Mapuche indians

Mapuche Indians
The Mapuche are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina, including parts of present-day
Patagonia. The collective term refers to a wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who shared a common social, religious and
economic structure, as well as a common linguistic heritage as Mapudungun speakers. Their influence once extended from the Aconcagua
River to the Chiloé Archipelago and spread later eastward to the Argentine pampa. Today the collective group makes up 80% of the indigenous
peoples in Chile, and about 9% of the total Chilean population They are particularly concentrated in Araucanía. Many have migrated to the
Santiago area for economic opportunities. The term Mapuche is used both to refer collectively to the Picunche (people of the north), Huilliche
(people of the South) and Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía, or at other times, exclusively to the Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía.
The Mapuche traditional economy is based on agriculture; their traditional social organisation consists of extended families, under the direction
of a lonko or chief. In times of war, they would unite in larger groupings and elect a toki (meaning "axe, axe-bearer") to lead them. They are
known for the textiles woven by women, which have been goods for trade for centuries, since before European encounter. The Araucanian
Mapuche inhabited at the time of Spanish arrival the valleys between the Itata and Toltén rivers. South of it, the Huilliche and the Cunco lived
as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago. In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, Mapuche groups migrated eastward into the Andes and pampas,
fusing and establishing relationships with the Poya and Pehuenche. At about the same time, ethnic groups of the pampa regions, the Puelche,
Ranquel and northern Aonikenk, made contact with Mapuche groups. The Tehuelche adopted the Mapuche language and some of their culture,
in what came to be called Araucanization. Historically the Spanish colonizers of South America referred to the Mapuche people as Araucanians
(araucanos). However, this term is now mostly considered pejorative by some people. The name was likely derived from the placename rag ko
(Spanish Arauco), meaning "clayey water". The Quechua word awqa, meaning "rebel, enemy", is probably not the root of araucano. Some
Mapuche mingled with Spanish during colonial times, and their descendants make up the large group of mestizos in Chile. But, Mapuche
society in Araucanía and Patagonia remained independent until the Chilean Occupation of Araucanía and the Argentine Conquest of the Desert
in the late 19th century. Since then Mapuches have become subjects, and then nationals and citizens of the respective states. Today, many
Mapuche and Mapuche communities are engaged in the so-called Mapuche conflict over land and indigenous rights in both Argentina and in
Chile.
Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader)
Toqui (Mapudungun for axe or axe-bearer) is a title conferred by the Mapuche (an indigenous Chilean people) on those chosen as leaders
during times of war. The toqui is chosen in an assembly or parliament (coyag) of the chieftains (loncos) of various clans (Rehues) or
confederation of clans (Aillarehues), allied during the war at hand. The toqui commanded strict obedience of all the warriors and their loncos
during the war, would organize them into units and appoint leaders over them. This command would continue until the toqui was killed,
abdicated (Cayancaru), was deposed in another parliament (as in the case of Lincoyan, for poor leadership), or upon completion of the war for
which he was chosen. Some of the more famous Toqui in the Arauco War with the Spanish introduced tactical innovations. For example Lautaro
introduced infantry tactics to defeat horsemen. Lemucaguin was the first Toqui to use firearms and artillery in battle. Nongoniel was the first
Toqui to use cavalry with the Mapuche army. Cadeguala was the first to successfully use Mapuche cavalry to defeat Spanish cavalry in battle.
Anganamón was the first to mount his infantry to keep up with his fast-moving cavalry. Lientur pioneered the tactic of numerous and rapid
malóns into Spanish territory. The greatest of the Toqui was the older Paillamachu, who developed the strategy, patiently organized and trained
his forces and then with his two younger Vice Toqui, Pelantaro and Millacolquin, carried out the Great Revolt of 1598-1604 which finally
expelled the Spanish from Araucania.
List of Mapuche Toquis (Leaders)
Kurillanka was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the late 15th century who was involded in the Battle of the Maule between the
Mapuche people of Chile and the Inca Empire of Peru in what is now the Maule River, Chile.
Warakulen was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the late 15th century who was involded in the Battle of the Maule between the
Lonkomilla was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the late 15th century who was involded in the Battle of the Maule between the
Futahuewas the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the late 15th century who was involded in the Battle of the Maule between the Mapuche
people of Chile and the Inca Empire of Peru in what is now the Maule River, Chile.
Yankinao was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the late 15th century who was involded in the Battle of the Maule between the
Malloquete was Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) that led an army of Moluche from the region north of the Bio Bio River against Pedro de
Valdivia in the 1546 Battle of Quilacura.
Ainavillo, Aynabillo, Aillavilu or Aillavilú, (in Mapudungun, ailla, nine and filu, snake) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) of the
Mapuche army from the provinces of "Ñuble, Itata, Renoguelen, Guachimavida, Marcande, Gualqui, Penco and Talcaguano." They tried to stop
Pedro de Valdivia from invading their lands in 1550. He led about twenty thousand warriors in the surprise night attack on Valdivia's camp in
the Battle of Andalien. After his defeat in that battle he gathered more warriors from the allied regions of Arauco and Tucapel, south of the Bio-
Bio River, for an attack on Valdivia's newly constructed fort of Concepcion at what is now Penco. Leading an army of sixty thousand warriors in
three divisions against the fort in the Battle of Penco. Ainavillo's command that had been previously defeated at Andalien, was recognized by the
Spaniards and Valdivia picked it out for a vigorous charge by all their cavalry following a softening up by volleys of their firearms. It was

broken at the first onslaught and fled with the Spanish in pursuit, followed by the retreat of the other two divisions of the Mapuche upon seeing
the spectacle.
Lincoyan (c. 1519 Arauco - 1560 Cañete) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) that succeeded Ainavillo in 1550 after the defeat at the
Battle of Penco and reigned unril 1553. He tried to stop Pedro de Valdivia from invading and establishing fortresses and cities in their lands
between 1551 and 1553 at the beginning of the Arauco War with no success. In 1551 he attacked Valdivia on the banks of the Andalien, but the
neighboring fort resisted his assaults. During part of that year and in 1552 he continued fighting against Valdivia along Cauten River. In 1553,
he was replaced by Caupolicán, but he was given the command of a division. In this year he took part in the capture of the fortresses of Arauco
and Tucapel. Soon after this battle he defeated a strong Spanish force that came to protect Imperial. He followed Caupolicán in all his victories
and in all his battles until the death of that chief in 1558. Afterward he continued the war against the Spaniards until he was killed in the Battle
of Cañete.
Caupolicán (died 1558 in Cañete) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader), who commanded their army during the first
Mapuche rising against the Spanish conquistadors from 1553 until his death in 1558. Following the successful campaign of
conquest by Pedro de Valdivia in Araucanía and the failure of the toqui Lincoyan to stop them, the Mapuche were persuaded
by Colocolo to choose a new supreme war leader in response to the Spanish threat. Caupolicán as an Ulmen of Pilmayquen
won the position of Toqui by demonstrating his superior strength by holding up a tree trunk for three days and three nights.
In addition to proving his physical power, he also had to improvise a poetical speech to inspire the people to valor and unity.
Caupolicán's death came in 1558, at the hands of colonizing Spaniards as their prisoner. He was impaled by making him sit
on a stake while his wife was forced to watch. After his death he was replaced by his son Caupolicán the younger.
Caupolicán the Younger(died 1858) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in 1558. According to Juan Ignacio Molina was the son of
the toqui Caupolicán. He was made toqui following the capture and execution of his father in 1558. He continued the first Mapuche rising
against the Spanish conquistadors in 1558 and commaned the Mapuche army in constructing a pukara at Quiapo to block García Hurtado de
Mendoza from rebuilding a fort in Arauco completing the chain of forts for suppression of their rebellion. In the Battle of Quiapo the Mapuche
suffered a terrible defeat and there Caupolicán the younger died. His successor as toqui was Illangulién. The earlier historian Diego de Rosales
says the toqui that led at Quiapo was Lemucaguin.
Lautaro (Mapudungun: Lef-Traru "swift hawk") (1534-April 29, 1557) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1553
until his death on April 29, 1577 who achieved notoriety for leading the indigenous resistance against Spanish conquest in
Chile. Lautaro begun his career as a captive of Pedro de Valdivia but escaped in 1551. Back among his people he was declared
toqui and led Mapuche warriors into a series of victories against the Spanish culminating in the Battle of Tucapel in
December 1553 where Pedro de Valdivia was killed. The outbreak of a typhus plague, a drought and a famine prevented the
Mapuches from taking further actions to expel the Spanish in 1554 and 1555. Between 1556 and 1557 a small group of
Mapuches commanded by Lautaro attempted to reach Santiago to liberate the whole of Central Chile from Spanish rule.
