizatio~lsfor average Sb'V with 55
25 battery n~odules
6.9 Colnpollellts of Cost Opti~liizatioiifor average SLV with 25 battery 56
modules and with low cost batteries
6.10 The Effect of Low Cost Batteries for an average SUV 57
6.11 (a) Teclulical Ket Value Change due to tlie variation in Weighing Factors 58
6.11 (b) Cost Optimized h'et Value Cl-iangedue to the variation in 59
Weighing Factors
6.12 Fuel Economy (mpg) vs. percent hybridization for full size SUV 61
6.13 .4cceleration time vs. percent hybridization for full size SLV 61

...
Vlll
6.14 Net Value (Teclmical) vs. percent hybridization for full size SLV
6.15 Cost of f~lllsize SUV vs. percent h~~bridizationfor full size SLW
6.16 Componeilts of Cost Optiillizatioil for full size SUV with 25 n~odules
6.17Net Value (Cost Optimization) vs. percent hybridization for Full size SUV
6.18 Components of Cost Optinlization for full size SLW with 25 nlodules
6.19 JiYINTER Drive Cycle
6 20 Fuel Economy (inpg) vs. percent hybridization for heavy trucks
6.21 .Acceleration tiine (0 6O111ph) vs. percent l~ybridizationfor heavy trucks
6.23Set Value (Technical Optimization) vs. percent hybridization for heavy
trucks
6.23 Cost of heavy truck vs. percent hybridization.
6.24 Co~llpoilentsof Cost Optiillization for heavy tiuck
6.25 Net V a l ~ ~ e(Cost Optimization) vs. percent hybridization for heavy trucks
6.26 Components of Cost Optimization for heavy tn~cliwith low cost batteries
6.27 Effect of low cost batteries on the net value of heavy truck
A.1 .cceleration Test Ada anced Optioils window
A 2 Pdrainetrlc Results Figure in L4D71SOR

List of Tables:
6.1 Results from ADVISOR for a 150kW powered average SUV
6.2 Results from ADVISOR for a 200KW powered Full Size SUV
6.3 Results from ADVISOR for a 400 KW powered heavy truck

S ~ m b o l sand Abbreviations:
ADVISOR Advanced Vehicular Simulator
APC Auxiliary Power Unit
A11
CI
DOE
Elph
EP.4
EV
FTP
HEV
HV
HVEC
1C
ICE
MPG
1IPH
PKGV
SI
soc
SLV
TDES
UDDS
V Elph
SULEV
ZEV
Ampere Hour
Colnpressio~lIgnition
Department of Energy
Electrically Peaking Hybrid
Envirolu~~entalProtection Agency
Electric Vehicle
Federal Test Procedure
Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Hybrid Vehicle
Hybrid Vehicle Evaluation Code
Internal Combustion
Intelnal Combustioll Ellgiile
Miles Per Gallon (gasoline equivalent)
Miles Per Hour
Partnership of New Generation of Vehicles
Spark Ignition
State of Charge
Sports Utility Vehicles
Turbo Diesel Engine Sin~ulatio~l
Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule
Versatile Electrically Pealting Hybrid
Super Ultra Low E~nissionVehicle
Zero Emission Vehicles

Chapter 1:
Introduction C ! Background
1.1 Introduction
Con.entional internal combustion (IC) engine driven power trains have several
disadvantages that negatively affect fuel economy and en~issions.Specifically, IC engines
;Ire tqpically oversized by roughly ten times to meet perfolmance targets, such as
acceleration and starting gradeability (Moore, 1996). This moves the cruising operating point
away from the optimal operation point (Gao et al., 1997). Moreover, an engine cannot be
optimized for all the speed and load ranges under which it must operate (Moore, 1996). One
viable solution to these problems is the use of a hybrid electric power train that decouples the
ICengine fi-om peak requirements, thus reducing the demands on the engine map.
1.2 Purpose of the Research:
In the conventional veliicles~the entire power is derived from the IC engine. The fuel
economy can be in~provedif we replace a part of the power by the motor powered by the
batteries. But the initial purchase cost will shoot up because of the batteries and motor. The
percentage of the n~otorpower out of the total power is defined as Percent Hybridization.
The basic objective of this study is to ai-rive at a percent hybridization for a considered power
Ie el to trade off fuel econonly with perf01-mance (ability to accelerate quickly: g-adeability)
2nd initial cost of the vehicle.

1.3 Series and Parallel E-IEV's
A hybl-id electric vehicle (HEV) combines at least t?fosources of propulsion, one of
them being electric. Hybrid power production options include spark ignition engines,
colllpression igilition direct illjectioil engines, gas turbines, and fuel cells. The primary
options for energy storage include batteries, ultra capacitors, and flpheels.
-4 typical hybrid electric ,chicle combines the illtenla1 conlbustion engine of a
con~.entionalvehicle with the batteries and electric motor of an electric vehicle. There are
tlpically hvo configurations of hybrid electric vehicles. They are series and parallel.
In a serles l~ybndelectnc ~ehicle(Fig 1 I), the nlotor dnhes the uheeis and the
intenla1 col~lbustloilengine IS not connected to the 1511eels hvith any mechanical connection
Generator Motor 'Controller
Fig 1.1 Series Hybrid Electric Vehicle
All the drive to the wheels is supplied from the electric lllotor that is supplied ~vit11power
fro111 the batteries. The batteries ixay be cl~argedby the internal con~bustionengine. The
pon,zr unit or rhe IC engil~ein series hybrid electric vehicle is efficient with lower emissions

3
than thaz in a parallel hybrid because ~tcan operate constantly at its optinlum effic~encqpoint
since ir is conipletely decoupled fro111 the load. However, the series hybrids drive lll<e an
electnc car ~ . i t han extended range and not like conventional cars. This is not necessal-ily
bad. but it is unfamiliar and cui~entlyconsuii1ers prefer the driving feel of conventional
~ieliiclesand parallel HEVj over series HE1.s.
In a parallel hybrid drive train (Fig 1.2),the intel-iial combustion unit and the electsic
motor run in parallel.
1'tnlir-r llrvl
F1g1.2 Parallel I-Iybrid Electric Vehicle
Both tlie engine and the electric inotor are co~liiectedto the trailsmission indepe~idently.
-4s a resulr, in a parallel hybrid, both the electric motor and the IC eilgille can provide
prop~~lsiollpower. Depending on the power requirellleiit and tlie state of charge of the
batteries, the coiltrol system tu1-11~the motor on or off. The motor is powered by the batteries.
n.hich may be charged fi-on~an este~ualpower supply or the IC engine. The IC engine in a
parsllrl HEV can be designed for the operation in the cruising range and the batteries via a

4
motor call provide suppleilieiltary power for the vehicle during initial acceleration and
gradeability (moviilg along a gradient or uphill) requirements. Tlie i ~ ~ o t o racts as a generator
to recapture tlie braking energy and charges the batteries. In case of overheating, the IC
engine can even be tuilled off because there is an auxiliary power source for prop~llsion
(though for a liiliited range). The parallel hybrid electric drive train perfoims similar to a
ion.e~itionalvehicle drive train as the engine is directly connected to the transmission.
Coiisumers call have the driving feel of a conr~entionalvehicle and hence tlie manufacturers
caii nlarket this easily.
The parallel electric assist control strategy eiilployed by ADVISOR uses the iilotor for
additional poLver when needed by the vehicle and rnaiiltaiils charge in the batteries.
The parallel assist strategy can use the electric inotor in a variety of ways:
1. The niotor caii be used for all driving torque below a certain minimun~veliicle speed.
2. The motor is used for torque assist if the required torque is greater than the maximum
producible by tlie eligiile at the engine's operating speed.
3. Tlie motor charges the batteries by regenerative braking.
4. When the engine would run i~iefficieiltlyat the required engine torque at a given
speed, the eiigiile will shut off and the lnotor will produce the required torque.
5 . Lt11en tlie battery SOC is low, the e1lgi11ewill provide excess torque which will be
used by the iiiotor to charge tlie battery.
As tlie hybridization allo~.sthe IC engiiies be designed more fuel efficient? tlie
emissions wliich are the results of iiicolliplete coiilbustioil caii be cut down. Tliis could help

7d
to a c l ~ l e ~ ~ ethe goals of Partnership of h'ew Generat1011of Vehicles (PUGV). a joint effolt b)
United States Go~erillnentand sonle automotlbe lnanufacturing filnis Hybrlds M 111 necer be
t n ~ ezero emission vehicles (ZEV), however, because of their intellla1 conibustioi? engine.
Even the electric veliicles are not really ZEVs because of the eniissioils during the energ),
son.ersion required to charge the batteries. Hybrid power systems can coliipensate for the
sllortfall in battery technology. Because batteries could supply only e n o u ~ henergy for short
tsips, an onboal-d generator, pou,ered by an intellla1 coinbustion engine. could be installed
niid used for longer trips. This is similar to tlie series coilfiguratioil and is called a range
extender.
Hybricl Electric vehicles a?-ecu~~-entlygaining a lot of attenti011 of manufacturers d~le
to the environmental and federal laws for regulated emissions. The h>~brid'scon~ples~tyand
tlie cost and size of the batteries are the biggest hill-dles in rnarlieting these vehicles. Tl~oilgh
the hybrid vehicle may have higher initial cost compared to a con.entional .chicle, the
sa,ings in f~ieleconol~lycut d0u.n tlie long teiin operating cost.
Organization of the Thesis:
Cliapter 2 gibes an lntroductiol~to the cul-rent state of art of the hybrid electric
vehicle and tlie simulation tools developed aiid used by different orga~lizationsto predict and
test the perfoilllaiice of the vehicles. Cliapter 3 introduces the s o h ~ a r etool called
ADVISOR.Chapter 3 gives specifications of the pov,.el-train used for simulation. Chapter 5
gives tlie design methodology emploq-ed in this study. Chapter 6 gi-es the siillulatio~lresi~lts
of fuel economy- ;liid pe~-fo~~iiancefor different vehicle platforills and also summarizes the
iesults and gives col~clusloiisand discussions and scope for future research

Chapter 2:
Literature Review
2.1 Current State of Art in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
This thesis investigates the hybridization of sports utility vehicles and large tnlcks
for potential fuel economy improvements without significant cost or performance penalties.
A large amount of research and developnlent has already been completed by the automotive
industry for hybridizing passenger cars, and a limited number of development programs are
also undeluay for hybridizing light to heavy duty vehicles. This section presents a review of
existing hybrid vehicle programs to be used as a baseline for the analytical research
presented later in this thesis report.
2.1.1 Production HEVs available for purchase in model year 2001.
The I-Ionda Insight (Fig 2.1) is available to United States consumers now, and so far
it's been getting a lot of attention.
Fig 2.1 Hollda Insight
It is a series hybrid with high fuel econollly averaging 70 miles per gallon of gasoline in
co~nbinedcity and highway driving. This figure of 70 mpg considers fuel use only and does
not include the battery charge used during the drive since that charge is replenished durlng
operation.

