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Electric Vehicle
Plug-in hybrid
CO2 Emission
Abstract: Electric and Hybrid Electric vehicles are now well-known products in the market and
are accepted internationally. The deteriorating air quality and global warming issues are
becoming serious threats to the modern life. Progressively more rigorous emissions and fuel
efficiency standards are stimulating aggressive development of safer, cleaner, and more efficient
vehicles. First part of the paper presents an overview of the studies of Electric Vehicle, Hybrid
Electric Vehicle, Plug-in-Hybrid Electric Vehicle and Battery Electric Vehicle. Then it provides a
comparative analysis of Electric vehicle with the conventional Combustion engine on the basis
of various performance parameters, emission characteristics and cost effectiveness between same
class of vehicle. The later part of paper focuses on how Plug in Hybrid Electric vehicle can
deliver promising results on performance and emission values as well as solving lack of charging
infrastructure, financial encumbrance and range anxiety based on Indian scenario.
Literature Review: Electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) represent one way to
reduce the CO2emissions from and oil dependency of automobile transport [1,2]. The
powertrains of pure EVs are completely electric. EVs generally receive their power from the
electric grid, and store that power in an energy storage system (ESS) onboard the vehicle. The
energy storage system aboard EVs can take many forms, the most common of which is currently
batteries [3]. EVs typically have a higher tank to wheel efficiency than conventional vehicles,
and they produce no tailpipe emissions [3]. Yet their energy must still be generated in some way,
which means that their CO2 emissions are directly related to the CO2 emissions of the power
generation mix from which they derive their energy. The CO2 emissions characteristics of a
power generation mix can be expressed in a figure known as CO2 intensity. CO2 intensity is the
average amount of CO2 emitted per unit of electrical energy generated by all of the power
production processes in a mix weighted by the amount of power obtained from each of those
processes. Therefore, the CO2 emissions from EVs and PHEVs can vary considerably depending
on the CO2 intensity of their grid supplied electricity. India is targeting to have an all-electric car

2. fleet by 2030 with an objective of lowering the fuel import and running cost of vehicles. As a
starting point in this direction, Govt. of India launched the National Electric Mobility Mission
Plan (NEMMP)-2020 in 2013. It aims to achieve national fuel security by promoting hybrid and
electric vehicles in the country [4]. The ambitious target is to achieve sales of 6-7 million hybrid
and EVs per year starting from 2020, out of which 4-5 million are expected to be two-wheelers.
Hybrid electric vehicles come in many forms. They typically combine elements of both EVs and
conventional vehicles, as they can be powered by energy stored onboard in a variety of forms
such as chemically, electrically, and mechanically [5]. While battery technology is constantly
improving, the batteries used in EV applications are generally the heaviest single component
in the powertrain [6]. For example, in the case of the Tesla Roadster, the battery pack accounts
for over a third of the weight of the vehicle [7]. A PHEV can have a significantly lower battery
mass than an EV since its battery only needs to provide energy for the electric-only mode which
is usually only a fraction of the vehicle’s total range. Once the vehicle has exceeded its electric
only range, charge sustaining mode takes over, and the alternative power unit handles the energy
requirements of the vehicle. Since PHEVs can have a lower battery mass than EVs, the curb
mass of PHEVs can also be lower, which can enable them to operate more efficiently in electric-
only mode than a similar EV. Once a PHEV’s alternative power unit has switched on in charge
sustaining mode, PHEVs can generally operate more efficiently than conventional vehicles
especially during urban driving.
This is made possible by the fact that an ICE when functioning as an alternative power unit
generally does not have to be directly coupled to the road load [5]. Without having to respond to
the transients of normal driving, the ICE in a PHEV can be run continuously in its most efficient
operating range to achieve a lower fuel consumption than could be achieved in a conventional
vehicle [8]. However, there may be circumstances when the fuel economy of
conventional vehicles could approach or exceed that of PHEVs such as during highway driving
when a vehicle’s speed is relatively constant. During highway driving, the ICEs of both
conventional vehicles and PHEVs are similarly efficient. Yet, depending on the powertrain’s
topology and the vehicle’s energy management strategy, the power generated by the ICE
onboard a PHEV may experience additional losses as it moves through the other components
providing the tractive force such as the electric motor, power electronics, and energy storage
system. Therefore, though PHEVs generally have a higher tank to wheel efficiency than
conventional vehicles that may not necessarily be true in all cases. PHEVs have at least a
theoretical justification for why they should be able to achieve lower CO2 emissions than both
EVs and conventional vehicles. The actual CO2 emissions performance of a PHEV depends on
many factors: its range in electric-only mode, its efficiency in electric-only and charge sustaining
modes, and the CO2 intensity of the power generation mix used to power the PHEV from the
grid
Future predictions of battery electric vehicles (BEV) market share vary from 18% to 57% of
new vehicle sales in 2040. The level of fleet-wide hybridization is predicted to 60% in 2030 and
90% by 2040 [1]. This is a consequence of the strict European CO2 targets for passenger cars
and mologate the fuel economy standards without a powertrain hybridization [2]. Several
solutions have been studied in the last few years in terms of xHEV as mild-hybrid (MHEV,
battery of <60 V & <3 kWh), full hybrids (FHEV, battery of 300–600 V & 5–10 kWh) and