Lautaros attempts ended in 1557 when he was killed in an ambush by the Spanish. Today Lautaro is revered among Mapuches and non-
Mapuche Chileans for his resistance against foreign conquest, servitude and cruelty. Lautaro was the son of a Mapuche lonko (a chief who holds
office during peacetime). He is thought to have been born in 1534. In 1546, he was captured by some Spanish colonizers. He became the
personal servant of Don Pedro de Valdivia, Spanish conqueror of Chile and then its captain general. Lautaro learned the military ways and skills
of the Spaniards' army by observation. He was witness to atrocities committed by the Spanish on captive Mapuche warriors. According to the
Chilean novelist Isabel Allende in her historical novel, Inés del Alma Mía, the boy Lautaro had deliberately allowed himself to be captured by
the Spanish in order to learn their secrets, and made no attempt to escape until he felt he had learned enough. In any case, he fled twice, first in
1550 and for good in 1552. In 1553 (the year Lautaro turned 19), the Mapuches convened to decide how to respond to the Spanish invasion. The
convention decided upon war. The toqui Caupolicán chose Lautaro as vice toqui because he had served as a page in the Spanish cavalry, and
thereby possessed knowledge of how to defeat the mounted conquistadors. Lautaro introduced use of horses to the Mapuche[citation needed]
and designed better combat tactics. He organized a large, cohesive army a military formation unfamiliar to the Mapuche. With 6,000 warriors
under his command, Lautaro attacked Fort Tucapel. The Spanish garrison couldn't withstand the assault and retreated to Purén. Lautaro seized
the fort, sure that the Spaniards would attempt to retake it. That is exactly what Governor Valdivia tried to do with a reduced force, which was
quickly surrounded and massacred by the Mapuches on Christmas Day, 1553. The Battle of Tucapel would be Pedro de Valdivia's last, as he was
captured and then killed. After the defeat at Tucapel, the Spanish hastily reorganized their forces, reinforcing the defenses of Fort Imperial and
abandoning the settlements of Confines and Arauco in order to strengthen Concepción. However, Mapuche tradition dictated a lengthy victory
celebration, which kept Lautaro from realizing his desire to pursue the military advantage he had just gained. It was only in February 1554 that
he succeeded in putting together an army of 8,000 men, just in time to confront a punitive expedition under the command of Francisco de
Villagra. Lautaro chose the hill of Marihueñu to fight the Spanish. He organized his forces in four divisions: two charged with containing and
wearing down the enemy, a third held in reserve to launch a fresh attack as the Spanish were about to crumble, and the last charged with
cutting off their retreat. Additionally, a small group was sent to destroy the reed bridge the Spanish had erected across the Bío-Bío River, which
would further disrupt any attempted retreat of Villagra. The Spanish attack broke the first Mapuche lines, but the quick response of the third
division maintained the Mapuche position. Later, the wings of this division began to attack the Spanish flanks, and the fourth division attacked
from behind. After hours of battle, only a small group of Spanish managed to retreat. Despite this fresh victory, Lautaro was again unable to
pursue the opportunity due to the celebrations and beliefs of his people. By the time he arrived at Concepción, it was already abandoned. He
burned it, but his remaining forces were insufficient to continue the offensive, so the campaign came to an end. In Santiago, Villagra
reorganized his forces, and that same year of 1554, he departed again for Arauco and reinforced the strongholds of Imperial and Valdivia,
without any interference from the Mapuches, who were dealing with their first epidemic of smallpox, which had been brought by the Spanish.
In 1555, the Real Audiencia in Lima ordered him to reconstruct Concepción, which was done under the command of Captain Alvarado. Upon
learning of this, Lautaro successfully besieged Concepción with 4,000 warriors. Only 38 Spaniards managed to escape by sea the second
destruction of the city. After the second rout at Concepción, Lautaro desired to attack Santiago. He found scant support for this plan from his
troops, who soon dwindled to only 600, but he carried on. In October 1556 his northward march reached the Mataquito River, where he
established a fortified camp at Peteroa. In the Battle of Peteroa he repulsed attacking Spanish forces under the command of Diego Cano, and
later held off the larger force commanded by Pedro de Villagra. Being advised that still more Spaniards were approaching, Lautaro retreated

towards the Maule River. With the Spaniards in hot pursuit he was forced to retire beyond the Itata River. From there he launched another
campaign towards Santiago when Villagra's army passed him by on the way to the save the remaining Spanish settlements in Araucanía.
Lautaro had chosen to give Villagra's force the slip and head for the city to attack it. Despite the Mapuches' stealth, the city's leaders learned of
the advance and sent a small expedition to thwart it, buying time for word to be sent to Villagra to return to the city from the south. The
Spanish forces met in the field, and from a member of the local ethnos, the Picunche, they learned the disposition of Lautaro's camp. At dawn,
on April 29, 1557 the conquistadors launched a surprise attack from the hills of Caune, obtaining a decisive victory in the Battle of Mataquito in
which Lautaro was killed early in the fighting. After the defeat of his army, his head was cut off and displayed in the plaza of Santiago. Alonso
de Ercilla, an officer in the Spanish forces during the Araucanian war (and as it happened, only one year older than Lautaro), in the following
decade composed the masterpiece of Spanish literature, the historical epic poem, La Araucana, which became a major literary work about the
Spanish conquest of America. Ercilla made Lautaro its protagonist. Lautaro has come to be acclaimed by Chileans as the first Chilean general
for his revolutionary strategies and his achievements in uniting the dispersed Mapuche people. He inflicted many crushing defeats on Spanish
armies armed with lances, muskets and horses even though his own army was armed with only spears and axes. His name was used by Francisco
de Miranda when he founded the Logia Lautaro (Lautaro Lodge), a Latin American independence society of the end of 18th century and the
beginning of the 19th century. In the 20th century, Chilean author Pablo Neruda, the future Nobel Literature Prize laureate, wrote a poem
about him.
Turcupichun (died 1558) was the Mapuche Aillarehues Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the vicinity of Concepcion, Chile and the Bio-Bio River
valley from 1557 until his death in 1558. García Hurtado de Mendoza landed in early June 1557 on the island of La Quiriquina at the mouth of
the bay of San Pedro. Soon afterward he sent out messengers to the local Aillarehues to come and submit to the Spanish. Turcupichun gathered
them in a great coyag where he advocated resistance to the death and elected him as their toqui replacing the dead Lautaro. Turcupichun led
his army to build a pucara on the height of Andalicán five leagues south of Concepcion covering the approach down the coast to Arauco and
posted detachments to cover the crossing points on the Bio Bio River. Governor Mendoza deceived him by having a detachment build rafts at
one of these crossing points but using the boats of his fleet to carry his army across at the mouth of the river. Turcupichun then engaged and
was defeated by the army of Mendoza in the Battle of Lagunillas. Following this defeat his army fell back and joined with Caupolicán to fight in
the Battle of Millarapue. Following the battle Turcupichun was blamed by Caupolican, for the defeat when his third division marching to attack
the Spanish rear did not arrive in time. Angry at the accusation he withdrew to defend his own lands. Following the execution of Caupolican,
Turcupichun attempted to organize a new revolt and an attack on Concepcion, but the Spanish Corregidor of the city, Gerónimo de Villegas
discovered his attempt and sent Juan Galiano with some soldiers to attack him first. Moving to where he was lodged at night Galiano captured
him and some of his companions and returned with them to the city where he was hung in the plaza. After his death his army elected
Lemucaguin as his successor.
Lemucaguin (died 1558) was the Mapuche Aillarehues Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the vicinity of Concepcion, Chile and the Bio-Bio River
valley in 1558. He was a native of Andalicán was the successor to Turcupichun as toqui of the Moluche Butalmapu north of the Biobío River in
1558. He organized a detachment of arquebusiers from weapons captured in the Battle of Marihueñu. He continued the war against García
Hurtado de Mendoza after the executions of Caupolican and Turcupichun. Establishing pucaras at Quiapo and other locations to block Spanish
access to the Arauco region. He was the first toqui to use firearms and artillery in the Battle of Quiapo. However he was killed in this battle and
was replaced by Illangulién. The later historian, Juan Ignacio Molina, calls the toqui that led at Quiapo Caupolicán the younger, son the
executed toqui Caupolican.
Illangulién, Quiromanite, Queupulien or Antiguenu (died 1564) was Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) elected to replace Lemucaguin or
Caupolicán the younger in 1559 following the Battle of Quiapo to his death in battle in the Battle of Angol in 1564. After the campaign of
García Hurtado de Mendoza that culminated in the Battle of Quiapo, many of the Mapuche warriors were dead or wounded and the population
had been decimated by the effects of war, starvation and epidemic disease. Elected to by the remaining leaders shortly after the battle of Quiapo,
Illangulién decided to let the nation offer apparent submission to the Spanish while he and a few warriors secretly retreated into the marshes of
Lumaco. There they constructed a base where they would gather their strength and train a new generation of warriors for a future revolt. After
the murder of the hated encomendero Pedro de Avendaño in July 1561 triggered a new general rising of the Mapuche greater than the previous
ones. Illangulién after several years of hiding his activities in the swamps began to lead his forces out on raids on Spanish territory to season his
newly trained warriors and live off the lands of their enemy. His forces clashed with those of the Spanish Governor Francisco de Villagra and
defeated them several times in the next few years. After the death of Francisco de Villagra they fought the forces of his successor Pedro de
Villagra around the city of San Andrés de Los Infantes. During the Battle of Angol in a series of moves and counter moves between Illangulién
and the garrison commander Lorenzo Bernal del Mercado, the Toqui was able to blockade the town from impregnable fortresses as he moved
his blockade closer and closer to the town. At last the garrison commander was able to catch a detachment of his opponents army in an
awkward position along the bank of a nearby river and by driving them over a steep slope into the river killed over a thousand of them
including the toqui Illangulien in 1564.
Millalelmo or Millarelmo (died 1570) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the second great Mapuche rebellion that began in 1561
during the Arauco War. Probably the toqui of the Arauco region, he commanded the Mapuche army of that area at the siege of Arauco from
May 20 to June 30, 1562. Later in 1563, he led his army to defeat Captain Juan Perez de Zurita at a crossing of the Andalién River near
Concepcion. This cut off reinforcements to the city of Concepcion and led to the 1564 Siege of Concepcion in cooperation with the Mapuche
forces from north of the Bio Bio River under the vice toqui Loble. In 1566, Millalemo led the attack on the recently rebuilt Cañete. In 1569, he
was a leader under Llanganabal in the Battle of Catirai. He is said to have died in 1570 and ordered his body to be burned, so that he might rise
up into the clouds and keep up the war against the dead Spaniards whom he expected to find there.
'Loble, also known as Lig-lemu or Lillemu (died around 1565) was the Mapuche Vice-Toqui (Miltary Leader) of the Moluche north of the Bio-
Bio River from 1563 until his death around 1565 who led the second Mapuche revolt during the Arauco War. After a brief fight Loble defeated
the troops of captain Francisco de Vaca in the Itata River valley who were coming with reinforcements from Santiago. After Millalelmo
ambushed Spanish reinforcements coming from Angol under Juan Perez de Zurita, at a crossing of the Andalién River the Mapuche had cut off
the city and garrison of Concepcion from outside aid by land. Millalelmu and Loble besieged Concepcion with 20,000 warriors in February 1564.