7
The Insight uses ail SI engine as its 111ailipower source with a peak power of 671ip@
5700rpm and a peak torque of 661b ft @4800rpm. The hybrid power source is a penuanent
magnet DC brushless motor which can generate 10kW @ 3000rp1ii. Energy storage is
PI-ovidedby Nickel Metal Hydride batteries of 144v (120 cells a 1 . 2 ~each) at 6.5AH rated
capacity. Tlie percent hybridization employed is 20% (Engine power/ruotor power is 4:1).
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has certified the Insight as a Si~perUltra Low
Emission Vehicle (SULEV).
The Toyota P r i ~ ~ s(Fig 2.2), wliicli calue out in Japan at the end of 1997, is designed
to reduce emissions in urban areas.
Fig 2.2 'Toyota Prius
It meets Califonlia's super ~ ~ l t r alow emissions vehicle (SULEV) standard. Tlie IC
engine has a peak power of 70 lip @4500rpm and a peak torque of 82 Ib ft @ 4200rp111. The
PI-~LISuses a permanent magnet lliotor as its hybrid power source with a peak power of 44lip
available from 1040 rp~iitllro~lgh5600 rplii and a peak torq~leof 258 lb ft from 0 to 400 rpm.
Tlie percent hybridization for the Prius is 30%. Siliiilar to the Insight, the Prius also uses
sealed nickel nistal Iiydride batteries witli a total o u t p ~ ~ tof 2 7 3 . 6 ~(228 1 . h cells). [I]

2.1.1 EfTorts of Big Three for the hybridization of SLVs, cars and trucks
None of the Big Three US automakers (Ford, General Motors, and DaimlerChrysler)
cui-rently have hybrid vehicles available for sale, but all have active hybrid vehicle research
progi-an~sfor both passenger cars and light duty trucks. Some examples of hybrid passenger
cars in development are discussed below.
Dairnler Chrysler Citadel (Fig 3.3) uses a gasoline fed 3.5 liter V 6 engine to power
tlie rear hvheels while the front wheels are powered by an electric motor. The engine delivers
7531ip and the motors 7011p for a percent hybridization of 2201;. The fuel economy
preclictions are not available in the ai-ticle. [ 2 ]
Fig 2.3 Dainller Chrysler Citadel
Tile Daillller Chi-ysler ESX3 (Fig 2.4) is a mild hybrid with has a starter! generator
designed for new 42 Volts systems. Its electric powel~raiiicombines a clean, efficient diesel
engiile, electric motor and state of the art lithium ion battery to achieve an average 72 miles
1121. gallon (3.3 liters/100 knl) fuel efficiency (gasoline equivalent). This is close to PNGVs
goal of SO nlpg (2.9 liters/100 kni) family vehicles.

Fig 2.3 Daiiiller Chiysler ESX3
Tlis Ford Escape HEV (Fig 2.5),which will make its debut in 2003 ~villfeahlre an
electric dri~,etrainto augment its fuel efficient four cylinder gasoline engine. Escape HE.
will be especially fuel efficient in the city, delivering about 40 mpg in urban dri.ing. Yet the
Escape I-I€' .ill dsliver acceleration perfomiaiice similar to an Escape equipped ~vitliV 6
engine. The hybrid Escape will be capable of being driven more than 500 miles oil a single
tad< of gasoli11e and will be certified as a super ultra low eniission vehicle (SULEJ') under
Calil'o~ilir!enlissioils standards and meet Stage I: requirelilents in Europe before the)
become mandatorq~in 2005. The power ratings of the engine, batteries and motor are not
~i.r!ilablefi-om tile source. [3]

Fig 2.5 Ford Escape HEV
G*Mis planning to develop the GM Precept (Fig 2.61, a 5 passenger iehicle Power
for tlie Precept. a hybrid; is supplied to the fioont wheels by a battery powered electric traction
s)item. 4 lightweight, 1.3 liter, three cylinder diesel engine ivith turbocharged comprrssion
igiiition is moonted in the rear. The power ratings of the engine and motor are not available
from the source. [3]
Fig 2.6 GM Precept
The Mitsubishi (Fig 2.7) is a HEV powered by electricity and recharged ivitb on on
board. gasoline fileled, auxiliary power unit (APU).

Fig 2.7 Mitsubishi HV
Tn.in electrical engines drive the front wheels, using one for lower speeds and both
for acceleration, which allows theill to run within their most efficient operating range.
Cnder nol~ilaldriving conditions the electrical engines are powered by 28 open cell batteries.
If the battery charge falls below half its capacity the APU switches on and begins to charge
the batteries. The APU is a 1.5 liter, four cylinder; water cooled, four stroke, gasoline fueled
engine .it11 a l~iglilyefficieilt AC power generator. Once the charge is restored to above
GO0;, operation autoinatically retullls to battery mode. This vehicle has a range of nlore than
150 miles, the capability to travel at speeds up to 95 mph, and registers exhaust elnissions of
11e~11.lyzero. The HEV features fi-ont wheel drive and a two speed semiautomatic
transmission. The power ratings of the engine and motor are not available from the source.
[31
The Nissan Tino (Fig 2.8) is powered by a combination of a 1.8 liter foiir cylinder
engine and an electlic motor with lithium ion batteries. The vehicle is a five passenger car
that achieves t~vicethe fuel econonly and 50% less eillissions than a coilventional vehicle of
the same type. The power ratings are not available from the source. [3]

Fig 2.8 Kissail Tino HEV
2.1.3 Curre~ltResearch and Development efforts for Hybridization of SUVs
Numerous SUV and light truclc l~ybridizationefforts are under way and could greatly
inlpact the national file1 use and emissions because the demand for SUVs is large and the
fuel ecoiloiily of the SUV propelled by the conventional drive train is poor. The f~lel
econoniy and elllissioils problems with SCVs are pai-tly because of their large size and also
because the lllailufacturers are forced to oversize the engines to meet the perfoilnance
demands of the custon~ers.A l~ybridSUV could meet the same perfo~nlancestaildards but
auld be able to r ~ u iillore than a conventional vehicle on the same amouilt of fuel. HE
SU-s ~;ouldbe of great importance to the country's economy and could promote ecol~omic
stability in the event of a drastic cha~lgein fuel prices. The trade deficit could also be
drastically reduced in the long tell11 due to a reduction in the nation's dependence on foreign
oil.
DaimlerChrysler ailnouilced that it will star-t offering the Dodge Durango (shown 111
fig 2.9 a. b 6Lc) with a hybrid powel-train in 2003.

Fig 2.9 a
Fig 2.9 b Fig 2.9 c
Fig 2.9: Dodge Durango
The hybrid Durango con~bi~iestwo separate propulsion systems: a 4.7 liter, f 6
engine wit11 automatic transmission that poarers the rear wheels, and a three phase, AC
induction electric niotor that drives the front wheels The power ratings of tlie engine and
inotoi sere not available fi-om the source Tile electric lnotor assists the petrol engine during
3i~eleratio11. and recaphies energy llo~nially lost during deceleration. The hybrid
combination of poa,er sources provides the poner. acceleration and perfomiance of a

14
coii~~ent~onalV 8 englne. The hybrld power train yields a 20 percent increase 111 fuel
effic~ency;achieving 15.2 litres1100 kilometers combined citylhighway, compared w ~ t h18.2
litresilo0 kilonleters for the conventional V8 Durango. [6]
Ford Prodigy (Fig 2.10), another hybrid electric vel~icle,uses a 1.2 liter compression
ignition, direct injection engiile called DIATA, which is lighter, and 35 percent more
efficient than convei~tiollalengines.
Fig 2.10 Ford Prodigy
The four cylinder DIATA generates 55 kilowatts, or 74 horsepo~ver,at 4,100 rpm. A
small, high power nicltel nletal hydride battery is used to generate the power for the vehicle
electronic systellls and call assist the engine as the vehicle accelerates and support the brakes
during deceleration, thus recharging the battery for later use. Battery voltages range up to
400 volts, with a peak current rating of 200 amps for 20 seconds and a continuous power
rating of 25 kilowatts. The motor ratings are not available from the source. [3]

1.1.4 Current Research and Development Efforts for Hybridization of Heavy 7el~icles
The hfassachusetts Bay Transpostation Authority in Boston has logged about 35,000
nliles on a pair of Olion VI buses powered by the HybriDrive(TM) system which uses an AC
induction motor to turn the vehicle's drive wheels. A diesel powered generator supplies
propulsion power to the electric n~otorand to a battery pack. This configuration dramatically
reduces emissions while improving fuel ecolloilly by 25% to 50% and improviilg
performance over the convel~tionalvehicle. The hybrid buses currently in service use diesel
engines, but the technology is compatible with other fiiel types, such as compl-essed nat~ual
gas and enlerging tecl~nologiesincluding fbel cells.
The Allison Transn~issionDivision of General Motors is planning to develop a series
hybrid electric transit bus which was on the market by October 2001. The New York City
Transit has developed series hybrid electric drivetrain propelled transit busses (Showil in Fig
2.1l), ~vl~ichtraveled approxin~ately300,000 miles in Manhattan.
Fig 2.11 A transit Bus

16
.A cornerstone of the NYC Transit Hybrid Bus program is the companq-'s Aliison
Electric Drives Thl hybrid system. At the request of the NYC Transit, Allison desiped a
series hybrid especially for the 40 foot RTS bus. The bus, which had already completed
about 70,000 miles of duty on Kew York City streets, was equipped with an .4llison Electric
Drives T'4 systen~as part of a nolmally scheduled mid life powertrain overhaul. The urork
&,asu13dertal;en in conj~inctionwith NovaBUS, the company that perfol-~nedthe powertrain
integration
-4llison Electr~cDrives TL1 provide an improvenient in fuel economy of about 30
pa-cent over conventional heavy duty powel-trains. In addition, the systems offer excellent
en~ironmentrtlbenefits for less cost t11a11soiile alteixative hels that require complex and
costly fueling stations and other infi-astructure related expenditures.
NYC Transit's new hybrid bus features an Allisoil Transmission 160 kW traction
dri.e sj-stemconsisting of an inverter and drive unit. The diive unit includes a highly
integmted AC induction niotor and production gear reduction package. Additionally, three
bat121?. packs fl-0111General Motors's S10 electric truck program pro~idesenergy storage:
f.l~ilea diesel hieled 100kW auxiliary power unit from TDM, Detroit Diesel Coi-p. and
Uniq~lehlobilitypro.ides electricity to mail~tainbattery charge. [4]
I-Tyhridization is also expected to help heavy trucks, especially long haul trucks: with
their fuel economy. Cul-sently the file1 economy of heavy trucks is very low and in need of
in-ipr~~ement.Recent fig~lresfi-om the 21StCent~1l-yTnick Roadniap reference estimate that
tluc.1;~are responsible for approxinlately 70% of the fuel consunlption in the nation. The
latest US govelvnlent sponsored vehicle research program, the 21'' Ceutul?; Truck Program,

, ,
is aillled at developing advanced technology that will enable safer, more fuel efficient and
more intelligent heavy duty vehicle transpo~-tation.Since this is a new initiative (announced
April 2000), no info~lnationis cun-ently available about hybrid heavy duty vehicles besides
transit busses.
In the following paragaphs infol-n~ationis given on collventional long haul heavy
duty vehicles to show the design issues and the need for in~provementof he1 economy. The
fuel econoruy of such collvelltional power train driven tn~ckswhen loaded up to 40,0001b
niay be less than 3 llliles per gallon of gasoline. This call be improved by the use of a hybrid
electric pon.er train which decouples the engine fi-om the peak power requiren~entsihigh
torque is needed to accelerate such a huge vehicle from rest or to climb a slope) and allows
the engine to run nlost efficiently in cruisiilg range for which it could be designed the best.
The 2000 Sterllllg Backtruck (Fig 2.12) is a conventional h e a ~y duty vehicle which
uses d colllpression ~gll~teddlesel eilgllle The big Sterling AT 9500 features a Cummlns N
1t11 500 11p and 1,850 ft lbs of torque available through its 18 speed Roadranger gearbox
The truck shon n belo is based 111 Colac (Victona) and eanls ~ t skeep callyng logs 111 from
the Omay >lo~mtalnsor Beaufort to Colac
Fig 2.12 Sterling AT 9500

1s
The 7001 Kenortli SO0 (Fig 2 13) uses a 475kW Co~iipress~o~lIgnltlon (CI)eligille
The fionr axle has 120001b and the rear has 40,0001b capaclty The fuel economy changes a
lot s.ith the load to be canied, but the figures are typically around 5 miles per gallon of
gasoline equivalent if canying around 8000kg of cargo. [5]
Fig 2.13 200 1 Kenworth SO0
3.2 Simulation Software and Studies using those Software
There are a lot of veliicular siniulation packages developed by different organizations to
prc.dict the perfo~-~nance:fuel economy and emissions for yet to be b~iiltvehicles. They take
the input fi-om the user and give the output by virtually lunnin,o the vehicle through the
selecrzcl drive cycle.