3. plug-in hybrid (PHEV) with similar electric components as a battery electric vehicle (BEV,
battery of 400–800 V & >20 kWh). The PHEV has similar powertrain layout than FHEV but
with the possibility to re-charge the batteries with the external grid electricity [3]. In addition, the
main difference with respect to a BEV is that the PHEV equips a range extender device,
generally an internal combustion engine (ICE), that can extend the vehicle mileage to values
even higher than a conventional no-hybrid vehicle. Generally speaking, all these solutions are
expected to co-exist depending on the vehicle application in order to achieve the CO2 target at
fleet levels [4].
Automotive companies and researchers are currently exploring potential strategies for future
development. Conway et al. [5] show that currently two ways are possible: 1) High-technology
ICE with low levels of electrification or 2) High electrification combined with a simpler ICE
version; the main justification is the trade-off existing in order to maintain a consistent
development budget. Several authors reported CO2 reductions between 10% and 20%,
depending on the electrification level, using diesel ICEs with several powertrain architectures,
with respect to the conventional no-hybrid vehicle [6,7]. However, the main limitation is the total
vehicle cost due to the added equipment as the complex aftertreatment system (ATS) to achieve
the Euro 6 levels and the electric components as the electric motor (EM) and battery pack.
Therefore, this type of technology is restricted to expensive segment cars as class C sedan or
sport utility vehicles (SUV). Gasoline engines were also studied in the past in hybrid powertrains
with great success due to the reduction of the ICE operating time at low load (avoiding pumping
and friction losses) and the possibility to use a three-way catalyst, less expensive than the diesel
ATS [8,9]. Conway et al. [5] show that supplementing with 15 kW of electric assist provides
equivalent gains than increasing 3 points in compression ratio (CR) for a 1.0 L engine and by
nearly 1.3 CR points for a 2.0 L engine, assuming a baseline compression ratio of 10:1. Garcia et
al. [10] studied a gasoline direct injection (GDI) spark ignited (SI) engine, variable compression
ratio (VCR) in several powertrain architectures. The VCR system allowed fuel improvements of
3% in a conventional powertrain, 8% in MHEV and 17% in FHEV powertrains. The
electrification level was found to be more determinant than the powertrain architecture (parallel,
series or power split). The parallel was found to be the most effective to achieve low fuel
consumption and emissions (NOx and Soot) in full hybrid applications. On the other hand, the
main advantage of MHEV is the low cost and powertrain change with respect to current
commercial vehicles. Therefore, MHEV is currently the most attractive option for vehicle
manufacturers. Zanelli et al. [11] studied the effect of an electric supercharger in a 48 V system.
The authors varied the turbine size, intake cam profile and compression ratio. The fuel economy
could be improved by 5.1 g/km CO2 over the worldwide harmonized light vehicles cycle
(WLTC). However, it was found not to be enough to achieve the 2025 European CO2 targets (80
g/km) [12]. Lane et al. [4] show that PHEV solution allows to achieve zero urban tailpipe
emissions with the same advantages of a FHEV in long distance trips. The main problems are the
total vehicle cost due to large battery size as BEV and expensive ICE as an FHEV.