The siege lasted until at the end of March two ships arrived bringing food that would permit the siege to continue for a much longer time. On
the other side the Mapuche had used up local sources of food and were finding it difficult to maintain their large force. With the harvest season

coming and with the news of their defeat in the Battle of Angol they were nervous that their families might starve or their undefended homes
might be attacked from Angol or Santiago. They raised their siege on April 1, and dispersed to their homes for the winter. The governor Pedro
de Villagra left Santiago in mid January 1565 with 150 Spaniards and 800 Indian auxiliaries and marched south to the Maule River. During the
seven months Villagra was in Santiago, Loble had built a strong pucara on the Perquilauquén River, blocking the road south to Concepcion and
in the Second Battle of Reinohuelén Villagra rapidly took it and destroyed the Mapuche army holding it. Soon afterward as Loble was bringing
up reinforcements but unaware of the defeat of his army he was ambushed, defeated and captured. In the next few months Villagra brought an
end to the Mapuche revolt north of the Bio-Bio.
Paillataru (died 1574) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1564 until his death in 1574. He succeaded Illangulién in 1564 following
his death in the Battle of Angol. Paillataru was said to be the brother or cousin of Lautaro. During the first years of his command he led raids
from time to time to ravage and plunder the possessions of the Spaniards, always avoiding a decisive conflict. In 1565, Paillataru with a body of
troops harassed the neighborhood of the city of Cañete. The Real Audiencia of Chile that had taken control of the government of Chile,
attempted to make peace with Paillataru. He conducted negotiations but with the aim to delay the conflict not end it. During the negotiations
Paillataru took the opportunity to build a pukara in a naturally strong position within two leagues of Cañete. When it became known in
Concepción of Paillataru's activity, the court lost their hopes for peace, and appointed captain Martin Ruiz de Gamboa to head an army of 100
Spaniards and 200 Indian auxiliaries with Lorenzo Bernal del Mercado as his Maestro de Campo. Gamboa's force stormed the fortress and after a
long fight captured it after setting it afire, and dispersed Paillataru's army killing 200 of them and capturing some others. Following the battle
Pedro Cortez with a party of cazadores harassed the country immediately around the city so well that for a long time the Mapuche could not
gather to conduct operations of significance. In 1568 Paillataru had collected a new army and occupied the heights of Catirai. Immediately, the
new governor Melchor Bravo de Saravia marched against the toqui with three hundred Spanish soldiers and a large number of Indian
auxiliaries. There Paillataru gave the Spaniards a defeat and the governor escaped with the remnant of his troops to Angol, where he resigned
the command of the army, appointing Gamboa as its general. Intimidated by his defeat, he ordered Gamboa to evacuate the fortress of Arauco,
leaving large numbers of horses to be captured by the Mapuche. Paillataru, who had moved from Catirai to destroy the Spanish fort at Quiapo,
marched afterward against Canete, which he attempted to besiege. However Gamboa advanced to meet him with all the troops he could raise
and in a long bloody battle compelled Paillataru to retreat. Gamboa followed up by invading Araucanian territory, intending to ravage it as they
had before but Paillataru with fresh levies returned and compelled Gamboa to retreat. Paillataru was succeeded on his death by the toqui
Paineñamcu the Mapuche name of the mestizo Alonzo Diaz.
Llanganabal was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) who led the Mapuche army that defeated the Spanish led by Martín Ruiz de Gamboa
in the Battle of Catirai in 1569. In 1560 Llanganabal is listed as one of the caciques heading an encomienda along the Bio Bio River. Shortly after
began the outbreak of the 1561 Mapuche revolt. By 1569 Llanganabal had risen to command the Araucan army with Millalelmo and other
captains as his subordinates. To resist the Spanish who had been burning the fields and houses on the south bank of the Bio Bio, Millalelmo had
built a strong fortress on a hill in Catirai in a difficult position on steep wooded slopes. Despite the warnings of Lorenzo Bernal del Mercado who
had reconoitered the position, Spaniards new to Chile and the Arauco War prevailed on Governor Melchor Bravo de Saravia to order Martín
Ruiz de Gamboa to take his command and attack the place. Meanwhile Llanganabal had gathered all his army there to resist the attack.
Gamboa's force was badly defeated while attempting to attack up the steep thickly wooded hill into Llanganabal's fortified position.
Paineñamcu or Paynenancu or Alonso Diaz (died 1584) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1574 until his death in 1584. Alonso
Diaz was a mestizo Spanish soldier offended because the Governor of Chile did not promote him to the officer rank of alféres, who subsequently
went over to the Mapuche in 1572. He took the Mapuche name of Paineñamcu and because of his military skills was elected toqui in 1574
following the death of Paillataru. He was captured in battle in 1584 and saved his life when he betrayed to his captors the location of a renegade
Spaniard and a mulato that were leaders in the Mapuche army. He was executed later that same year in Santiago, Chile when the Spanish
believed he was communicating with the rebellious Mapuche. Cayancaru succeeded him as toqui after his capture.
Cayancura or Cayeucura was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1584 until 1585. He was the Mapuche native to the region of
Marigüenu, chosen as toqui (leader) in 1584, to replace the captured Paineñamcu. His one great operation was an attempted siege of the fort at
Arauco that failed, leading to his abdication of his office in favor of his son Nangoniel in 1585.
Nangoniel was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in 1585, and son of the previous toqui Cayancaru. He was the first Toqui to use cavalry
with the Mapuche army. Following the failure of his siege of Arauco, Cayancura, retired, leaving the command of the army to his son
Nangoniel. He collected some infantry, and a hundred and fifty horse, which from then on began to be part of Mapuche armies. Nangoniel
returned to invest the Arauco fortress again, and with his cavalry it became so closely invested, that the Spaniards were unable to supply it and
were forced to evacuate it. Following this success he moved against the fort of Santísima Trinidad which protected the passage of Spnish
supplies via the Bio-bio River but clashed with a division of Spanish troops, under Francisco Hernández, where he lost an arm and had other
dangerous wounds. He retreated to a neighbouring mountain, where he was ambushed by a Spanish force and slain with 50 of his soldiers. The
same day Cadeguala was proclaimed Toqui by the Mapuche army.
Cadeguala or Cadiguala (died 1586) was the was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) elected in 1585 following the death in battle of the
previous toqui Nangoniel. Cadeguala was a noted warrior and the first Mapuche toqui known to have used cavalry successfully in battle. He was
killed in a duel with the garrison commander of the Spanish fort at Purén in 1586. While very young he entered the Mapuche army as a private,
although he was a nobleman, and gradually won promotion to the grade of general. The toqui, Cayancaru, gave him command of a strong
army to attack the city of Angol, which he did without success, but then marched to the city of Arauco, besieged and entered it. Afterward he
intended to attack Fort Trinidad, this fortress commanding the passage from Bio-bio River, but a body of Spanish troops under Francisco
Hernandez came out and defeated Cadeguala, who lost an arm and was otherwise severely wounded. This forced him to retire to the mountains.
He was followed thither by the lieutenant-governor of Chili, who attempted an ambush, only to be discovered, defeated, and killed, with 50 of
his men, November 14, 1586. On the same day Cadeguala was elected toqui by acclamation. Following his election, Cadeguala began operations
against the Spanish and then attacked Angol breaking into the city with the aid of sympathetic Indians that set fires within the town. However
the arrival of the governor Alonso de Sotomayor inspired a counterattack by the residents that had fled to the citadel driving the Mapuche back
out of the town. Deprived of success there he followed with a siege of the Spanish fort at Purén the following year with 4,000 warriors. After
driving off a relief force led by Governor Sotomayor with his 150 lancers he offered the garrison a chance to withdraw or join his army which

was refused by all but one. He next challenged the commander of the fort, Alonso García de Ramón, to single combat to decide the fate of the
fortress. The two leaders fought on horseback with lances, and Cadeguala fell, killed by his opponent's weapon in the first tilt. Even when dying,
the Mapuche warrior would not admit defeat, and tried in vain to mount his horse again. His army raised the siege but after electing Guanoalca
as toqui returned to successfully drive the poorly supplied Spanish from Purén.
Guanoalca(or Huenualca) (died 1590) was the was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) elected in 1586 following the death in battle of the
previous toqui, Cadeguala, killed in a duel with the garrison commander of the Spanish fort at Purén in 1586 and ruled until his death in 1590.
He returned to continue the siege and forced the Spanish to evacuate the fort, which he then destroyed. He then directed his army against the
Spanish fort newly built on the heights of Marihueñu but finding it too strongly held to attack he diverted his attacks against the newly
established fort of Espíritu Santo, in the valley of Catirai where the Tavolevo River meets the Bio Bio River and the fort of Santísima Trinidad on
the opposite shore. The governor Alonso de Sotomayor, evacuated Trinidad in 1591. While he was toqui in the south near Villa Rica, the female
leader Janequeo led Mapuche and Pehuenche warriors against the Spanish. The old toqui Guanoalca died at the end of 1590, and in 1591,
Quintuguenu was his successor.
Quintuguenu (died 1591) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the Arauco War elected in 1591 following the death of the old toqui
Guanoalca. He was killed in battle the same year. Paillaeco was elected as his successor in 1592.
Paillaeco (died 1592) was the was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in 1592 in place of Quintuguenu after his defeat and death. He did not
think his forces were now sufficient to oppose the Spanish in the open field and decided to draw them into an ambush. The Spanish turned the
tables on them drawing his army out of their ambush and destroyed it killing Paillaeco. Paillamachu was elected to succeed him later the same
year 1592.
Paillamachu (died 1604), was the Mapuche toqui (leader) from 1592 until his death in 1604. Paillamachu replaced the slain Paillaeco, then
organized and carried out the great revolt of 1598 that expelled the Spanish from Araucanía south of the Bío Bío River. He was succeaded upon
his death by Huenecura in 1604.
Pelantaro or Pelantarú (from the Mapuche pelontraru or "Shining Caracara") was the Mapuche Vice-Toqui (Miltary Leader) of Paillamachu,
the toqui or military leader of the Mapuche people during the Mapuche uprising in 1598. Pelantaro and his lieutenants Anganamon and
Guaiquimilla were credited with the death of the second Spanish Governor of Chile, Martín García Óñez de Loyola, during the Battle of
Curalaba on December 21, 1598. This disaster provoked a general rising of the Mapuche and the other indigenous people associated with them.
They succeeded in destroying all of the Spanish settlements south of the Bio-bio River and some to the north of it (Santa Cruz de Oñez and San
Bartolomé de Chillán in 1599). After this disaster, the following Governor, Alonso de Ribera, fixed a border and took the suggestions of the
Jesuit Luis de Valdivia to fight a defensive war. At one point, Pelantaro had both the heads of Pedro de Valdivia and Martín Óñez de Loyola and
used them as trophies and containers for chicha, a kind of alcohol. As a demonstration of peaceful intentions, he gave them up in 1608.