Simplev is a DOS based Electric and Hybrid Vehicle simulation program developed
by the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory. Its main use is as a
vehicle perfolnlance sin~ulation tool which capable of simulating vehicles having
con~.entional,all electric, series hybrid, and parallel hybrid propulsioil systems. The earlier
version of Sinlplev (Simplev 2.0) could not simulate parallel hybrid and conventional
inte~l~alconlbustion engine driven vehicles. Simplev is general enough to simulate vehicles
ranging in size fi-om sinall purpose built vehicles (such as golf carts) to fi-eight train
locomotives.
Slmplev allows the user to select a particular vehicle and its individual
coniponents like engine, batteries, transn~issionand n~otorand also a standard drive cycle. It
virrually runs the vehicle through the drive cycle and provides second by second predictiolls
of power train component perfollnance parameters over any user specified speed time or
speed distance driving regime.
SIMPLEV program was written by G.H.Cole. SIMPLEV Lvas prepared for the
L . S Department of Energy, Assistant Secretary for Conversion and Rene~vableEnergy
(CEI.Under DOE Idaho Field Office, Contract DE AC07 941D13223. [7]
To Order, contact:
Ms. Patricia Elickson
Lockheed Idaho Technologies Company
P.O. Box 1625
Idaho Falls, ID 83415 3810
Phone: (208) 526 6854
Email: pze@inel.gov

20
Simplev simulation tool was used by Idaho national Engineering and Environmental
1,aboratory as a tool to calculate the acceleration perfo:oniianceand range for a widc spectrum
of clectl-ic vehicles ranging fi-on1 passenger cars and microvalis to full size vans wit11 a
payload of 500kg.
N E L has also conducted track and dynamometer testing of the Eaton Dual Shaft
Electric Propulsion (DSEP) minivan using Simplev. The Dynamometer data was analyzed to
detel-mine the energy consumptio~~of the vehicle for various dl-iving modes and to predict the
I - L I I I ~ Cof the .chicle.
CarSini
('arSini is a software package developed by AeroVironment, Inc. for simulating and
analyzing the behavior of four vlieeled vehicles in response to steering, braking, and
acceleration inputs. CarSini includes a database that minimizes the time needed to build a
vehicle description and set up ruii conditions. Vehicles, components, inputs, existing runs are
acccssible with pull down menus in tlie database. CarSirn call only r-uodel series HEVs and
zlectl-ic vehicles, and is not capable of predicting enlissions. Cai-Sim is totally sclfcontained
and so it requires no additional software.
To (11-dcrContact:
Emnil: i i ~ f o @ ~ t r ~ t c l t s i ~ i ~ . c ~ i ~
H1:EC
Lawrence Livei-niore National Laboratoi-y has developed Hybrid Veliicle
Eval~~ationCode (HVEC) that models tlie perfoiliia~iceand emissions of an all electric or a
series hybrid electric vehicle in response to a variety of operating conditions. Fuel cells may
be ~lsedin place of ICESas an auxiliary power unit, a flywheel limy be chosen as the energy

2 1
storage device instead of batteries, and a number of alternative fi~els(such as hydrogen and
compsessed natural gas) can be used instead of gasoline.
The physics il1cluded in the code is slmple d>rllamics. a ce~-tainamount of energ! is
requirc'd to perfo~nla specified task. The model includes relationships between operating
coild~tlonsand required perfolnlance data, such as Jarlous energq losses in the system or
emissions. HVEC 1s one of a broad class of slrnulation codes that help des~gnerscluichlq
analyze the perfo~lllanceof a sqstem given a variety of competing designs 01 operating
conditions The results are then used to select the opt~lnaldesign, to focus on areas of needed
1niproTement, to optlniize the operating cond~t~ons,or to gain insight illto the dynam~csof
tllc' s)htem [S]
To Order Contact:
Technical infoi11~at1ondepartiilent
Lan rence Lil elmore National Laboratory
[-nix ersity of Cal~fol-ma,Live~lnore.
Callfolll~a94551
CSA1 HE-
The Colorado School of hlmes developed CShl HEV, a program dexeloped us~ng
;IA4TLABS~mulink,xvhich allobs easj configuration changes T h ~ sprogram also has tlie
capablllr) to do parametric sensltlv~tystudies through the ~nterface.Hornever, the
l ~ t s r a l ~ ~ r ead~uitsthat the code .as still x ery 111uch under deelopment and not ready to be
alld,ttzd a~a111stactual nleas~lieddata T h ~ sseverel) lim~tsthe availab~lltyof t h ~ ss~n~ulatlon
tool to a x4.ide ariety of users

1.Elph
V Elpli, an acronyil of Versatile Electrically Peaking Hybrid, is a
l~I.4TL..4B;'Simuli1ik based sirnulati011 prograln that was developed by Texas A&%f
University. ' Elph is much like CSM HE-except with an improved user interface. ; Elph
facilitates in depth studies of electric vehicle (EV) and hybrid EV (HEV)configurations or
energy managemelit strategies through visual programming by creating components as
hierarcliical subsystems that call be used interchangeably as elnbedded systems. L' Elph is
conlposed of detailed models of four major t p e s of components electnc motol-s. ~ntenlal
conlbustion engines, batteries: and suppo1-t compolients that can be integrated to model and
sil-uulate drive trains h a v i n ~all electric: series hybrid, and parallel hybrid configurations. The
program was written in the hlatlabiSimulink graphical silllulatioil language and is pol-table to
most coniputer platfolmls. 191
To Order Contact:
Ziaur Rahman, Depart~~ieiltof Electrical Engineering
Tesas A&hi Uniersity, College Station, Texas, Phone (409) 845 7441
;ID-ISOR
.Ad anced 1-ehlcle Sllli~llatorJA4DVISOR)1s the most uidelq used and probabl:
the 111ost refined simulation program ava~labletoday. This program uras developed b j the
Ncxt~onalRenev, able Energy Laborator) and 1s pros-mmed ulth the use of
LIXTLAB SIL'lL'LIYK ulth a kisual user ~ n t e r f ~ c efor easy man~pulationof colllponents
.4D171SOR 1s the pnmai-y d e s ~ g ltool used bq the Pal-tnersliip of New Generatlo11 of
'el~~cies(PSG~)It co~ltainsthe ulde range of features and broad flexib~lltynecessai-y to
nlodel ally r y e of HEV or ICE vehicle, x ~ t ha mlnlrnum of change ADVISOR can ut~lizea
anet> of custom and st311dard ~ T I V I I I ~CYCICS.H o ~SJ el-, u~lllkeany of the other tools, ~t also

23
easily generates results fi-om batches of cycles, including the most recent draft SAE test
procedures for HEVs (SAE, 1997),with state of charge corrections and vehicle soak periods.
It can predict the fuel economy, emissions, acceleration, and grade sustainability of a given
vehicle and plot or data log ally number of intei-nlediate and final values. Another
pal-titularly conveilient feature unique to ADVISOR is the well refined graphical user
interface (GUI) which allows the user to easily select fi-om a list of custom or pre defined
base vehicles, intercl~angeablecon~ponents,driving cycles, and outputs. ADVISOR can be
downloaded free fiom the website at nrel.gov. [lo]
2.3 Related Research Work
Tesas ASLM has designed a series hybrid electric drivetrain for a heavy duty transit
bus using V ELPI-I. The simulation was carried out using Urban Dynamonleter Driving
Schedule (UDDS) and the results showed that the f~leleconomy can be improved as much as
100% to meet the PNGV goals and the exhaust einissions can be cut down by the use of
Series Hybrid Electric poweltrain. The specificatioils of the n~otorand engine are not
available.
Tesas ASLM has also designed a parallel hybrid electric drivetrain for small passensel-
car. A small engine is used to supply power approximately equal to the average load power.
A vehicle controller and an engine controller manage the operation of the engine sucl~that
the engine always operates with nearly fill1 load the optimal file1 economy operation. A11
induction ac illotor is used to supply the peaking power required by the peaking load
(electrically peaking).

24
Texas A b M has developed a11 electrically peaking hybrid (ELPH) electi-ic propulsion
systeill with a parallel configuratioii for a sniall car. A drive train for a full size five seat
passenger car has been designed and the results were verified using the V ELPH conlputer
siniulation package. The actual powertrain specifications were not available, but the results
suggest that a series hybrid electric car can easily satisfy tlie performance requiren~esit,and
the fuel econoiiiy can be ilnproved greatly over the conventional veliicles.
Texas ABthlI has developed a parallel hybrid electric drivetrain for a sinall car with an
engine power of 30kW aiid an electric nlotor of 42kW which is used for peak perforn~ance
~-equireme~ltsand for recapturing the braking energy. The percent hybridization is aro~und
6Ooio. It was ~uentionedthat the fuel economy was iliiproved but the actual figures were not
available from tlie paper. Ill]
University of Illiiiois at UI-bana Campaign has designed a series hybrid electiic dsive
train for a 1992 Ford Escort Wagon using Kawasaki FD 620D with a rated power of 17kW at
33001pii1, squirrel cage iiiductio~lmotor rated at 15kW at 60hz (percent l~ybridizatioiiof
around 50%) a generatioll of 2.2kW. 26 sealed lead acid batteries weighting 11.8kg each
were used as energy storage. The exliaust emissions are cut down reinarkably by the use of
this series liybrid. The fuel economy values are not ineiitioned in the results.
The University of .Alberta has designed a parallel hybrid electric dsive systeni for a
sniall car by using Suzuki, three cylinder, four stroke gas engine with 55hp (44kW) as the
inte~~ialcoii~bustionengine and a DC blushless niotor of 22kW as auxiliaiy power source,
(percent hybridizatioil of 33%) in conibinatioii with Niclcel Cadmium cells with a voltage of
170volts and 61Ali rating. Nickel Cadniiuni batteries have larger energy density (1.5) than
the conveiltional lead acid batteries, but are costly (272kg, 25,000 dollars). The vehicle had a

25
lange of 721tm on electrlc power and a total range of 500KM. The vehicle is capable of
meeting the PNGV goals of 80 miles per gallon ofgasol~newith reduced emissions
Don Canipbell Is of LJnlvei-sltyof Cal~fornla,Ii-vine has developed a parallel hybi~d
elcctnc d ~ i v etialn for a Fold Escort wagon, w111ch operates 11-1 three modes, pure electl-~c,
h q b ~ ~ dand Z e ~ oElectrlc (ConventionL+l) He used a 3 phase AC induct~onmoto~of 2 3 0 ~
with 3011p peak power and 6Oft Ib to~quealong with Geo Metro Lsi, Su7uk1 G 10 engine,
55hp, dnd 5Sft Ib torque For battelies, he used 26 cells of 12v lead acid battenes w~th20 Ah
rating The results indicate a fuel econoll~yof 50 illiles per gallon of gasoline
LJnivcrs~tyof Cal~foli~lahas designed a parallel hybrid electric drivetram powered by
an et1i;lnol powered iiitcmal combust~onenglne of 49hp and two AC induction motors of
165x111torque wliicli get pouer fio111 12 lead acid battenes.
The po~vtxrat~ngsof the motors and the file1 econonly improvements were not mentioned
1121
Colorado State University has designed a parallel hybrid electric dive train for an
escort Tagonpowel-ed by DC pemianent magnet 111otor of 34kW and a Kawasltlti internal
combustion engine of l6kW at 36001pm and a torque output of 47nm at 240Oi-pm. 'The file1
economy figures were not mentioned in the paper.
Dept. of Commerce and DOE conducted a mini st~tdyto improve the f ~ ~ e leconomy
of 3 ~011i.entionaISpol-ts Utility Vehicle wit11 the use of Diesel Technology.
134kW SI engine of Ford Esplorer is replaced with a Compressio~lIgnited Diesel Engine of
12Sl;W to give the same perfollilance (0 60 mph in 9.5 sec) and the results showed hat the
fuel economJrfor 3 CIDI engine is higher by 20%. [13]