4. The second option appears as possible solution for the abovementioned powertrain. The decrease
in the complexity and price of the ICE is currently a hot topic and several researchers and vehicle
manufacturers are paying attention [13,14]. Plug-in hybrids with de-rated engines or small
engines in order to maintain the battery charge when is depleted, is a possibility to strongly
reduce the CO2 emissions while maintaining reasonable vehicle costs [15]. This type of
powertrain, also called range extender, has the properties of a pure electric vehicle but allows to
continue travelling through the on-board fuel converter that converts a fuel, such as gasoline, into
electrical energy whilst the vehicle is driving [16]. This solution overcomes the main problem of
current BEVs due to long recharging times before the vehicle is available to be used. The large
battery pack size and electric machine allows to achieve similar or higher brake power than a
diesel or gasoline engine without tailpipe emissions. Several range extender concepts were
studied as Wankel rotary engine [17], micro gas turbines [18], and small reciprocating piston
engine [19]. Companies as MAHLE and Ricardo recently presented innovative gasoline engines
for that purpose. In particular, MAHLE showed the potential of a two-cylinder and four-stroke
port fuel injector (PFI) spark ignited engine with a maximum brake power of 30 kW and a brake
thermal efficiency (BTE) of 37% dedicated to PHEV application [20]. This study identified that
the efficiency was not given the highest priority due to the ICE is not the primary source of
propulsive energy. Compared to other technologies the reciprocating piston engine offers the
potential of low manufacturing cost, reasonable package size and a short development time. Fan
et al. [21] show that the range extender engines can be predominantly operated at full load, thus
the efficiency benefits of a diesel engine over a gasoline engine is reduced compared to a
conventional application. In addition, it is possible to reduce the ATS cost. Therefore, range
extender PHEVs with low complexity ICEs are a potential solution to reduce the CO2 emissions
in passenger vehicles.
Research Methodology:
The goal of this study is to compare Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) with the Conventional
combustion engines on various parameters e.g., Energy storage, Replenish the energy,
Production and motive force, control speed and power, Axillary power supply and most
importantly CO2 emissions. In order to do this, a standard vehicle platform was needed to ensure
an equitable comparison between the different powertrains. After that this paper will illustrate
different types of Hybrid Electric vehicle e.g., conventional hybrid and plug in hybrid are
examined. The advantages of Hybrid Electric vehicle over conventional combustion engine
forms the basis for solving problems and implementation of BEV in India like lack of charging
infrastructure, ownership cost, energy use and range anxiety.
Conclusion: One of India’s major development goals is urgent need to reduce our carbon
footprint and meet out climate obligations as promised during COP-21 held at Paris to reduce
emission intensity by 33-35% by 2030 from 2005 levels. So there seems no option than to adopt
E-mobility (EVs), which also results in reduction of largescale imports of crude oil.

5. Through above literature review and research methodology we can conclude following
inferences:
 Battery Electric Vehicles typically do not have an ICE, fuel tank or exhaust pipe and rely
only on electricity for propulsion. While easy on the environment (and the wallet),
owners may suffer from range anxiety as they must ensure their BEV contains enough
energy for travel — unless they opt for a model that has an optional gasoline-powered
generator such as the BMW i3.
 The battery in a full BEV has to power everything in the vehicle, all the time, so typical
BEV capacities range from about 40 kWh to 80 kWh, although some are now emerging
with batteries as large as 200 kWh.
 First and foremost is the limited range available with current battery technologies. The
driving range between recharging using existing batteries is between 50 to 150 miles.
New battery systems are being developed that will increase this range, and prototypes of
these batteries have demonstrated ranges up to 200 miles between recharging.
 The PHEV always has a gas engine to fall back on and has a smaller battery, so
conventional charging will likely be sufficient to charge it in a short amount of time.
PHEVs can typically charge in a couple of hours with a Mode 2 charging cord – that is,
one that can plug into a standard household outlet.
 Since PHEVs require fewer batteries than EVs, and could therefore be lighter; and since
PHEVs can generally operate their onboard ICEs more efficiently than those in
conventional vehicles, it was theorized that given certain power generation mixes with
varying CO2 intensities PHEVs may be able to emit less CO2 than both conventional
vehicles and EVs.
 When a highly CO2 intensive power generation mix was considered, such as in China,
PHEVs were found to emit less over their entire range than both a similar EV and
conventional vehicle. This shows that PHEVs are not merely a stopgap making up for the
current range shortcomings of EVs.

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