Pelantaro was captured in 1616 and held for a year and a half until after the death of the governor Alonso de Ribera. He was released by his
successor Fernando Talaverano Gallegos in a vain attempt to establish a peace with the Mapuche.
Millacolquin was the Mapuche Vice-Toqui (Miltary Leader) of Paillamachu, the toqui or military leader of the Mapuche people during the
Mapuche uprising in 1598.
Huenecura or Huenencura was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1604 until 1610. He replaced Paillamachu who died in 1603. He
was replaced by Aillavilu in 1610.
Aillavilu, Aillavilú II, Aillavilu Segundo was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1610 until 1612.
Anganamón, also known as Ancanamon or Ancanamun, was a prominent war leader of the Mapuche during the late sixteenth and early
seventeenth centuries and Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1612 until 1613. Anganamón was known for his tactical innovation of
mounting his infantry to keep up with his cavalry. Anganamón is said to have participated in the Disaster of Curalaba on December 23 of 1598,
which killed the Governor of Chile Martín García Oñez de Loyola. In April 1599 he led the attack on Boroa near La Imperial, where six Spanish
soldiers and indigenous auxiliaries were killed. With Pelantaro and Aillavilú he fought a pitched battle with the troops of Governor Alonso
García de Ramón in late 1609. Ramón was victorious but not without great effort. Within two years a new Spanish policy prevailed "Defensive
War" inspired by the Jesuit Luis de Valdivia who believed it was a way to end the interminable war with the Mapuche. The Toqui at that time was
Anganamón. Valdivia's bid to end the war with the Mapuche foundered following the Martyrdom of Elicura in December 1612, an event in
which the spears of Anganamón's men killed priests Horacio Vechi and Diego de Montalvan, Valdivia's emissaries to the Mapuche, in an act of
revenge when the Spanish did not return his two wives and two daughters that had escaped to Spanish territory.
Loncothegua was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1613 until 1620.
Lientur was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1618 until 1625. He was the successor to Loncothegua. Lientur with his vice toqui
Levipillan was famed for his rapid malóns or raids. Because of his ability to slip back and forth over the Spanish border between its fortresses
and patrols and raid deep into Spanish territory north of the Bio-Bio River without losses he was called the Wizard by the Spanish. In 1625 his
successor Butapichón was elected when he resigned his office when he felt himself to be too old and tired to continue as before. However a
cacique named Lientur continued to lead troops in the field. He was present leading troops at the Battle of Las Cangrejeras. A cacique of that
name also participated in the Parliament of Quillin in 1641.
Levipillan was the Mapuche Vice-Toqui (Miltary Leader) of Lientur, Toqui (leader) from 1618 until 1625.

Butapichón or Butapichún or Putapichon was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1625 until 1631, as successor to Lientur. After the
death of Quepuantú in 1632 he became toqui once again from 1632 to 1634. Butapichón as toqui lead the Mapuche in successful malones and
battles against Spanish forces. On January 24, 1630 he managed to ambush the Maestro de Campo Alonso de Córdoba y Figueroa in Pilcohué.
After Quepuantú succeaded him as Toqui the two fought the Spanish led by the very competent Governor Francisco Laso de la Vega who finally
defeated them in the pitched battle of La Albarrada on January 13, 1631. Thereafter he refused to engage in open battles against Laso de la
Vega, reverting to the Malón strategy of Lientur. The toqui Huenucalquin succeeded Butapichón.
Quepuantú (died 1632) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) 1631 until his death in 1632. He was known for his leadership in the Arauco
War and succeaded Butapichón in commanded the Mapuche army against the Spanish as Toqui, from 1631 to 1632. On January 13, 1631 he
commanded the Mapuche army with Butapichón against Spanish forces led by the very competent Governor Francisco Laso de la Vega who
defeated them in the pitched battle of La Albarrada. He died in 1632 in a duel with the cacique Loncomilla his rival for dominance in the
command of his tribe. Butapichón succeaded him as Toqui for a second time from 1632 to 1634.
Huenucalquin (died 1635) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1634 until his death in 1635.
Curanteo (died 1635) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in 1635.
Curimilla (died 1639) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1635 until his death in 1639.
Lincopinchon (died 1641) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1640 until his death in 1641.
Clentaru was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in 1655.
Alejo , Ñancú (1635-1660) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1655 until his death in 1660. He was a Chilean mestizo, who fought
in the Arauco War. He was the son of the Mapuche cacique Curivilú and the Spanish Isabel de Vivar y Castro who was captured during a
Mapuche raid. Isabel and Alejo were rescued five years later and rejoined the Spanish society. Alejo enlisted the Spanish army, but the system of
castas prevented his promotion. As a result, he deserted from the Spanish army and joined the Mapuches, being appointed toqui. Instructed in
Spanish military strategy, he posed a serious threat to his former masters, but he died in a crime of passion: after he had sex with a captured
Spanish woman his two wives murdered him. Alejandro Vivar, Isabel's father, was a Spanish soldier in the Captaincy General of Chile during the
Arauco War against the Mapuches. He led an incursion into Mapuche territory and was ambushed by them. Isabel was captured and engaged to
the cacique Curivilú. She had a son with him, known as "Alejandro de Vivar" by the Spanish and "Ñancú" by the Mapuche; but he used the
diminutive form of the name "Alejo" instead. Isabel and Alejo were rescued by the Spanish five years after Isabel's capture and returned to
Concepción. However, the caste system of the local population meant they were looked down on: Alejo was rejected as a mestizo, and Isabel for
having a son with a Mapuche. To avoid the social criticism, Isabel became a nun and lived inside a convent. Alejo was raised by Franciscans and
eventually joined the military. Alejo trained as arquebusier, but he was denied any promotion as he was a mestizo. As a result, he deserted from
the Spanish army in 1657 and joined the Mapuche. Alejo returned to the tribe of his father. The Mapuche had a more welcoming attitude
towards mestizos than the Spanish, and accepted him. Alejo was valuable to the Mapuches as he had close knowledge of the Spanish military
strategy. He informed his father about his life among the Spanish (known as "huincas" by the Mapuches), and expressed his willingness to serve
with the Mapuche against them. As the new toqui, Alejo increased espionage activity and intensified the raids of malones to steal cattle,
weapons and capture hostages. He introduced the use of incendiary devices to Mapuche warfare, which proved deadly against the city of
Concepción. To prevent the complete destruction of the city, the Spanish sent Isabel to parley with him. Alejo agreed to stop the attack because
of his love for his mother, but said "Mother, it will be very difficult for those arrogant huincas to look you in the eyes. They are haughty enough
to humiliate mestizos, but they are cowards incapable of defending themselves and have to resort to using a woman to parley with the enemy in
their name, while they are surely trembling behind those walls. The other Mapuche were unwilling to stop the attack, but Alejo quickly silenced
the objections by splitting open the head of one of the enraged Mapuche with an axe. Alejo continued his march and destroyed the forts of
Conuco and Chepe completely. He then massacred the populations of Talcamavida and Santa Juana. He celebrated one of his victories by
getting drunk and having sex with a captured Spanish woman. This angered his Mapuche wives who attacked and killed him while he was
sleeping, and then escaped to a Spanish fort. The Spanish welcomed them and gave them asylum. Víctor Hugo Silva wrote a historical novel
about Alejo, "El mestizo Alejo y la Criollita". The life of Alejo was portrayed in a Chilean historical comic written in 1973, as part of a number of
historical comic books about the history of Chile from the colonization to the Patria vieja. The episode "El mestizo Alejo" was published in issues
178 to 184, with art and scripts by Luis Ruiz Tagle. The actor Diego Ruiz took part in the documentary film Algo habrán hecho por la historia de
Chile, playing Alejo. The documentary was produced during the Bicentennial of Chile.
Misqui (died 1663) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1661 until his death in 1663.
Colicheuque (died 1663) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in 1663.
Udalevi (died 1665) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1664 until his death in 1665.
Calbuñancü (died 1665) was the Mapuche Vice-Toqui (Miltary Leader) for Udalevi, Mapuche toqui (leader) from 1664 until his death in
1665.
Ayllicuriche or Huaillacuriche (died 1673) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1672 until his death in 1673.
Millalpal or Millapán was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1692 until 1694.

Vilumilla was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) elected in 1722 to lead the Mapuche Uprising of 1723 against the Spanish for their
violation of the peace and ruled until 1726. The Mapuche resented the Spanish intruding into their territory and building forts, and also the
insolence of those officials called capitan de amigos (Captain of Friends), introduced by a clause in the Parliament of Malloco for guarding the
missionaries, but that had sought to exercise surveillance and authority over the native Mapuche which they used to establish a monopoly of the
trade in ponchos which the Mapuche found unbearable. For these grievances, they met and determined, in 1722, to create a Toqui, and have
recourse to war. Vilumilla was chosen, despite being a man of low rank, because he was one who had acquired a high reputation for his
judgment, courage and his larger strategic view of the war to come. Vilumilla set out to attack the Spanish settlements in 1723. However he was
careful to warn the missionaries to quit the country, in order to avoid any being ill treated by his army. The capture of the fort of Tucapel was
his first success and the garrison of the fort of Arauco, fearing the same fate, abandoned it. Having destroyed these two places he marched
against the fort of Purén, but the garrison commander Urrea, opposed him so effectively that he was forced to besiege it. However in a short
time the garrison was reduced to desperation from thirst, for the Mapuche had cut the aqueduct which supplied them with water. The
commander made a sortie in order to procure some water and was slain together with his soldiers. At this critical point, the governor Gabriel
Cano arrived with an army of five thousand men. Vilumilla, expecting battle immediately drew up his troops in order of battle behind a
torrential river. Seeing this position Cano, though repeatedly provoked by the Mapuche, thought it advisable to abandon Purén, and retire with
the garrison. The war afterwards became reduced to minor skirmishes, which was finally ended by the Parliament of Negrete of 1726, in which
both sides signed the Peace of Negrete, where the Treaty of Quillan was reconfirmed, a system of regulated fairs were established and the hated
title of Captain of Friends was abolished.