26
Most of the research work done to date is currently on improvement of file1 economy
of small cars. SO, from tlie above hackground infornlation, this study concentrates on the
improvement of file1 econo~i~yof Sports Utility Vehicles by the use of a parallel hybrid
electric drivetrain configuration.
2.3 Ilybridization Studies lisilig IIDVISOR
NREL has conducted a set of experiments to optiniize the file1 economy and
emissions for a small car propelled by 42kW engine and 32kW motor. The percent
hybridization (the ratio of motor polvcr to total power) is 321(42+32)*100= 40?4/;,.The
I-Iigh~vayI?uel Economy 'Test for tlie vehicle showed a fuel economy improvemcnt of over
209/".
The Automotive Research Center at the University of Michigan has co~lducted
simulations using ADVISOR software to predict the fuel economy of a Hybrid Electric
drivetrai~ipropelled small car and concluded that the fuel econonly can be increased to meet
the PNGV goals of SO miles per gallon and emissions can be cut down to the extent of
n~ectingthe Environmental Protectio~iAgency (EPA) regulations. [14]
L!ni ersity of Michigan, Ann Arbor has integrated a special prograin called TLII-bo
L)~zselEngine Sinli~latioli(TDES) with ADVISOR to increase the accuracy of PI-edictionsof'
file1 economy and perlb~l~~ance.TDES is a feed forward silliulation derived from the
f~~ndamentalt11e1-n~odynamicequations and calculates engine properties at each crank angle
of an illter~lalcombustion engine. The results showed better predictions of the perforniance
~lnrlf ~ ~ e leconomy because of the TDES. [I51

Chapter 3:
Iritroduction to Advisor
3.1 Introduction to ADVISOR
.4 sokvare tool called ADVISOR an acronym of ADvanced VehIcle SimulatOR is
used for this study . ADVISOR takes the input of the vehicle i.e.,engine, transmission,
batteries, motor, etc along with their specifications fro~nthe user. It also takes the speed vs
time (drive cycle) to be traced by the vehicle from the user, then runs the simulation and
gives the results like fuel economy, emissions and time taken for acceleration. (For detailed
infornlation see Appendix)
3.3 Using ADVISOR
U11en you start ADL'ISOR, the first figure you will see is the startup figure shoun in the
Figure 3.1. Here you will have the options to select CTSor metric units, start using
'4DVISOR. click lzelp to go to a local ADVISOR web page, or exit ADVISOR.
The three basic steps involved in using ADVISOR are
1. Defining a Vehicle
2. Running a Sin~ulatioll
3. Looking at the results

3.2.1 Defining a ~ehicle
Sturt talces ~ o uto the ~nputfigure The input figure (Flg 3 1) opens and you ill1 see the
default balues fol a speclfic vehicle
Vehicle Config~iratioi~ Coillponelit Push Buttons and Pop up menu
Sr Efficieilcy Map
E
Fig 3.1Vehicle Input Figure in ADVISOR
3.2.1.1 D r i ~etrain selection
Flom the dribetraln popup menu you ulll be able to select the dnve train collfiguiation of the
i _ I --oai F 1- 1~AR-LLEL-detaiilt;-in - a,tlc-3 :r
Scnlo
t81s- zeok -#a-5
D ~ t r elf fkai
r Lahlrle //l/A/ 1b ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ ! ' . - i L J :
r Fuel ;?ner,~i //m_ljjrlI// F C - C . I ~ ~ -
r E~tiert;' . ~ n e t t r e s 1 / / - ~ ~ ~ I / [EZ-SI I
195p-X 104
#3l norr ?!
r E~EI:!, C I O ~ ~ ~ E/mJ/1)13IESS-PB~~- j:I,8 : - C
i
J
r - r ~ n s i - i ~ ~ h l iri j/,D~_Z] IT,-SSFIII 3 E l 1 4
r Torque ;oualtnj //I)l/d
r I I j J l j , j w - 5 1 . r t /
T13-@Uhll.(, i
1] o
r icreb;lr,, ~l~~~~ A X - H j BRID
r =qbber~ra ~ c q t , t t 0 ~ ~ ~ T J l p ~ ~ : - p ~
3
Cagc K '
C 4-
i override r n , r -
oriolsleLid current
,

29
.chicle (Series, Parallel, etc.) which will cause the schematic of the vehicle configuration in
the left pol-tion of the figure to change accordingly. This will also modify which components
are available for the tqpe of drive train chosen.
3.2.1.2 Selecting components
.qftsr selecting the drivetrain configuration, all the colllponents of the vehicle can be selected
ilsin~the popup menus: or by clicliing on the con~pollentin the picture. To the left of the
component popi~pmenus is a pusl~butronthat .ill allow you to add or delete components by
selecting their coil-espondi~~glisted n~files. The 111 file of a specific component can be
~~ccessedfor .ieving or nlodifying from eithex-the compoilent pushbutton or by clicking on
the component of the picture.
3.2.1.3. Editing F'ariables
Aftel- selecting all the desired conlponents for the vehicle, scalar input variables can be
modified. One n.ay this can be done is ivith the variable list at the bottom of the figure and
the Edit l"r. button. First select the variable to change and then click the edit button to
ch3ngz its .slue. The default value is always s11on:n for your reference. The View All button
a1lou.s you to see all of the variables you have altered. You can click on the help button to
see 3 brief description and the ~ui~itsused for the input variables.
-4second Lvay in which you can edit variables is by typing in a desired value in the edit
boxes next to the component. For example, adjusting the maximuin power of a f~iel
converter adjusts the variable fc-trq-scale, or illcreasing the peak efficiency increases the
.ariable fc-eff -scale accordingly.

30
A final way to edit the mass of the ve111cle 1s to use the override mass button. The calculsted
mass is ignored and the value input into the box is used instead
3.2.1.-IJ7ievingconipor~entinformat']on
At the bottom left pol-tlon of tlie figure there is a popup menu and axes w ~ t hthe abil~tyto
~nforrnat~on011 componel-ltssuch as t11e11-efficiency maps, eni~ssionsmaps, file1 use
map" etc lThcscare plotted along with their maximum torq~leenvelopes where apl-71op~atte
.An>compone~itm file call be viewed by clicking the comporlent buttons.
3.2.2 Running a simulation
The simulation setup figure (Fig 3.3) glves you several options on how to test the
currently defined vehicle.
I/Additional Tests
II
1F icce~eia~ionT e,t ACCBIO P ~ ~ O ~ S ]
r G,adeaocllh Test rnl Gmds 0pt8ans/
lime 1369 r
distance i 45 miles
marspeed 56 7 mph
avg speed 1958 nlph
rnm scce' 4 84 h i s ^ ?
m i u decel -184 n15"2
a,,gaccrl 1 13Hlr"Z
uvq d e ~ e l -1 28 1 / 5 ^ 2
idle !#me 2 9 s
no ol i,o0s
mar up grade 0 %
uvg up grade 0 %
m e dn qraue 0 %
3vg dn grade 0 >:
L-.--
r PararnctreStudy
11-1 I
Fig 3.1 Simulatloii Set Up Figure in ADVISOR

31
3.2.2.1. Drive Cycle selection
ISthe drive cycle radio buttoll 1s selected you call use the pull down menu to select fio111 a
list of a allable dllbing cycles
3.2.2.2 Accelel-ation Test
Bq select111gthis chechbox, an acceleration test mi11 be 1x11In a d d ~ t ~ o nto the chose cycle
Accelei-at1011tlmes. maxlmunl accelerations. and distaliced trakeled m 5 seconds M 111be
d~pla>sd111 the lesults figuie Thls test ~ 1 1 1be run 111 addltlon to the selected d r ~ ecycle
'To see the secoild by second output of all acceleratlo~ltest, choose the CYC-ACCEL fiolu
the cqcle menu
3.2.3 Looking at Results
The lesults figure (Fig 3 3) presents some suilliuary results and a l l o ~ sthe user to plot up to
fbur tlllie series plots by selecting a ,anable from the popup menu.
If the acceleration and gradeability checkboxes n.ere picked in the simulation setup screen,
~ippl-opriateresults will also be displayed.
By clicking the Energy Use Figure button. a neu figure is opened shoillg ho enelg) fi ai
~lseddnd transfell-ed foi the .eliicle durlilg the sin~ulation The Output Check Plots button
p~lllsup plots that s11on the bel~~cle'sperfo~illalice.some of w111ch are not apailable under the
time series plots

1 Results figure 1
1 Slm ~cttslTeti ~ q t e l/
Fig 3.3 ADVISOR Results Figure

Chapter 4:
Powertrain Specifications
4.1 Scaling the vehicle components:
A vehicle is defined by selecting all the components required by the ADVISOR to
run a simulation. These components are to be selected from the available list for each
component type. For Example, ADVISOR users can choose fi-omseven different SI engines.
The SI engine so picked has a defined power rating, but ADVISOR allows the user to
overwrite the power in the vehicle input figure. The software then scales the engine to the
new power by altering the torque speed characteristics, mass and size of the engine
accordingly. The same is the case with the motor and batteries. It is assumed that the scaling
is done by the software is logical enough for the purpose of this study.
All the simulations in this paper use a manual transmission system only. The
optin~un~design may change when automatic or continuously variable transmission system is
used.
1.2 Engine, Motor Sr Battery Specifications
4.2.1 SUV SI Engine Specification
The base Intelnal con~bustionengine selected for the sports utility vehicle is Saturn
1.9L(95kW) SI engine .The power ratings of this engine are 95kW @ 6000rpm and a peak
torque of 165Nm @,4800rpm as shown in the Fig4.1. The envelope of peak efficiency is
given in black lines with crosses, which means at those combinations of torque and speed,
the engine operates with its peak efficiency. The numbered parameter is the efficiency of the
encelope.

Fuel Converter Operat~on- Saturn 1.9L (95kW)DOHC SI Eng~ne
180 1 1 I 1 I
Fig 4.1 SI Engine Torque-Speed Characteristics
Higher or lower power from the SI engine is derived by editing the pourervanable of
the aboi e SI engine. T11e power range used in this study is 40 to 200kW and it is assumed
that 111 this range, the software scales the engine effectively to a higher or lower polver levels

1.2.1, IIeavy Truch C1 Engine Specificatio~i
The IC engine selected for the heavy tlucks is 6.54L 8 cylinder naturally asp~l-atedDI
dlescl engine w~tha maxlnlunl rated powel- of I 19kW at 32001pm and a peak torque of
400Nnl at 20001pmThe power ratings of'this engine are 119kW @ 6OOOlpni and a peak
tori1~~eoo-f400Nm @ 2 1001p1nas shown 111 the Frg 4.2.
I I I I I I
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Speed (rpm)
Fig 4.2 CI Engine Torque-Speed Characteristics
Higher or lower power fi-omthe 1C engine is obtained just by editing the power
variable in the advisor vehicle input figure. The power range used in this sti~dyis 40 400kIV

and 1s assumed that in this range, thc soflbvarc scales the engine effectively to a higher or
lower power levels.
4.2.3 AIotor Specification
The motol-used for a11 the cases is a Westinghouse, 75kW (continuous) AC i~lcluction
moto~;'inverter.The specificatiolls of the i~lotorare given in the Fig 4.3
Motortlnvertet ETTlcier~c~and Continuous Torque Capablllb -
Vqest~nghou;e 75-k'dv (contrn~~ous)AC lnduct~onrnotorl~nverter
300 /- I I I I
-300 I I I I
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Motor Speed (rpm)
Fig 3.3 Motor Torque Speed Characteristics
For 111gheror lowel power fi-om the motor, edltl~igthe power varlable in the advisor
zh~clt:input figure scales the motor to the deslred power level

a Ions1.2.3 Battery Specific t'
The battery selected for all the cases is Hawker Genesis 12v 26Ah sealed valve
regulated lead acid battery. See Fig 4.4
Exceptional deep discharge recovery
a No col~osivegas generation
Long service life
Quick chargeability
Hlgh power density
Maintenance free operation
1)imensions (in inches):
1-ength: 6.54
Width: 4.95
Ifeight: 6.89
It occupies 3.655 liters of space.
The cost is $75
Fig 3.4 Pallasonic 12V128AHR Sealed Lead Acid battery4
A lead acld battery is made up of a series of identical cells each containing sets of
posltive and negative plates. Each positive plate is a cast metallic frame, which contains the

38
lead cl~osldenctlve nlaterlal The negat~veplates conta~nspongy lead act~vemater~alBoth
platcs usually have the same surface areas.
The cell containing the plates is filled with an electrolyte made up of sulph~lricacid
and distilled water. Sulph~lricacid is a very active compound of hydrogen and sulphur and
osygcn aton~s.S ~ ~ l p l i ~ ~ r i cacid is a very reactive substance and because of its instability it is
able to distribute itself very evenly thi-oughout the electrolyte in the batte~y.Over time, this
action ensures that 311 even reaction can occur between all the plates producing voltage and
cun-ent.The chemical reaction between constitueilt parts of the electrolyte and tlie spongy
Icad of the negative plates and the lead dioxide at the positive plates turns the surface of botli
plates into lead sulpliate. As this process occurs the hydrogen within the acid reacts with the
oxygen within the lead dioxide to for111water. The net result of all this reaction is that the
positive plate gives up electro~lsand tlie negative plate gains them in equal n u ~ ~ ~ b e r s ,thereby
creating a potential difference between the two plates. The duration of the reactions
p~-nducil~gthe cell voltage is linlited if there is no connection between the two plates and the
,oltage will reniain constant.
If a co~iiiectio~~(a load) is placed between the positive and negative plates the
chemical reaction is able to continue with electrons flowing through tlie circuit from the
negative plate to the positive. The flow of electrons is in fact tlie current produced by the
cell.
Only when the supply of electlolls becomes depleted I e when the actlve rnaterlal
on the ncgatlLe plate has been used up, and the ions within tlie electrolyte have mostly beell
turned ~ n t omatel wlll the battely fa11 to p~oduceany current During the ;hemica1 piocess

39
different levels of heating can occur and the faster a battery 1s exhausted the greater wlll be
the heating and thus the efficiency of the system will be reduced.
4.2.5 The Problem of SOC (State of Charge)
A reasoilable rule of thumb is that you should aim to charge the batteries only when
they ai-ebehveen 70% and 40% discharged. If you charge them then they are only lightly
discharged i.e. less than 4036you will end up boiling them unnecessarily which Lvastes
enersy in the fol-ni of heat and gassed off hydrogen and in turn shortens the life of the
batteries. I11 effect the batteries are being overcharged which can cause degradation and
buckling of the plates. I11 the process some active nlaterial is forced off the plates and drops
down to the bottonl of the battery. If this occurs frequently the eventual result is a build up of
a bridse behveen the plates which in tu1-n can cause a possible short across the plates. This
situation leads to the destruction of a cell which then reduces the capacity of the battely.
As the battery charge capacity is not to fall below a certain limit, the sin~uiationsin
this study are run n.it11 higher battery charge than usual for the vehicle platform. This
conser~ativedesign $,illallow the batteries to operate at higher SOC thereby and for higher
life 2nd higher efficiency, but the cost, space and .eight of the batteries is also coilsidered
and ~lccounted.[I61

40
The charactenstics of a single cell of thls batteiv pack at different temperatures 1s shoxn in
the Fig 4.5 and Fig 4.6. The three characteristics are coincident whlch means the effect of
tenlperature is negligible on the voltage and the power of this particular battery module
I I I I I
0 02 04 06 08 1
State of Charge, (0-1)
Fig 4.5 Battery Open Circuit Voltage Characteristics

Fig 4.6 Battei-y Instantaneous Power vs SOC
The ~li~lllberof lllodules of the batteries 1s scaled according to the amount of energ)
to be toled Inc~cdsingthe numbel of cells of the batteries increases the peak Loltage and
pow el piopoitlonally at the same atnpele hour rating of the batte1-j ADVISOR scales the
mass ofthe batteries pi-opo~-tionally.

Chapter 5:
Design Methodology
5.1 Overall goal of the study
The goal of this study is to arrive at an "optimum" percent hybridization, which
trades off file1 economy and perfomla~lceof the selected vehicle. This is done as two
different studies, one with, and the other without cost consideration, and is also done for
three vehicle platfomnls, light SUV, fill1 size SUV and Heavy Trucks.
One of the three vehicle platfol-nls IS selected and a reasonable power level for that
vehicle platfornl is taken from the data of the current conventional vehicle type. The vehicle
is then hybridized by replacing (in steps) this power by an equivalent motor power and a
simulation is run. Such simulations are iun in ADVISOR at three different battery charge
capacities to under stand the effect of on board charge. The fuel economy and the time to
accelerate from rest to 60 n ~ p hare noted down from the ADVISOR results.
5.2 Design Technique Employed
5.2.1 Technical Optimization
The optimum percent hybridization for fuel economy and perfomlance is calculated
in the following manner. Fuel economy is given 30% weighting factor and the performance
70'!/b. Performance is assumed as the inverse of acceleration time. (The assumption made
here is, the quicker the vehicle, the better is the performance) The performance is given a
higher factor in this design to ensure that the hybrid vehicle does not fall behind by too much
111 performance, which is the key for marketing. The fuel economy and the performance of a

conventional vehicle are taken as unity and r'or the calculation of the optimum, the mileage
or performance at any power split is taken relative to the conventional.
The folloving is the formula used for the calculation of the weighted combination of fuel
economy and performance. Let us call this as Net value (Equation 1)
Fuel Econornv at n particular percent hyhridizntiori
Net Value = 0.3*
Ft~elEconom,v of the convcntionnl with thesar~zepower
Perfonnnnce at n partictll~zrpercent hybridization
+ 0.7* ...(Eqn 1)
Peufo~n~aizceof t11cconventional with thesame power
Even though these weighting factors are used, the posslble effect of other weighting
filctors on the dcsign will also be exarniiled in the analysis. The corresponding Matlab codes
for a11 the vehicle platfornls are in Appendix 2.
5.2.2 Cost Based Optimization
The cost of the vehicle is also considered in this study. The cost optimization is done
by considering the cost of the motor along with the cost and space of the batteries. The
benefits due to the decrease of operating costs will be shown in the fuel economy and the
paialty due to the weight of the batteries is shown both in performance and fuel economy of
the vehicle.
It is assumed that the cost of the base IC engine remains constant and the cost
penalty is due to the batteries and motor. The cost o f a battery is taken as $75 per single cell
of 12v. The cost of the motor is considered to be $15 per Kilowatt of power in addition to a
fixed cost of $200. For example, the cost of 40 kW nlotor will be $ 200 + $ 15 * 40 = 5 800.
The values of the cost of the motor are obtained from the price list available on the Internet.
1171.

The replacement cost of the batteries is not considered because the replacement cost of
the batteries in a hybrid is taken equal to the replacement cost of tlie IC engine for a
coii~eiitionalvehicle. The excess cost due to the batteries and motor is considered as cost
penalty and is added to the vehicle cost for the cost optimization.
For the cost optimization, the following data is taken from Evworld.con~.A lifetime
of 14 years is assumed for all tlie vehicles and is estimated that each vehicle travels 12,000
niiles per year at the gasoline cost of S1.40per gallon. The cost of the conventional sports
utility ehicle and that of heavy tl-~lckare assumed to be S20,000.
Cost S a ~ ~ i n g sin Vehicle lifetime of 14 years (,411 parameters for 14 years) =
Fuel cost savings- battery purchase cost- motor cost
Fuel cost = [GPM for the vehicle - GPM of the conventional]" No of miles traveled "Cost of
gasoline in dollars per mile
Mhere GP,M is the gallolls of gasoline required for traveling one mile, the reciprocal of f ~ ~ e l
economy. The cost of the conventional SUV is taken as $25,000 and that of a heavy truck is
taken as $30,000. The Net Value is calculated as shown in Equation 2
Net I'alue (with cost consideration) =
Cost of tlze corive~ztioizcrlvelzicle
0.15"
Cost of tlzevehicle at u par-tzcz~lclrpercerzt hybr~iclizatioi~
Pelfon~zai~ceat n pai.ticulnr per~eizt1zj~br~idi:ntion
- 0.45 "
Per.fbrrnaizce of the corzverztiorzal with thesnine power
Free space available ill tlzepnirticzllar HE V
-0.1 * ..............................(Eqn 2)
Free space zrz the converztiolzalvehicle
The cost and the perfollnance are given lligher weight because they are key factors to
niarltet a vehicle. The batteries occupy some space, which will decrease the free cargo space

in the hybrid vehicle. This is also considered as shown in the equation. The above eq~~atioll
gives the net value of the conventional vehicle as unity and the remaining vehicles can be
taken relative to that vehicle The additional cost due to the batteries and the motor is taken
relative to the conventional vehicle of that type and the fi-ee space available is taken relative
to the approxilnate fi-eespace available in the conventional vehicle of that type.
Even though these weighting Gctors are used, the effect of the change of weighting
factors is also exanlined whether it makes any difference on the optimum design.

Chapter 6:
Simulation, Results and Conclusions
6.1 Control Strategy Employed
All the simulations are run using a parallel hybrid electric control strategy (See
Appendix) in ADVISOR. The motor can be used in the following ways.
1. The motor can be used for all driving torque below a certain minimum vehicle
speed.
2. The motor is used for torque assist if the required torque is greater than the
maximum producible by the engine at the engine's operating speed.
3. The motor charges the batteries by regenerative braking.
4. When the engine would run inefficiently at the required engine torque at a given
speed, the engine will shut off and the motor will produce the required torque.
5. When the battery SOC is low, the engine will provide excess torque, which will
be used by the motor to charge the batte~y.
6.2 Simulation and Results for average SUV
A 150kW total power is selected for an average sports utility vehicle and is
hybridized (in steps) with a motor at three different batte~ycharge capacities for each power
split. In the following case, the number of lead acid cells selected is 25,35 and 50. Fifty cells
of 12v at 26Ah may be too many for a compact SUV based on the space constraints, but the
idea of selection of higher batte~ycells is that it will help the batteries operate at a higher
SOC, which will improve the efficiency of recharging and life. However, as the cost

increases with higher number of ceIls, the cost optimization takes into account the space,
weight and purchase cost.
The drive cycle selected for the simulation is Federal Test Procedure Drive cycle (See
Fig 6.1)that is the cycle reconlnlended by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency for the emissions certification of the passenger vehicles in United States. The drive
cycle sinlulates city driving and has idling and good acceleration requirements.
CYC-FTP
100 - I
speed
elevation
f" Oescrrptron F Statistics
0 50 100
Speed (mph)
time: 2477 s
distance: 11.04 miles
max speed: 56.7 mph
avg speed:
rnax accel:
max decel:
avg accel:
avg decel.
idle time:
no. of stops.
max up grade:
avg up grade:
max dn grade:
aLJgdn grade.
16.04mph
4.84 ft/sA2
-4.84 ft/sA2
1.14 ft/s-2
-1.27 ft/se2
359 s
22
0 %
0 %
0 %
0 %
Fig 6.1 Federal Test Procedure (FTP) Drive Cycle

48
The percent hybridizations selected for this study are obtained fi-omcalculation of
percent nlotor power out of the total power, which always remains constant at 15OkW.The
coi-sesponding data is tabulated in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1
Results fi-om ADVISOR for a 150kW powered average SUV
The motor power is initially zero, which means the percent hybridization is zero.
Vvl~enthe noto or power is 100kW,the percent lzybridization will be 1001150, which is 66.7%
and so on.
The plot between fuel economy and percent hybridization (Fig 6.2) is obtained by
ta1;ing into consideration three batteiy module levels at each of the seven different percent
hybridizations selected.
P Battely
Modules
Percent
Hybridization
25 Battely Modules 50 Battely Modules
Miles
per
Gallon
Miles
Per
gallon
35 Batte~yModules
Acceleratioll
Tinle
(0 60 mph)
.4cceleration
time
(0 601npl.1)
Miles
per
Gallon
Acceleration
time
(0 6Omph)