Curiñancu or Curignancu was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1766 until 1774 who led the Mapuche Uprising of 1766. Captain
General, Antonio de Guill y Gonzaga, undertook a fantastic scheme to gather the Araucanians into cities, despite their well known loathing of
city life. The outcome of this scheme was a renewal of the war with the Mapuche. They elected Curiñancu toqui and prepared for hostilities in
case the Spaniards should persist in this course. Two or three cities were begun, but the Mapuche demanded tools with which to work, offered
all manner of excuses for the purpose of delaying the enterprise, and finally, these efforts failing to dissuade the Spaniards from the
undertaking, they slew their superintendents and besieged the quartermaster in his camp. Governor Guill y Gonzaga retaliated by forming an
alliance with the Pehuenches. Curiñancu, ended this treasonous alliance with a sudden assault on the Pehuenches, routing them in battle. He
captured their leader, Coliguna, Curiñancu executed him. Gonzaga soon died, following the failure to accomplish his scheme, and Juan de
Balmaseda y Censano Beltrán governed for a short time until Francisco Javier de Morales y Castejón de Arrollo succeeded to the governorship.
The war with the Araucanians continued. Curiñancu and his vice toqui, Leviantu, constantly raided in Spanish territory, defeating the Spaniards
occasionally. By 1773, the war with the Mapuche had cost Spain over a million and a half dollars. Agustín de Jáuregui y Aldecoa finally agreed
to a treaty in the Parliament of Tapihue (1774) which reaffirmed the old treaties of Quillin and Negrete, and Curiñancu exacted a further
concession, that the Araucanians would be permitted to keep an embassy in Santiago, like any other independent nation.
Lebian (Lebiantu) (died September 1776) was Mapuche Vice-Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1769 until 1774, who led the Pehuenche against the
Spanish Empire in Chile following the Mapuche Uprising of 1766 during the Arauco War. During the war, in 1769 Lebian led a malón against
the region of Laja River and Los Ángeles taking cattle and destroying every estancia in their path. Spanish troops sent against him were
defeated and forced to retire to Los Ángeles. Encouraged by the victory Lebian attacked fort Santa Bárbara two days later, although repulsed
with some losses, they managed to set fire to the town and to take the cattle found in the area. At the end of the war he was part of the
delegation sent to Santiago to make peace in 1774. The same year he was also involved in a feud against the toqui Ayllapagui. In September
1776, according to Gov. Agustín de Jáuregui's policy of rewarding loyalty, Lebian was named distinguished soldier of the Spanish Army, and
travelled to the city of Los Angeles for a meeting with the Maestro de Campo Ambrosio O'Higgins. As he was returning to his country, a band
of Spaniards ambushed and killed him. One of the suspects was a captain Dionisio Contreras, but nothing was proved against him. It was
rumored that O'Higgins had arranged the death as part of a policy of eliminating by such means hostile or strong Mapuche leaders in
preference to open warfare, but O'Higgins denied responsibility for the ambush, persecuted the assassins and hanged one of them.
Lonco (Tribal Chief) of the Mapuches
A lonco or lonko (from Mapudungun longko, literally "head") is a tribal chief of the Mapuches. These were often Ulmen, the wealthier men in
the lof. In wartime, loncos of the various local rehue or the larger aillarehue would gather in a koyag or parliament and would elect a toqui to
lead the warriors in battle. "Lonco" sometimes forms part of geographical names such as the city of Loncoche (mapudungun: head of an
important person).
List of Mapuche Chiefs ("cacique lonco")
Michima Lonco (fl. mid-16th century) (michima means "foreigner" and lonco means "head" or "chief" in Mapudungun language) was
Mapuche chief, born in the Aconcagua Valley and educated in Cusco by the Inca Empire.[citation needed] He presented himself to the
Spaniards, naked and covered by a black pigmentation.He had seven wives and lived between the Jahuel Valley and Putaendo Valley. On
September 11, 1541, Michimalonco attacked the newly founded Spanish settlement of Santiago, Chile after seven caciques were taken hostage
by Spaniards following an uprising. Michimalonco was said to lead 8,000 to 20,000 men. The defense of the outnumbered town was led by Inés
de Suárez, a female conquistador, while commander Pedro de Valdivia was elsewhere. Much of the town was destroyed when Suárez decapitated
one of the caciques herself and had the rest decapitated to surprise the natives. The natives were then driven off by the Spanish. After fighting
the Spaniards, he fled to the Andes mountain valleys. There he hid for a couple of years but feeling homesick he came back to the valley and
allied his forces with the Spaniards and went to fight the Mapuches on the south. He was reputedly raised in Cuzco and acquired a Quechua
accent when speaking his native language, therefore he was named the "Foreigner Chief".
Colocolo (from Mapudungun "colocolo", mountain cat) was a Mapuche leader ("cacique lonco") in the early period of the
Arauco War. He was a major figure in Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga's epic poem La Araucana, about the early Arauco War. In the
poem he was the one that proposed the contest between the rival candidates for Toqui that resulted in the choice of Caupolicán.
As a historical figure there are some few contemporary details about him. Stories of his life were written long after his lifetime
and display many points of dubious historical accuracy. Pedro Mariño de Lobera listed Colocolo as one of the caciques that

offered submission to Pedro de Valdivia after the Battle of Penco. Jerónimo de Vivar in his Chronicle of the Kingdom of Chile (1558), describes
Colocolo as one of the Mapuche leaders with 6,000 warriors and one of the competitors for Toqui of the whole Mapuche army following the
Battle of Tucapel. Millarapue also a leader of 6,000 men, but old and not a candidate for the leadership, was the one who presuaded them to quit
arguing among themselves and settle the matter with a contest of strength between them which resulted in the victory of Caupolicán who
became Toqui. Lobera later says Colocolo and Peteguelen were the leaders that discovered the advance of the army of Francisco de Villagra and
summoned all the people who could fight from the neighboring provinces to oppose the Spanish in the battle of Battle of Marihueñu. He was
one of the commanders under Lautaro at the second destruction of Concepción on December 4, 1555. He also lists Colocolo as one of
Caupolicán's lieutenants in the battle of Battle of Millarapue against García Hurtado de Mendoza. Lobera also says he was one of the major
leaders of the Arauco area to submit to Mendoza after the Battle of Quiapo and the reestablishment of the fortress of San Felipe de Araucan in
1559. He is also said to have given Mendoza warning of the assassination plot of Mecial. Alonso de Góngora Marmolejo in his History of All the
Things that Have happened in the Kingdom of Chile mentions Colocolo in 1561 as a principal leader in Arauco and is said to be a friend until
death to the Spanish. He was consulted by Pedro de Villagra about the way to defeat the first outbreak of the second great Mapuche revolt that
began that year. It says he advised them to storm a fortress the rebels had built and that such a defeat would end the rebellion. Later, in the
following year after Villagra had evacuated the city of Cañete revealing Spanish weakness, Colocolo was prevailed on by the rebellious
Mapuche in Arauco to take command of their army. At his order Millalelmo laid siege to the fort of Arauco and other leaders the fort of Los
Infantes. Juan Ignacio Molina follows Ercilla's account of Colocolo as the wise elder, in his The Geographical, Natural and Civil History of Chili,
Vol. II, (1808). He claims Colocolo was killed in the 1558 Battle of Quiapo. Claims are Colocolo held the position of "Toqui de la Paz" (Peace
Chief) but took over strategic duties when Spanish conquest began, becoming the head of the native Mapuche forces against these invaders.
Some others believe his death happened during the great famine and typhus epidemic in 1554-1555. Colocolo, is a symbol of heroic courage,
bravery, and wisdom who fought and never surrendered to the Spaniards. Remembered as Ercilla's 60-something elder widely respected by
mapuche people, among his captains we can find headchiefs whose names are part of Chile's present geography: Paicaví, Lemo, Lincoyán,
Elicura and Orompello, just to name a few. One of the most popular Chiliean football clubs, Colo-Colo, was named after this warrior.
Ignacio Coliqueo (Boroa, 1786 - Los Toldos, February 16, 1871) was a Lonco (Cacique) of Mapuche people who led a community from
Araucanía to install in 1861 in the area that later would be called Los Toldos, in the province of Buenos Aires in Argentina.
Calfucurá also known as Juan Calfucurá or Cufulcurá (late 1770-1873), was a leading Mapuche lonco and military figure in
Patagonia in the 19th century. He crossed the Andes from Chile to the Pampas around 1830 after a call from the governor of
Buenos Aires, Juan Manuel de Rosas, to fight the Boroanos tribe. Calfucurá succeeded in ending the military power of the
Boroanos when he massacred a large part of them in 1834 during a meeting for trade. In 1859 he attacked Bahía Blanca in
Argentina with 3,000 warriors. The decision of planning and executing the Conquest of the Desert was probably triggered by the
1872 assault of Calfucurá and his 6,000 followers on the cities of General Alvear, Veinticinco de Mayo and Nueve de Julio, where
300 criollos were killed, and 200,000 heads of cattle taken.
Mañil or Magnil was a Mapuche chief who fought in the 1851 Chilean Revolution and led an uprising in 1859. He was the main chief of the
Arribanos and the father of Quilapán who led Mapuche forces in the Occupation of Araucanía.
José Santos Quilapán or simply Quilapán was a Mapuche chief active in the Mapuche resistance to the Occupation of
Araucanía (1861-1883). He was the main chief of the Arribanos and inherited his charge as chief from his father Mañil.
Venancio Coñuepan or Coñuepán (also Coihue Pan, Coyhuepán and Benancio) (died 1836) was the Lonco (Cacique) of Mapuche people in
Lumaco area and Chol Chol in Chile who participated in the War of Independence of Chile. He spoke Spanish and collaborated with the patriot
army during the War of Independence. He is considered a personal friend of Bernardo O'Higgins from the days when he administered his estate
of Las Canteras.
Marcelino Chagallo or Chagayo, known as Utraillán (died 1912) was the Mapuche Chief in the southern region of the present Province of
Neuquen, Patagonia in Argentina since the death of Cacique Chocorí in 1834 until 1850s when Sayhueque assuming command during 1850s.