# Modules
15 --- - - -. .-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Percent Hvbrid~zat~on
Fig 6.2 Fuel Econonly (mpg) vs. percent hybridization for an average SIJT
The lines in this plot and all si~llilarplots in this report do not represent a
relstiousl~ipbetn eel1 the parameters. they are included merely as a convenience to 11nkthe
data points for a conlmon lumber of battery modules. 111 other words, no relation is implled
beyol~dthe values at the individual analysis points
The acceleratio~itest is conducted at the batte~ystate of charge of 0.65 and the
parallel hybrid electric drive co~ltrolstrategy ~ninirnun~SOC limit is 0.40 i.e., only 5% of the
total battery charge is used for the test. The limit for SOC is set at 0.45,which is closer to the

50
minimum SOC (0.60) because, in the seal world, the vehicle may need to accelerate several
tinles in its drive, when the battery state of charge is not necessarily high. For this reason,
sq'stei~~swith large percentage hybridizations are at great disadvantage since they have very
little energy available for acceleration. This result is shown clearly in Figure 6.3. In other
m,ords, veliicles that depend heavily on electric power for their propulsion use up a lot of the
battery charge and get illto lower SOC sooner and reduce the efficiency of the battery. The
vehicles that are less hybridized have big enough engines and they depend lesser on the
batteries and hence the batteries will be at a good state of charge for most of the tirile and the
operation u d l be efficient.
Percent Hvhridizatinn
Fig 6.3 Acceleration time (0 6Ompl1) vs. percent hybridization
@ different charge capacities of the batteries for an average S W

J J T h e ~ ~both the fuel econonly and acceleration time are considered and lve~ghed
according to the equation 1, the net value can be calculated and plotted against percent
hqbnd~zationas shonn 111 the F~gure6.4
Fig 6.3 Net Value (Combined Fuel Economy and Perfonllance)
vs. percent 11yb1-idizationfor an average SUV.
The net value is maxinlized at around 30 percent hybridization and the peak shifts
to,al-dshigher hybridization with the increase in onboard charge. It can also be noted that
n.il11the increase in the total onboard charge, the net d u e increases showing that Inore the
charge you could afford to caily onboard, the better is the net value.

52
The Effect of Purchase Cost of tile Vehicle:
The cost of the vehicle is calculated as the cost of the conventional engine plus the
cost of the motor and batteries. Fig 6.5 gives the cost of the vehicle at different percent
l~ybridizationsand wit11 different battery charge capacities (Vumber of battery modules)
Percent H'jDrici~zatioti
Fig 6.5 Cost of A.erage SLVvs. percent hybridization
It can be noted that the cost o f the veh~cleshoots up with the int~oductlonof the
11mtoi and bilttelies and later the cost glows slowly ulth the increase of motor power This is
because the cost of the motor 1s considered as the base prlce plus the cost for addlt~onal
pow er d e i ~ ~ e dAlso, it can be clearly noted that the cost of the vehicle Increases u ~ t hthe

53
increase in on board charge It can be noted that the effect of batteries on the cost of the
1elllcle 1s Illore significant than the effect of llzotor.
Cost Optilllizatroll rncludes the cost of the ehlcle, perfo~nlanceand space occupancy
ielatii e to the conent~onalkehlcle Fol a cornpact SUC' wlth 15 battery nlodules of on board
chalge. the con-espondlngratlos are plotted For e g., Cost Ratio lndlcates tlie ratio of the
cost of the 1ehicle to that of the con entronal vehlcle of that type It should be noted that the
cost ~ncludesnot only the purchase cost, but also the file1
savings in the long 1-uii.
It can be noted from the Fig 6.6 that the cost of the vehicle increases with the
increase in percent hybridization, even though it includes the cost savings associated ~viththe
use of hybrid vehicle. This nleans that tlie cost savings cannot more than offset the increase
in purcliase cost.
F I ~6.6 Colllponents of Cost Optilllizat~o~lfor aTerage S W with 25 battery niodules

54
The weighted conlbination of the cost ratio, perfo~manceratio and the space ratio
produce the net value which is slightly lower than that of the conventional vehicle for nlost
of the percent hybridizations. It has to be noted thdt the research towards the manufacture of
low cost batteries should f~u-therimprove the cost ratio of the hybnd vehicle The net value
nlth cost optin~~zat~onis glven m the Fig 6 7
Fig . 6 7 Net Value ~vlt11Cost C'onslderat~onvs percent hybridization
Wllen the cost is also cons~dered,11can be noted that the net value of a hybnd
elrcti~c ehlcle comes down w1t11the 111ci-easeIn the number of battery n~odulesas opposed
13
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093-
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n 92-ffl5
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Fercerit Hybridization
.. I I I I I I I I
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~~ 1. # Molclules
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i3 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 9

55
to the earlier figure (Figure 6.4) whel-e cost is not considered. The comparative plot 1s shown
In the Fig. 6.8.
Percent HyGr~dizat~on
Fig 6.8. Comparison of Technical and Cost Optimizations
for average SUV with 25 battery modules.
T h ~ srepresents the cost of the batteries rZlso the curve has a bottom, but not a peak,
uhlch ~ndicatesthat %henthe cost 1s givcn a very 111g11slgnlficance (350/;,),the value of the
11)b~id electric cehicle runs further down compared to the convent~onalvehlcle

The effect of illdividual components on the net value are show11 in the Fig 6.9
I I I I I I I I 1
0
--10 L u 313 40 50 60 70 80 90
Percent Hybi'ld~zation
Fig 6.9 Conlpollellts of Cost Optii~lizationfor average S W
with 35 battery modules and with low cost batteries.
With the in~provenlelltin the battery technology, let us assume that the batteries last
longer for about 14 years, so that there will be no replacement cost of the batteries, the net
ialue fbr the hybrid electric vehicle would be greater than that of the collvelltional vehicle
with peak at 20 percent hybridization as shown in the fig. 6.10.

Percent Hybridizatlon
Fig 6.10 The Effect of Low Cost Batteries for an average SUV
The Fig 6.10 indicates the effect of possibie low cost batteries that could be possible
in the near f~lturelvith the oilgoing research on fuel cell batteries. This may increase the net
value of the vehicle by about 10%.

58
Let us examine the changes in the optimum percent hybridization and net value for
the changes ill the weighting factors. The weighting factors are taken with a file1 econon~yl
perfonuance combination ~-allgingfrom 15/85 to 45/55. It can be observed from Fig 6.11 (a)
that the technical opti~~lurngoes in line with the increasing fuel econoniy which means that
n~orethe impoi-tance given to file1 economy, the more is the net value we could realize. It
should also be noted that the peal< does not shift to either side which implies that within the
gi,en precision points (only for every 20 percent hybridizatio~~,data is analyzed) the peak
does not shift because the opposite trends of fuel economy and perfornlance. The same trend
could be observed in the case of other vehicle platfornls too.
Fig 6.11 (a) Technical Net Value Change xvith the variation of Weight~ngFactors
1 2 - . . . ___j_
/ < ,,,' , '-.,,, - . ...-
i'..
/,,,/"
. 'q
. ~.. ..
i 5'
. .,. '..,
T i l - / . i *, .. -..- .('>?
C ./.., '.., -.
7- =i'
. . ...-. '
I.._
2 */ * '..
'._- i I -
IL'
- '.~-l! =...
> -..-
p 0 s -
*
0 7
0 6
.'.. %. .
*.. ' ..cL*..--
.. --..
Weighing Factors (%) .--
l,..,
't,
- Fuel Economyi Performance
-
,
+ 15/85
ir 25/75
-*
- '-,
35165
'-._
-+ 45155
- 1 I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 90 '30
Palcent Hybridzaton

Similarly in the case of cost optimization, slight variation of the weighting factors
affect the cost optimized net value of the vehicle a little bit by shifting the peak up with the
decreased weight age of the perforillance Fig 6.11 (b).
Fig 6.11 (b) Cost Optimized Ket Value Change m ~ t hthe
variation of Weighting Factors
k _/--a..
,] <... ... .": '-. -
1 -:? :... .. -. ,... '..
But the optinluill design still renlains the same (the location of the peak). This means
-.;=? i]"-dtr
$-
E-
-
0 0.9--LO
0
C7
--a,CI 85-J
-
m
--./-
-a)
z 08-
if the customers give illore ililportance to costs, the hybrid vehicle suffers in its net value as
'.. -.-.. -. - --..-..--.%,
-., ,.-, '' .:--. ., --,y:,.,.
.., -.-..-
.., $.+---- . .--, +$
-.. -. ------ ;'>"..h-_ .-. ' - .-+& -
X--__ +a
Z
'<:,>--
<< .; -
1 ---+ -
'q<.., --&-
y;-,.- <., 1--%)
- -
L'i'e~gi-lingFactors ( C;'n)
Cost' FeiformaricelSpace -
shon n 111 the graph.
-3- ?5/65/1Ci

7
+--35/55/10
+ 55,'351'10
i;- 6525/10
r3 T I
I I I I I I I
0 10 2Ci %. 413 50 60 7Ci 80 9i3'2,p
Percent 'iqbr-~dization

60
6.3 Simulation Sr Results for Full Size SUV
A total power of 200 KW is selected for a full size sports utility vehicle and the total
power is gradually hybridized using an induction motor and a battery. It is assumed that
adding 500kg of cargo and 10% increase of frontal area to the compact SUV scales the
vehicle to a full size sports utility vehicle. As the fill1 size S W has much frontal area and
slightly heavier mass than a coinpact SUV, it is assumed that the above scaling is reasonable.
The number of battery nlodules tested is 25,50 and 100. Fifty or hundred cells of
1 2 ~at 26Ah may be high for a f~dlsize SUV, but the idea of selection of more batteiy cells
is that it will help the batteries operate at a higher SOC,which will improve the efficiency of
recliarging and life. However, as the cost increases with higher number of cells, the cost
optimization takes into account the space, weight and purchase cost. The results are
tabulated in Table 6.2 and are plotted in Fig 6.12 and 6.13
Table 6.2
Results from ADVISOR for a 200kNTpowered full size SUV
*Battery
r.lodules
Percent
Hybridization
0
20
30
30
i 50
60
I 80
25 Batteiy Modules
Miles
per
Gallon
(n1pg)
13.6
18.6
19.6
20.8
22.0
23.3
28.8
Acceleration
Time
(0 60 mph)
8.8
8.4
8.9
9.6
10.5
11.8
16.3
SOBattery Modules
Miles
per
Gallon
(n1pg)
13.6
18.6
19.6
20.8
22.1
23.5
30.1
100Battei-y Modules
Acceleration
time
(0 6Omph)
8.8
8.1
8.2
8.6
9.4
10.4
12.4
Miles
per
gallon
(mpg)
13.6
17.9
19.0
20.1
21.2
22.7
29.8
Acceleration
time
(0 60mph)
8.8
8.9
8.3
7.8
7.5
7.7
8.4

Fig 6.12 Fuel Economy (mpg) 1,s.percent hybridization for full size SUV
Fig 6.13 Acceleratioil time 1,s.percent hybridization for fill1 size SLV
17
16
-
gE 15-
1 4 -
0+
0
E 1 3 -
0,
# Mod~les
-
7C
El/''--
/
//'
-,I2 -
,/, - jE-
/,
/ '
/A' .,25
-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Percent Hybrid~zaiion

62
It call be noted Fig 6.12 and Fig 6.13 that the fuel economy and the rime to
accelerate from rest to 60mph show similar trends as of an average SUV.
Simiiar to that of the average SUV, it can be noted from Fig 6.14 that the net
technical value increases with the increase in battery modules. This means the availability of
additional electric power increases the perfo~lnanceof the vehicle predonliilantly
'IS,
08'
I I 1 I I I I I
0 '1 0 20 30 40 50 60 TO 80
Percent Hybridlzat~on
Fig 6.14 Ket Value (Technical) 1 s percent hybridization for f~illsize SLY

63
Similar to those with average SUV, cost of the vehicle, the cost ratio, space ratio and
the perfom~a~lceratio exhibited the same trends as shown in Fig 6.15 and Fig 6.16.
Fig 6.15 Cost of full size SUV vs, percent hybridization for f~111size SbV.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Percent Hybrldlzatron
Fig 6 16 Components of Cost Opt~mizationfor full size SUV with 25 modules

65
The trend In the net value for the full size SLV as a function of percent 11?bi-~d~zatloil
~11d~ ~ u ~ n b e i -of battery modules 1s shomn 111 Fig 6.17.
Percent Flybridization
Fig 6.17 Xet Value (Cost Optiruization) vs. percent hybridization for Full size SUV
The low cost battei-y technolog? could improve the net value of the vehicle oer that
of the conventional vehicle. The peak of the net value could be observed at about 30 percent
hybridization as shown in the Fig 6.18

Fig 6.18 Co~ilpo~lentsof Cost Optilnization for full size S U V with 25 modules
6.4 Simulation S: Results for Heavy Trucks
A total power of 4001tW is selected for simulation of a heavy tluck and is loaded
wit11 3 cargo of 8000kg. T11e total power is gradually hybridized with a niotor at three
different battery charge capacities for each percent hybridization.
In the following case, the nulllber of nlodules selected is 50, 100 and 150. Higher
nulliber of batte~ycells may cause practical problems like space and weight, but will help the
batteries operate at higher SOC which is good for the life and efficiency of the batteries. But
the space, weight and cost are all penalized in cost optimization.