Foyel was the Mapuche Chief in the southern region of the present Province of Neuquen, Patagonia in Argentina in the second
half 19th century.
Rayel was the Mapuche Chief in the southern region of the present Province of Neuquen, Patagonia in Argentina in the second half 19th
century.
Valentine Sayhueque (around 1818 - September 8, 1903) was the Mapuche Chief in the southern region of the present
Province of Neuquen, Patagonia in Argentina in the second half 19th century.

Tehuelche people
The Tehuelche people is a collective name for some native tribes of Patagonia and the southern pampas region in Argentina and Chile.
Tehuelche is a Mapudungun word meaning "Fierce People". They were also called Patagons, thought to mean “big feet”, by Spanish explorers,
who found large footprints made by the tribes on the Patagonian beaches. These large footprints were actually made by the guanaco leather
boots that the Tehuelche used to cover their feet. It is possible that the stories of the early European explorers about the Patagones, a race of
giants in South America, are based on the Tehuelche, because the Tehuelche were typically tall, taller than the average European of the time.
According to the 2001 census (INDEC), 4,300 Tehuelche lived in the provinces of Chubut and Santa Cruz, and an additional 1,637 in other parts
of Argentina. There are now no Tehuelche tribes living in Chile, though some Tehuelche were assimilated into Mapuche groups over the years.
The Tehuelche people have a history of over 14,500 years in the region, based on archeological findings. Their pre-Columbian history is divided
in three main stages: a stage with highly-sized rock tools, a stage where the use of bolas prevailed over the peaked projectiles, and a third one of
highly complex rock tools, each one with a specific purpose. The nomadic lifestyle of Tehuelches left scarce archeological evidence of their past.
They were hunter-gatherers living as nomads. During the winters they lived in the lowlands, catching fish and shellfish. During the spring they
migrated to the central highlands of Patagonia and the Andes Mountains, where they spent the summer and early fall, and hunted game.
Although they developed no original pottery, they are well known for their cave paintings. The Spanish arrived in the early 16th century. On
March 31, 1520, the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan landed and made contact with the Tehuelche people. The Spanish never colonized
their lands, with the exception of some coastal settlements and a few missions. It took more than 300 years before the Argentine government
occupied the southern Patagonia. As nomads, the Tehuelche lived with limited possessions, as they had to move across long distances. Their
rock tools were usually made of obsidian or basalt, as those rocks were malleable but not so soft that they broke too easily. Those rocks,
however, could be found in only certain parts of Patagonia, so the Tehuelche had to make long journeys to renew their supplies. The Tehuelche
hunted many species in the Patagonia, including whales, sea mammals, small rodents and sea birds; their main prey was guanacos and Rheas.
Both species were usually found at the same places, as the rheas eat the larvae that grow in the guanaco's manure. Everything from the guanaco
was used by the Tehuelche: the meat and blood were used for food, the fat to grease their bodies during winter, and the hide to make clothing
and canopies. The Tehuelches also gathered fruits that grew during the Patagonian summer. Those fruits were the only sweet foods in their diet.
The Tehuelche originally spoke Tehuelche, also known as Aonikenk, a Chon language. Later, with the Araucanization of Patagonia, many tribes
started to speak variants of Mapudungun. Their name, Tehuelche, comes from that language.
List of Caciques (chiefs) of the Tehuelche people
Lozano Cacapol (died 1735) was a Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people ruled in the area of Huilin, on the Negro River in today's
Argentina from 1715 until his death in 1735. He was recognized as the first chief of the "mountain pampas" or leuvuches, as he called Falkner.
Cangapol (died 1752) was a Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people ruled in the area of Huilin, on the Negro River in today's
Argentina from 1735 until his death in 1752. He was the chieftain of the nomadic Leuvuche people, who moved through a huge
area from the Negro River to the Vulcan hills, today known as Tandilia hills, between the modern cities of Tandil and Mar del
Plata. The Leuvuches were in fact called Serranos (people from the hills) by the Spaniards. In 1751, Cangapol and his warriors
expelled the Jesuits from Laguna de los Padres and destroyed the settlement built by them five years before. In 1753, he became an
allied of the Spaniards against the Mapuches, who used to take profit of the Leuvuches' plunder raids north of the Salado river and
then sought safe haven in Chile, leaving the Leuvuches to face the Spanish retaliation alone. He died the same year and was
succeeded by his son Nicolás.
Nicoláswas a Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people ruled in the area of Huilin, on the Negro River in today's Argentina from 1752 until ?.
Maria Grande, María la Vieja (died 1840 or 1848) was the Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people in Patagonia, Argentina in the early
nineteenth century. Her power spanned virtually the entire Patagonia, from Punta Arenas to Carmen de Patagones and the Black River. It was
called "the Great" by Luis Vernet, referring to the Russian Empress Catherine II of Russia, when he met her in 1823 in Peninsula Valdes.
Chocorí (died 1834) was a Lonko (Chief) of the Tehuelche people in Patagonia, Argentina ruled in much of the territory of the present
province of Colorado River between the rivers Black, Black and Limay and near Bahia Blanca and the Sierra de la Ventana in the province of
Buenos Aires during the first decades of the nineteenth century, setting up camp on the Big Island of Choele Choel. He died in 1834 in a clash
with troops of Colonel Francisco Sosa, to pursue outstanding, belonging to the column of this first campaign of the Desert commanded by
General Angel Pacheco.
Loncopán also known as Lonkopan (died April 17, 1853), was a Tschen Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people and also a general of the
Argentine Army. He was son of Al-Aan. He was part of the Boreal Tehuelches Tschen, sometimes confused with the Pampas and Puelches
günün a künna. Of nomadic character, the tschen travelled through the south area of the provinces of Buenos Aires, La Pampa and Cordoba. He
forged alliances with Calfulcurá and received protection from Don Juan Manuel de Rosas. Tried the peaceful unification of all Native nations in
a large American Native Confederation (Confederación Indígena Americana), but the lack of communications and the disparity of interests
made it fail. He had a large army and controlled much of the strategic "rastrillas" (trade routes) in southern Buenos Aires province. After the

battle of Caseros, he refused to participate in the war against the Government, causing a rupture with the chief Cafulcurá. Flanked by internal
divisions, the tribe is attacked and absorbed by the tehuelches of Gervasio Chipitruz.
Casimiro Fourmantin, Casimiro Bigua (1819/1820-1874) was a Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people from 1840 until his
death in 1874.
Papón (died 1892) was a Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people from 1874 until his death in 1892. He was the son of Cacique
Casimiro Bigua, and brother of the Cacique Mulato.
Mulato, whose Indian name was Chumjaluwün (died 1905) was a Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people from 1892 until his
death in 1905. He was the son of Cacique Casimiro Bigua, and brother of the Cacique Papon.
Inacayal (1835-1888) was a cacique (chief) of the Tehuelche people in Patagonia, Argentina who led a resistance
against government. They were hunter-gatherers who had a nomadic society, and had long been independent of the
Argentine government established in coastal areas. He was one of the last indigenous rulers to resist the Argentine
Conquest of the Desert in the late 19th century and its resultant campaigns. He did not surrender until 1884. His
hospitality to Francisco Moreno during the explorer's 1880 expedition to Patagonia was recalled after his surrender,
which was covered by the press. Moreno argued with the government on his behalf to spare Inacayal time in military
prison. In exchange, Moreno studied him for anthropology. Along with others in his clan, Inacayal was studied for his resemblance to
"prehistoric man." After his death in 1888, anthropologists displayed the indigenous chief's brain and skeleton as an exhibit in the
anthropological museum in Buenos Aires. His remains were finally returned to his people in 1994 for reinterment in the Comunidad Tehuelche
Mapuche of Chubut Province.
Pichi Curuhuinca was a northern, or guennekenk, Tehuelche leader in the late 19th century in Patagonia, Argentina.
Chikichan was a northern, or guennekenk, Tehuelche leader in the late 19th century in Patagonia, Argentina.
Salpul (also called Salpu and Juan Salpú) was a northern, or guennekenk, Tehuelche leader in the late 19th century in Patagonia, Argentina.
He allied with the tribes of Sayhueque, Inacayal, and Foyel (the last Patagonian indigenous chieftains who refused to recognize the Argentine
government). They fought against the Argentine Army during the Conquest of the Desert. In 1897, Salpul and a shaman named Cayupil
(Caypül) tried to organize an uprising against the government. Their activities were quickly discovered by the authorities. Salpul was arrested
and taken to Buenos Aires, but he was released within a month and returned home. Afterward he allied his people with the tribe of his relative
Juan Sacamata. Between the 1890s and 1900, both lived in Nueva Lubecka, located in the Genoa Valley, Chubut province. Salpul died some
years later in Pastos Blancos, near the Senguerr river.
Ancafilú (died 1823) was Chief (Cacique) of the plains Indian tribes that inhabited the mountains of Tandil of the Province of Buenos Aires in
Argentina from 1820 until his death in 1823.
Cachul was Chief (Cacique) who established himself with his tribe on the banks of Tapalque, Province of Buenos Aires in 1845.
Dynasty of Catriel
Dynasty of Catriel was a Indian Dynasty which ruled in the nineteenth century in the Province of Buenos Aires.
List of Chiefs (Cacique) of the dynasty of Catriel

Juan Catriel, called "Old" (c.1770-1848) was Chief (Cacique) who lived in the nineteenth century in the Province of Buenos Aires
and ruled in pampas, characterized by friendship and appreciation for the Creoles who colonized the coast of Rio de la Plata to the
Salado River. He was the father of John "the Younger" Catriel. On many occasions the tribe of Juan Catriel collaborated with the
authorities to prevent the looting of Aucas Chilean rebels and renegade Christian groups and flooding the Argentina campaign. In
1827 he had collaborated with the colonel Federico Rauch. He was a collaborator and assistant in the expedition of Juan Manuel de
Rosas to the desert in 1833 and collaborated with him the Fracamá, Reilet, Venancio Cayupán, Llanquelén, Cachul chiefs and others.
At his death in 1848 he succeeded him in command of his tribe his son John "the Younger" Catriel. Indigenous known later as
catrieleros live today in small properties that stays close to the town of Los Toldos in the Province of Buenos Aires.
Juan Catriel, called "the Younger" (died 1866) was Chief (Cacique) of the dynasty of Catriel in the Province of Buenos Aires and
ruled in pampas from 1848 until his death in 1866. He was son of the Chief (Cacique) Juan Catriel, called "Old" .
Cipriano Catriel (died November 26, 1874) was Chief (Cacique) of the dynasty of Catriel in the Province of Buenos Aires and
ruled in pampas from 1866 until his death on November 26, 1874. He was son of the Chief (Cacique) Juan Catriel, called "the
Younger."
Juan Jose Catriel (died 1879) was Chief (Cacique) of the dynasty of Catriel in the Province of Buenos Aires and ruled in pampa
from 1874 until his death in 1879. He was son of the Chief (Cacique) Juan Catriel, called "the Younger" and brother of Chief
(Cacique) Cipriano Catriel.
Marcelino Catriel was Chief (Cacique) of the dynasty of Catriel in the Province of Buenos Aires and ruled in
pampas in he late 1870s. He was son of the Chief (Cacique) Juan Catriel, called "the Younger" and brother of Chief
(Cacique) Cipriano Catriel and Chief (Cacique) Juan Jose Catriel.
Huarpes (Warpes) tribe
The Huarpes or Warpes are indigenous inhabitants of Cuyo, in Argentina. Some scholars assume that in the Huarpe language, this word means
"sandy ground," but according Arte y Vocabulario de la lengua general del Reino de Chile, written by Andrés Fabres in Lima in 1765, the word
Cuyo comes from Araucanian cuyum puulli, meaning "sandy land" or "desert country". Huarpe people settled in permanent villages beginning
in the 5th century CE. About 50 to 100 people lived in a village, making them smaller than Diaguita settlements. They were agrarian people
who grew corn (Zea mays), beans, squash, and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). Towards the 15th century, Huarpe territory expanded into the
current Argentinian provinces of San Luis, Mendoza and San Juan and even on the north of the Neuquen Province. They inhabited between the
Jáchal River at north, to the Diamante River at south and between the Andes and Conlara Valley on San Luis. They were never fully part of the
Incan Empire, but were influenced by Inca culture and adopted llama ranching and the Quechua language after 1480. Chilean encomenderos
who had encomiendas in Cuyo introduced to Chile indigenous Huarpes who they hired to other Spaniards without encomiendas.
List of Chiefs (Cacique) of Huarpes (Warpes) tribe
Juan Huarpe de Angaco was a Chief (Cacique) of Huarpes or Warpes, indigenous inhabitants of Cuyo, in Argentina during 1560s. He
ruled over the lands north of the valley of Tulum.
San Juan Pismanta was a Chief (Cacique) of Huarpes or Warpes, indigenous inhabitants of Cuyo, in Argentina during 1560s. He ruled the
villages north of the province and was a contemporary of Cacique Angaco peoples who ruled south.
Comechingón (Comechingones) people

Comechingón (plural Comechingones) is the common name for a group of people indigenous to the Argentine provinces of Córdoba and San
Luis. They were thoroughly displaced or exterminated by the Spanish conquistadores by the end of the 17th Century. The two main
Comechingón groups called themselves Henia (in the north) and Kamiare (in the south), each subdivided into a dozen or so tribes. The name
comechingón is a deformation of the pejorative term kamichingan "cave dwellers" used by the Sanavirón tribe. They were sedentary, practiced
agriculture yet gathered wild fruits, and raised animals for wool, meat and eggs. Their culture was heavily influenced by that of the Andes.
Several aspects seem to differentiate the Henia-Kamiare from inhabitants of nearby areas. They had a rather Caucasian appearance, with beards
and supposedly a minority with greenish eyes. Another distinctive aspect was their communal stone houses, half buried in the ground to endure
the cold, wind and snow of the winter. Their language was lost when Spanish politicies favoured Quechua. Nevertheless, they left a rich
pictography and abstract petroglyphs. A cultural contribution is the vowel extension in the Spanish of the present inhabitants of Córdoba, but
also not uncommon in San Luis and other neighbouring provinces. It is claimed that there are still six Comechingón families in Córdoba in the
barrio Alto alberdi. Information is available from direction de cultura Córdoba.
Chief (Cacique) of the Comechingón (Comechingones) people
Olayón (died 1620) was a Chief (Cacique) of the Comechingón (Comechingones), indigenous people from Argentine
provinces of Córdoba and San Luis from 1690 until his death in 1620. He died in combat, fighting the Spanish in singular duel
with Captain Tristan de Allende, whom he managed to kill.
Ranquel Tribe
The Ranquel are an indigenous tribe from the northern part of La Pampa Province, Argentina, in South America. With Puelche, Pehuenche and
also Patagones from the Günün-a-Küna group origins, they were conquered by the Mapuche. The name Ranquel is the Spanish name for their
own name of Rankülche: rankül -cane-, che -man, people- in Mapudungun; that is to say "cane-people" In the late 18th and early 19th centuries,
the Ranquel controlled two chiefdoms in Argentina Between 1775-1790 a group of Pehuenche advanced from the side of the Andes mountains
east to the territory they called Mamül Mapu (mamül: kindling, woods; mapu: land, territory) as it was covered by dense woods of Prosopis
caldenia, Prosopis nigra, and Geoffroea decorticans. They settled along the Cuarto and Colorado rivers, from the south of today's Argentine
provinces of San Luis, Córdoba, to the south of La Pampa. They were hunters, nomads and during a good part of the 19th century they had an
alliance with the Tehuelche people, with whom they traveled east into the western part of today's Buenos Aires Province and southern end of
Córdoba Province, and also to Mendoza, San Luis and Santa Fe. In 1833 Julio Argentino Roca led the Desert Campaign (1833–34), in which he
attempted to eliminate the Ranquel. Their leader at that time was Yanquetruz, and they put up a skilled defense, making good use of the desert
terrain. Yanquetruz was succeeded around 1834 by Painé Guor. Their last chief was Pincén, who was confined to the prison at Martín García
island (1880). They allied themselves with the forces of Felipe Varela during the rebellion against the Paraguayan War and the Central
Government in Buenos Aires. After Pincén's capture, the Ranquels were further reduced in population during the Conquest of the Desert, with
their lands being occupied by the army. A reservation, the Colonia Emilio Mitre, was established for them in today's La Pampa province, where
their descendants lived today.
List of Chiefs (Cacique) of Ranquel tribe
Máscara Verde (Green Mask) was the Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous tribe of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of La Pampa
in Argentina around 1812.
Carripilum (died 1820) was the Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous tribe of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of La Pampa in
Argentina from ? until his death in 1820.
Yanquetruz (or Llanquetruz) (died 1836) was the Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel indigenous tribe of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of
La Pampa in Argentina from around 1820 until his death in 1836 who fought the Europeans in the pampas of what is now Argentina in the
early nineteenth century. Yanquetruz's family had ruled over the region from the cordillera to the Atlantic from around 1680 to 1856, but his
authority was confined to the Ranqueles. The Ranquel people, a Mapuche tribe, were led by a chief named Máscara Verde (Green Mask) in 1812.
Yanquetruz came to these people from Chile in 1818. He had a reputation as a great warrior, and taught them techniques of war, making the
Ranquel warriors known throughout the pampas. The men of fighting age were organized into bands of between ten and thirty people whose
leader obeyed the command of the Ranquel chief. When Máscara Verde died, Yanquetruz was elected to take his place. His first major assault
was made on the settlers in Salta Province, helped by Chilean allies under a leader named Carreras. The Indian attacks were ferocious, and they
gained considerable booty. In August 1831 Yanquetruz laid siege to Villa Concepción (now Río Cuarto, Córdoba), apparently in a preemptive
strike since he had heard that a large army was preparing to attack his people. During the civil war in 1831 there were rumors that Yanquetruz
was assisting the Unitiarian side, and this may have been part of the motive for the campaign against the Indians launched soon after by Juan
Manuel de Rosas. The main reason was the Ranquels' desire to remain independent. In 1833 Rosas initiated the Desert Campaign (1833–34), an
expedition against the desert Indians. The columns led by José Félix Aldao from Mendoza Province and Ruiz Huidobro from San Luis Province
were charged with exterminating the Ranquels. Ruiz Huidobro's column had 1,000 men from the Division of the Andes and the Córdoba and La
Rioja provincial forces. He advanced at the start of March from the San Lorenzo fort towards the Quinto River in San Luis Province, intending to
surprise the Ranquels at their settlement of Leubucó. However, the Indians had been forewarned. On March 16, 1833 the troops under Huidobro

clashed with the Ranquels at a location called Las Acollaradas.[a] It was a fight with swords, spears and knives because rain prevented the use of
firearms. The result was inconclusive, and the Indians disappeared into the pampas. The Division continued its march to Leubucó, 25 leagues
from the Trapal lagoon, which Yanquetruz had abandoned. Huidobro suspected that Francisco Reinafé, chief of the troops from Córdoba, had
been the one who warned Yanquetruz of the advance. He had Reinafé relieved of his command. Yanquetruz's men harassed the Argentine
troops in a form of guerrilla warfare, disrupting their supplies and making it hard for them to get water. Huidobro was forced to retreat from
the desert in disarray. Nazario Benavídez and Martín Yanzón, both later to be provincial governors, were on the staff of the second Auxiliary
regiment of the Andes commanded by Aldao. This column gained a partial victory over chief Yanquetruz two weeks after the Las Acollaradas
action. The regiment participated in fierce fighting on March 31 and April 1, 1833 in which the Spanish prevailed but suffered considerable
losses. Rosas was furious at the damage that Yanquetruz had inflicted on his forces. In 1834 Yanquetruz returned to invade San Luis Province.
This was his last raid. Yanquetruz died in 1838 and was succeeded by Painé Guor, who was later captured and made a prisoner of Rosas.
Yanquetruz became a legend, the most famous chief in the Pampas after Calfucurá. One of the soldiers who fought Yanquetruz said it would be
difficult to find anywhere in America a more prompt, intelligent and insightful approach than the predatory raids of these Indians, and at the
same time more calm, brave and wise in making a stand against much better armed adversaries, always thinking quickly despite the noise and
confusion. Colonel Manuel Baigorria, a young officer, left the army and joined Yanquetruz. He became a close friend of the leader, and
Yanquetruz named his eldest son Baigorrita (little Baigorria). Another son, José Maria Bulnes Yanquetruz, born in 1831, became a famous
warrior in his own right.