The drive cycle used for the simulation of heavy trucks is Inter state Driving
Schedule. (Fig 6.19) Mostly, heavy trucks are s~~pposedto carry load from state to state. The
above drive cycle simulates the inter state driving co~lditionsas it travels partly in city and
mostly 011the highway. The ADVISOR results for heavy truck are tabulated in Table 6.3 and
the file1 econoniy and acceleratio~ltime are plotted in Fig 6.20 and 6.21 respectively
CYC-WVUIIdTEF?
bO
key on
speed
60- -- elevatlori
--r 2,
3
9 ,-.-
f-- K.
-U
- 8-i 1,
'1)
-
-iU c
?Z
u- '2:-
;y?
20 --!I 5
o=J- v _ '?
0 500 1000 1500 2000
time (sec)
SpeediEIevationvs Time y
"
0 50 100
Speed (rnph)
time
distance:
mau speed
avg speed
maw accel:
maw decel
avg accel.
avg decel
idle time.
no of stops.
maw up grade
avg up grade.
may dn grade.
avg dn grade
1640s
15 51 miles
6073 mph
34.04mph
467R/s"2
-609his-2
044 ft/sA2
-047ttisA2
152s
9
0 %
0%
0%
0%

Table 6.3
Results fi-omthe ADVISOR for a 400 kW powered Heavy Truck
Fig 6.20 Fuel Econon~y(111pg) VS. percent hybridization for heavy trucks
F Battery
Modules
Percent
Hybrid~zatioi~
50 Battery Modules
Fuel
Economy
(mpg)
Acceleration
Time
(0 60 mph)
10OBattery Modules
Miles
Per
Gallon
150 Battery Modules
Acceleration
time
(0 60mph)
Miles
Per
gallon
Accelen-ation
time
(0 60mph)

Table 6.3
Results from the ADVISOR for a 400 kW powered Heavy Truck
Fig 6.20 Fuel Econonly (mpg) vs. percent hybridization for heavy tiucks
# Battery
Modules
Percent
Hybridizatiotl
50 Battery Modules
Fuel
Economy
(mpg)
Acceleration
Time
(0 60 mph)
1OOBatteryModules 150 Battery Modules
Miles
Per
Gallon
Miles
Per
gallon
Acceleration
time
(0 60mph)
Acceleration
time
(0 60mph)

I I I I I I
0 Iir 20 30 40 50 SO 70 80
Percent Hybrldlzation
Fig 6.21 Acceleratio~itime (0-60111pll) vs. percent hybridization for heavy trucks
Just as in the case with other vehicle platfonils, it can be noted from Fig 6.22 tliat the
peal; of the net d u e sliiftzd toward the higl~erpercent hybridizations with the il:crease in
b~itler>,charge capacity. It call also be noted that in heavy trucks the peak is around 1.6,
vhizli is much higher than tliat for the SbVs. This is due to the fact that in case of hea.y
tl-~iclis.the acceleration needs (even though significantlylower than S W s in regard to time)
req~lirehigher power engines to accelerate sucli a heavy mass. So, the engines are typically
o,ersized and hj,bi-idizing these vehicles llas a huge impact in fuel economy and
acceleration.

I I I I I
A+ Modules
Fig 6.22 Net Value (Technical Optimization) vs. percent hybridization for heav). trucks
Trends silllilar to those in other platfonlls can be observed in the purchase cost, cost
ratio, pertbulllance ratio and space ratio as shown in Fig 6.23 and Fig 6.24.

F I ~6.23 Cost of heavy truck vs. percent hybridization.
Fig 6.21Colllpo~leiltsof Cost Optinlization for heaty truck
[; 5 !-
0 1
! --+C D S ~Eatlo
0" . I I ) I I
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Percent Hyijr~d~zation
O4 -Paforrnance Ratio
- space ilato
+ Net 'dalue

72
With 50 battery modules and 25% hybridization, the net value of the vehicle call be
increased to 1.4 tiines its original. This effect is also sipificantly higher than that in the
SlJVs. It call be clearly seen from the Fig 6.25 that the additional battery modules over 50
tend to reduce the net value, since they are espensive.
Percent HyGr~d~zat~or~
Flg 6 25 Ket Value (Cost Optimizat~on).s. percent hybridization for heavy 11-ucks
So, hybrid electric vehicle is unable to take advantage of the additional power
beca~lseof its higher cost. But in fi~ture,if the batteries were produced at low cost using fuel
cells. then the perfo~~nanceand fuel econo~~lyirnprovellleilt that can be realized technically
(3s ill the case of technical optimization in the Fig. 6.22) would become practically feasible.

The coinponents of cost optimization with low cost batteries are shown in the figure
6.26 where the net value is increased over that of the conventional vehicle. The effect of low
cost batteries is also represented in the Fig 6.27 as a con~parisonto the net value with
original cost of batteries.
Fig 6.26 Components of Cost Optimization for
heavy tnlck with low cost batteries.

Percent Hybridization
Fig 6.27 Effect of low cost batteries on the net value of heavy truck
It call be obselved that with the advent of low cost batteries, tlie percentage increase
in the net value is more for the heavy truclis (20%) than for SLVs (5 to 10Y0).This is a clear
indicatiori that tlie researcli in the directioli of improvement of battery technology could
mal<ehybridization riiore feasible to heavy vehicles.

-7 -13
6.5 Conclusion
The con entlonal englne that IS sued for ~ t speak power requ~rementshas a poor
fuel economy But as we l~ybndlzethe total power, I e ,w ~ t hgreater power denbed fiom the
motor. the iilel economy Illcreases because the IC engine 1s allowed to be downsized and be
operated in a more file1 efficient zone. Here, the increase in fuel economy is automatically
accompanied with the decrease in e~nissionsdue to the fuel efficient engine. Since lesser is
the f ~ ~ e lbunlt. the lesser are the emissions. The steep rise in tlie fuel economy at fu~tlier
h.bridization is deceptive because there the total power is derived from tlie batteries and
iiiotor and the base IC e~lginesupplies very less power. This means that the vehicle is
ruiining almost electric, aid we need to cal1-y sufficiently large amount of onboasd charge for
longer distances.
The time to accelerate fi-omrest to 60 mph comes d o l ~ nwith lower percent
hybridization for all the vehicle platfol-nls. This is because the vehicle needs higher in~tial
torques for better acceleratioll and the use of a nlotor which is capable of generating higher
torques at lover speeds (compared to the IC engine) helps the vehicle accelerate faster. But,
ii~rrherhg.bridizing, i.e., dowllsizing the engine and deriving more and more pover from the
motor depletes the charge off the batteries quickly: tl~erebydecreasing the state of charge
(SOC?defined as a ratio of existing charge to the full charge capacity) and the charge
replenisliment of the batteries proves costly at lower SOC, i.e., to replenish a certain amouilt
of lost charge of the batteries at lower charge capacities, more power is to be used than to
replenish the same amount of charge at higher SOC.So, there is a minimum SOC limit
below which it is not advisable to operate the batteries. This puts a limit on going for high
power motor by downsizing the base IC engine. If we want to go for further hybridization:

the batte~ycharge should be increased and we can derive more power from the batteries for
acceleration and grading pulposes at higher SOC. This can be observed that the point of the
best acceleration moves towards greater hybridization percentages with increase of on board
charge of the batteries. So, more the charge we cany with the vehicle, the better will be the
acceleration.
Technical optimization considers 'Net value' which takes into consideration both the
acceleration and fuel economy. In all the three vehicle platforms, the peak of the net value
curve increases with the increase of on board charge. This means that if we have more on
board charge, the overall perfornla~lcewill be better. Moreover, the peak shifts towards
higher percent hybridizations with the higher battely charge capacities employed. This
nlenns that with more on board charge, it illakes sense to use a better motor.
The cost optin~izationtakes into consideration the space constraint of the batteries
and the total cost of the vehicle while calculating the 'Net value'. The increase in total cost
fsom the conventional vehicle of the same type is due to the cost of the batteries and motor.
The Net value in the cost optimization is favoring the vehicle with lesser battery charge
capacity. This is the reverse of the technical optimization, which suggests more batteries for
better perfolmance. This gives the idea of the cost of the batteries. The cost and space of the
batteries constrain the lumber of batteries that can be can-ied along. Moreover, the floor of
the vehicle is to be strong enough to accommodate the batteries. One of the challenges in the
cui-sent research is 110w to accoinmodate these batteries. The manufacturers insist on no
sacrifice of con~fortof the passengers for giving roo111 for the batteries. So, the space
constraint is also significant for marketing and is also considered in this study. This would

77
give an idea of the practical feasibility of the quantity of on battery charge, which can be
carried along with the vehicle.
Developnlent of compact batteries at higher charge densities could be helpful in
nlaking the hybrid vehicles cost effective. Several other options like he1 cells as seconda1-y
source of power are also 011 the way.
I11 essence, this thesis supports the conclusion that parallel hybridization of the
dri.etrain could help S W s and heavy trucks to improve fuel efficiency. The initial cost
outlays will be justified because of the cost savings in the long run. Moreover, the effect will
be larger on the heavy trucks than on the sports utility vehicles.
The optinluln designs from the results presented in the thesis are an average SL7'
-it11a total power of around 150kW at 30 percent hybridization, meaning a combination of
S1 engine of 105KW and a motor of 35 KW powered with 50 battely modules. In the case of
full size SCTV .it11 a total poLver of 200 KW, the optimum percent hybridization is around
20%. This suggests that for SUVs, the motor of power ranging from 40 to 50 kU' in
combination vith 50 battery c nodules could be sufficient for the optimum design.
At this point, it could be noted that the percent hybridization for Honda Insight is
20'!b, and that for Toyota Prius is around 30%, which are comparable to the results produced
in this study.
Similarly for heavy truck with total power of400K'&*,the optinlum percent
hybridization will be around 25%, with 50 batte1-y modules. This is because heavy trucks
recj~~irelarge amount of po~verinitially to accelerate and hence they need higher motor
poLvsrs in cornpa-ison to their IC engine power. At this point in time, more batteries

78
techn~callyadd value, but they are very expensive. But the research In that dn-ectloncould
niahe more batteries affordable.
6.6 Recommendations for further Simulation Studies:
1 . The thesis heavily supports the theory that hybridization adds value to heavy trucks. So,
further research of hybrid electric drivetrains for heavy vehicles could be interesting.
3. En~issiolls,wliicli play a very significant role in countries like US where tlie ernissioli
control laws are strict, are not dealt with in this tliesis. Since there will be stricter
emission laws in f~~ture,it is recommended that the emissions be considered in the works
related to tlie design of hybrid vehicles.
3. The thesis supported tlie fact that the batteries being expensive cannot be used for adding
tecli~iicalvalue to the vel-zicle.Since a lot of research is into fuel cells, they could be
examined as a potential substitute to or coniplement for conventional vehicles.
Some other studies related to this research area that could be done using ADVISOlI
include:
1. l'he use of Series Hybrid Elect~icd~ivetrainsas a substitute for conventional drivetrains.
3. Diesel engines for sports utility vellicles could be an interesting study. Different
combinations ordiesel engines with fuel cells or batteries could be tested if they could
improve the file1 econolily and perforn~ance.
3 . '1'112 study of Continuously Variable Transiuission (CVT) for the increase of fuel
efticiency of hybrid electric vehicles could be another interesting topic.
4. The feasibility of pure electric vehicles could be tested using different batteries.

References:
1 Marshall Br~an's"Hon Stuff Works", infoimat~onfro111the World uide web at
~ T T Whowsh~fhorks com, June 2002
2 " Chrysler Motor Con~pany"~~~fomnlation-retnevedon 1 5 ' ~Jan 2001 from the world
T ~ d eneb site at uuw chrvsler corn , June 2002
3 " , 4 u t o ~eb", lnfoimat~onfi-omthe uuw autoweb com, June 2002
3 " General Motors" lnfonllation retrieved on 1jthan 2001 from the v,orld wide ueb
site at uwx..gnl.com
5. "Wichita Kenwoi-th, Inc." infoimation from the ~vorldwide web at
~w~v.v,~ichitakenwo~tl~.con~,June 2002
6. "Dodge" infoimation retrieved on l j t hJan 2001 fiom the world wide web site at
~ww.4adodge.com
7. " Idaho hTationalEngineeline and Environmental Laborato~~.",information retrieved
from the world wide web on January 1lth,200 1 at
(hrt~:."ev.ii~el.~ov!sin~ple~~/desc.l~tml)
S. "Computer modelillg in the design and evaluation of electric and hybrid vehicles"
iilfo~nlatioilretrieved from the world uide web at
(http:.'!ed~1cation.lai1l.go~~RESOURCES1Nh4SCC/education.htn1),June 2002
9. "IEEETransactions on Vehicular Technology" obtained from Ohio Link Research
databases fiom IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technoloev. v 45, n 6. 1999,p 1770
1778.),June 2002
10. "National Renewable Energy Laboratories", Retrieved from the world wide web on
Decenlber 1jth,2000 at www.nrel.org

80
11. "Parametric Design of a Drivetrain of an ELPH vehicle", Electric and Hl'bl-id
b'ehicle desigl~studies S,IE SP 1-743
13. "University of Colorado in Ford Hybrid Electric Challenge", Ford Hybrid Electric
Velzicle Clzallenge SA4ESP 980
13. '' Inlproving the Fuel Economy of SUVs through Diesel Technology and
Vehicle Improvements" Presentation of mini study for Dept. of Commerce and
DOE (Si'4195) Illfomlnation obtained from the NREL uebsite connecting to link
'Projects and Studies done using ADVISOR', June 2002
11.D. Assanis, G. Delagran~matikas,R. Fellini, Z. Filipi, J. Liedtke, N. Michelena, P.
Papalambros, D. Reyes, D. Rosenbaum, A. Sales, M. Sasena (19991, "Improving the
Fuel Econoiny of a Hyblid Electric Vehicle", Jourlzal of Mecha~zicsqf Strzlctur-es and
Maclzines
15. "Optimal Design of Automotive Hybrid Powertrain Systems"
University of hlichigan, Paper for EcoDesign Conference in Tokyo (Y99j.
16. " Hawker Noif11 America" illfonnation obtained from the World Wide Web at
11ttp::I:v~~11:.11epi.~om~basics!pb.hti11,June 2002
17. "3lorgantown Kational Supply. Inc" infommation retrieved on March ~ 3 ' ~2001 fi-om
the world wide web at wvw.rnns.con~.

Uiblio~raphvand Recommended Readinq:
(Itelated research articles that were read but not directly cited)
1. Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Design Studies SAE SO 1243
2. T. Moore, "Tools and Strategies for Hybrid Electric Drive systems Optin~ization"
SA4EPupel- 961660,1996.
3. Mathew R Cuddy and Keith B.Wipke, "Analysis of the Fuel Economy Benefit of
Drivetrain Hybridization", Retrieved from the world wide web Decembel-2000 at
vwv.nrel.org.
3. R.Fellini, N.Michelena, M.Sasena and P.Papalambros, "Optimal Desi_gof
Automotive Hybrid Poweltrain Systems" Proceedings of EcoDesiglz '99:First
inteniational Sylllposiurn on Environmentally Conscious desigm and Inverse
Manufacturing. Tokyo, Japan, February, 1 3 , 1 9 9 9 , ~ ~400 405
5. Y.Gao,K,Rahman,and M.Ehsani, "Parametric Design of the Drivetrain of an
Electrically Peaking Hybrid" S.4E pupel 970294,1997.
6. R.Riley,R.combene,M.D~~~~all,A.AFrank, "Hybrid Electric Vehicle Development at
University of Califolnia, Davis" 1993 Ford FIyhrirl Electric Vehicle clzallengc<SAE
SP 980
7. Willianl E. Kran~er, "Design of a Hybrid Electric Vehicle" 1993 Ford 17ybrid
Electric Velzicle clznllerzge SAE SP 980
S. D.Assanis,G.Delagra~nn~atikas,R,Fellii~i,J.Liedtke,N.Mocl~elena,P.Papalambros,
D.Reyes,D,Rosenabau~~~,A.Sales, M.Sasena, "An optimization Approach to I-Iybrid

82
Electric propulsion System Design", U~iiversityof Michigan, Ann Arbor. Retrieved
from the world mide web December 2000 at www.nrel.org
9. David J. .4ndres, Philip R.Guizeic, Robert A. Weinstock, "Hybrid Electric Vehlcle
Philosophy and Architecture" 1993 Ford Hjlbrid Electric J'ehicle chalIenge SkIE SP
980
10. Timothy C. More and Arnloiy B. Loind, "Vehicle Design Strategies to Meet PNGV
Goals"?SAIE951906.
11. C.W.Schwa~-tz,Faculty, Doug Callahan, and Noml Harrison, " A Hybrid Electric
Vehicle Concept", Lawrence Technological University. 1993 For-d H1,brid Electric
Tit.hicle challerzge Sa4ESP 980
12. Elisani, hlehrdad; Gao, Yiniin; Butler, Karen L. " Application of elect~icallypeaking
hybrid (ELPH)propulsion system to a full size passenger car with si~liulateddesign
verification" IEEE Trunsuctioils on Velzict~lnl-Techlzology V48,n 6.1999,p1779 1787
13. "Ford Hybrid Vehicle challenge", SAE SP 980
13. "National Renewable Energy Laboratories", Retrieved from the world wide r,ebon
Dece~nber17'h, 2000 at ~~srw.mel.org
15. "EV World", Retrieved fro111the world wide web on December 171h,2000 at
vni.x ,Eworld.com
16. "Marshall Brian's How Stuff JYorks", lnfo~mationfrom the World wide web at
~~~~w.liowst~iffworks.coni,June 2002.
17. " Autoweb", ilifolniation from the ww.autoweb.com, June 2002.
18. "Witchita Kenworth, Inc." information from the world wide web at

Appendices
Appendix A
.AD-ISOR Documentation
-4DVISOR,NREL's ADvanced VehIcle SimulatOR, is a set of model, data, and script text
files for use uith Matlab and Simulink. It is designed for quick analysis of the performance
and fuel economy of conventional, electric, and hybrid vehicles. ADVISOR also provides a
bacliboile for the detailed simulation and analysis of user defined drivetrain components, a
starting point of verified vehicle data and algorithms fiom which to take full advantage of the
modcling flexibility of Simulink and analytic power of Matlab.
You may benefit fiom using ADVISOR if you want to:
estimate the fuel economy of unbuilt vehicles
learn about how con-entional, hybrid, or electsic vehicles use (and losej energy
throughout their drivetrains
conlpare tailpipe emissions produced on a number of cycles
evaluate a control logic for your hybrid vehicle's he1 converter
-optimize the gear ratios in your transmission to minimize fuel use or maximize
perfomlance, etc.
The models in .4DVISOR are:
n~ostl~.empirical, relying on drivetrain component input.'output relationships
measured in the laboratory, and

84
quasi static, using data collected in steady state (for example, constant torque and
speed) tests and cox~ectingthem for transient effects such as the rotational inertia of
drivetrain components.
4DI7ISORwas preliminarily written and used in Noveinber 1994. Since then, it has been
niod~fiedas necessary to help manage the US DOE Hybr~dVehicle Propulsion System
subcontracts. Only in January 1998 was a concerted development effort undertaken to clean
LIPand doc~lme~ltADVISOR.
Slllce then, researchers at
Chrysler Corp.
General Motors Co1-p.
AlliedSignal Autoinotive
Argonne National Laboratory
Naval Research Laborato~y
University of Califoillia Davis
University of Maryland
U~iiversityof Illinois Urbana/Charnpaign
and other research institutioils have used ADVISOR to predict the performance of their
vehicles, do studies on the effect of control strategy on enlissions and fuel use, among other
things.

85
1.2. Capabilities and intended uses
AD'ISOR uses simple physics and measured component perfonnance to model existing or
imagined vehicles. Its real power, of course, lies in the prediction of the performance of
vehicles that have not yet been built. It answers the question "what if we build a car with
certain characteiistics?" ADVISOR usually predicts he1 use, tailpipe emissions,
acceleration perfollilance, and gradeability.
In general, the user takes two steps:
1. Define a vehicle using ~neasuredor estimated component and overall
vehicle data.
2. Prescribe a speed versus time trace, along nith road gsade, that the vehicle
must follow.
.4DVISOK then puts the vehicle through its paces, making sure it meets the cycle to the best
of its ability and measuring (or offering the opportunity to measure) just about every torque,
speed, voltage, current, and pon.er passed from one component to another.
ADVISOR ss,illallow the user to answer questions like:
Was the vehicle able to follow the trace?
How much f ~ ~ e land/or electric energy were required in the attempt?
Vvllat were the peak powers delivered by the drivetrain components?
Qliat was the disti-ibution of torques and speeds that the piston engine delivered?
J h a t lvas the average efficiency of the transmission?

86
By iteratively changing the vehicle definition andior driving cycle, the user can go on to
answer questiolis such as:
At what road grade can tlie vehicle maintaill 55 niph indefinitely?
What's the smallest engine I can put into this vehicle to accelerate from 0to 60 mph
in 12 s?
Ahat's the final drive ratio that minimizes fuel use while keeping the 40 to 60 nip11
tinie below 3 s?
.4DVISOR's GUI and other script files answer many of these questions automatically, ~vhile
others require sollie custom programming on tlie user's part.
Because ADVISOR is n~odular,its component niodels can be relatively easily extended and
improved. For example, an electroclieniical model of a battery, complete with difhsion,
polarization, and the~lnaleffects, call easily be put into a vehicle to cooperate with a motor
model that uses a nieasured efficiency map. Of course, developilig new, detailed models of
dril-erraincomponents (or anytiling else, for that matter) requires an illtimate familiarity with
the eil.ironn~ent,MATLL4B:'Simulink.
;nalvsis. not design
ADVISOR was developed as an a~ialysistool, aiid not a design tool. Its compo~ientmodels
are quasi static, and cannot be used to predict phenomena with a time scale of less than a
second or so. Physical vibrations. electric field oscillations and other dynamics cannot be
captured using ADVISOR.

1. Master's Thesis

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