Manuel Baigorria Gualá, alias Maricó (1809-1875) was a Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous people of Leubucó
lagoon in the present province of La Pampa in Argentina during 1840s and in early 1850s. He was a soldier who fought
in the Argentine Civil Wars. Of mixed origins, he spent many years living with the Ranqueles, an independent people
who lived to the south of the area colonized by Europeans in what is now Argentina. He was recognized as a leader by
the Ranqueles, who provided support to his Unitarian side in the civil wars. Manuel Baigorria was born in San Luis de la
Punta de los Venados around 1809, son of Blas Baigorria and Petrona Ledesma. Ignacio Fotheringham, a contemporary,
described him as short in stature but muscular, strong and agile, with reckless courage. Baigorria joined the army and
became an officer while a young man. He served under the Unitarian General José María Paz and was captured in 1831 after the Battle of Rodeo
de Chacón. It only through good luck that he avoided being included in a group of prisoners who were to be shot. Following that he decided to
live with the Ranqueles in their tolderías. Baigorria became well-established among the Ranqueles, and recognized as a leader. He became a
close friend of their chief Yanquetruz, who named his eldest son Baigorrita (little Baigorria). Over a period of forty years he had four wives,
three Christian and one a Mapuche. He became the adopted brother of the Ranquele chief Pichún. In 1838 Baigorria led a party of Ranqueles on
an unsuccessful raid into northern Buenos Aires Province and southern Santa Fe Province. Baigorria became a Colonel in the Unitarian forces.
In November 1840 he took part in a revolution in San Luis Province, and after being defeated again returned to the Ranqueles. In April 1843 he
led 600 Indians on a raid, which was repelled. In 1845 he launched a raid with 900 Indians and whites who had taken refuge in their tolderías.
The Malónes, as the raids were called, were an effective method for assisting his political allies. After the dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas fell
from power in 1852, Baigorria returned to the European side of the border. He forgot his old friendship to the point that he made several
campaigns against the Indians on the border. He also fought on both sides in the civil wars at that time, the Argentine Confederation and the
secessionist State of Buenos Aires. In his later years he advised General Julio Argentino Roca, teaching him the secrets of the desert geography
and the customs of the Indians. Roca was to make his reputation with his success against the Indians in his ruthless Conquest of the Desert.
Baigorria was sixty when he started to write his memoirs in 1868. He died on June 21, 1875 in San Luis. He died poor, but as a good soldier his
widow Lorenza Barbosa received a pension. From Baigorria's book one gathers the impression of a modest person, courageous, honest,
consistent and dependable. Although at times he led hordes of wild horsemen on raids, he was not excessively greedy or bloodthirsty, mainly
wanting foals, books and newspapers as his share of the loot. The historian Alvaro Yunque said of his life that it needed little change to make it
a novel.
Painé Güer (‘Zorro Azul’) (died 1856) was a Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous people of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of La
Pampa in Argentina from ? until his death in 1856. He was father of Chief (Cacique) Calvaiú Güer and Chief (Cacique) Panguitruz Guor.
Calvaiú Güer (died 1858) was a Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous people of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of La Pampa in
Argentina from 1856 until his death in 1858. He was son of Chief (Cacique) Painé Güer (‘Zorro Azul’) and brother of Chief (Cacique) Panguitruz
Guor.
Panguitruz Guor, better known as Mariano Rosas (Leuvucó, to 1825 - August 18, 1877) was a Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel,
indigenous people of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of La Pampa in Argentina from 1858 until his death on August 18,
1877. He was son of Chief (Cacique) Painé Güer (‘Zorro Azul’) and brother of Chief (Cacique) Panguitruz Guor.
Ramón Cabral (Nahuel, el Platero) was a Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous people of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of La
Pampa in Argentina in the late 1870s.
Pichón Huala (Pichón Gualá) was a Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous people of Leubucó lagoon in Poitahué in the present province of
La Pampa in Argentina in the late 1870s. He was confined to the prison at Martín García island in 1880.
Epumer (c. 1820-1886) was a Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous people of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of La Pampa in
Argentina in the early 1880s.
Charrúa People

The Charrúa are an indigenous people of South America in present-day Uruguay and the adjacent areas in Argentina (Entre Ríos) and Brazil
(Rio Grande do Sul). They were a semi-nomadic people that sustained themselves through fishing, hunting, and gathering. It is thought that the
Charrúa were driven south into present-day Uruguay by the Guaraní people around 4000 years ago. According to the Charrúa killed Spanish
explorer Juan Díaz de Solís during his 1515 voyage up the Río de la Plata, but this was contradicted by researchers who said that the Charrúa
people were not cannibalistic and that it was actually the Guaranis who did it. Later, it was proven that there was no direct testimony of this
moment. Following the arrival of European settlers, the Charrúa, along with the Chana, strongly resisted their territorial invasion. In the 18th
and 19th centuries the Charruas were confronted by cattle exploitation that strongly altered their way of life, causing famine and forcing them
to rely on cows and sheep. Unfortunately, those were in that epoch increasingly privatized. Malones (raids) were resisted by settlers who freely
shot any indigenous people who were in their way. Later, Fructuoso Rivera, Uruguay's first president, who possessed a hacienda organized the
Charruas's genocide. Since April 11, 1831, when the Salsipuedes (meaning "Get-out-if-you-can") campaign was launched by a group led by
Bernabé Rivera, nephew of Fructuoso Rivera, it is said that the Charruas were extinct. Four surviving Charrúas were captured at Salsipuedes.
They were Senacua Sénaqué, a medicine man; Vaimaca-Pirú Sira, a warrior; and a young couple, Laureano Tacuavé Martínez and María Micaëla
Guyunusa. All four were taken to Paris, France, in 1833, where they were exhibited to the public. They all soon died in France, including a baby
daughter born to Sira and Guyunusa, and adopted by Tacuavé. The child was named María Mónica Micaëla Igualdad Libertad by the Charrúas,
yet she was filed by the French as Caroliné Tacouavé. A monumental sculpture, Los Últimos Charrúas was built in their memory in
Montevideo, Uruguay. Since the 80's - after Uruguay's last dictatorship -, a group of people is affirming and revendicating their Charruan
ancestry.
Chief (Cacique) of Charrúa People
Cabari (died December 1, 1715) was the last Chief (Cacique) of Charrúa, indigenous people of South America in present-day Uruguay who
harassed for several years resisted the Spaniards, being the only tribe that remained in Uruguay. In 1707 he was severely beaten by the
Spaniards, still, despite their efforts, defeated and killed. Individuals of his tribe eventually also disappear gradually. Cabari (or Caravy or
Caberi) which some consider him the most important leader of the eighteenth century the Uruguayan territory in recorded history. In 1707 he
was imprisoned and escaped by an uprising that had several major periods until they kill him on December 1, 1715 in what is now Entre Rios,
Argentina.
"Poyais"
On April 29, 1820, George Frederic Augustus, King of the Miskito Kingdom signed a document granting MacGregor and his heirs a substantial
swathe of Mosquito territory 8,000,000 acres (12,500 square miles), an area larger than Wales in exchange for rum and jewellery. The land was
pleasing to the eye but unfit for cultivation and could sustain little in the way of livestock. Its area was roughly a triangle with corners at Cape
Gracias a Dios, Cape Camarón and the Black River's headwaters. MacGregor dubbed this area "Poyais" after the natives of the highlands around
the Black River's source, the Paya or "Poyer" people (today called the Pech) and in mid-1821 appeared back in London calling himself the
Cazique of Poyais "Cazique", a Spanish-American word for a native chief, being equivalent in MacGregor's usage to "Prince". He claimed to have
been created such by the Mosquito king, but in fact both the title and Poyais were of his own invention. Despite Rafter's book, London society
remained largely unaware of MacGregor's failures over the past few years, but remembered successes such as his march to Barcelona; similarly
his association with the "Die-Hards" of the 57th Foot was recalled, but his dubious early discharge was not. In this climate of a constantly shifting
Latin America, where governments rose, fell and adopted new names from year to year, it did not seem so implausible that there might be a
country called Poyais or that a decorated general like MacGregor might be its leader. The Cazique became "a great adornment for the dinner
tables and ballrooms of sophisticated London", Sinclair writes rumours abounded that he was partially descended from indigenous royalty. His
exotic appeal was enhanced by the arrival of the striking "Princess of Poyais", Josefa, who had given birth to a girl named Josefa Anna Gregoria
at MacGregor's sister's home in Ireland.[90] The MacGregors received countless social invitations, including an official reception at Guildhall
from the Lord Mayor of London.
Chief ("Cazique") of "Poyais"
Gregor MacGregor(December 24, 1786 – December 4, 1845) was a Scottish soldier, adventurer and confidence
trickster who from 1821 until 1837 attempted to draw British and French investors and settlers to "Poyais", a fictional
Central American territory he claimed to rule as "Cazique". Hundreds invested their savings in supposed Poyaisian
government bonds and land certificates, while about 270 emigrated to MacGregor's invented country in 1822–23 to
find only an untouched jungle; over half of them died. MacGregor's Poyais scheme has been called "the most
audacious fraud in history" and "the greatest confidence trick of all time". Born into the Clan Gregor in Stirlingshire,
MacGregor purchased a commission in the British Army in 1803 and from 1809 to 1810 served in the Peninsular War
in Portugal and Spain, latterly as a major seconded to the Portuguese Army. He left the British service in 1810 and
two years later joined the republican side in the Venezuelan War of Independence, initially as a colonel. He quickly
became a general and over the next four years operated against the Spanish on behalf of both Venezuela and its
neighbour New Granada; his successes included a difficult month-long fighting retreat through northern Venezuela
to Barcelona in 1816. Under a mandate from Latin American revolutionary agents to conquer Florida from the Spanish, MacGregor captured
Amelia Island in 1817 and there proclaimed a short-lived "Republic of the Floridas". He returned home to recruit British officers and men, then
oversaw two calamitous operations in New Granada during 1819 that each ended with him abandoning his troops. On his permanent return to
Britain in 1821, MacGregor claimed that King George Frederic Augustus of the Mosquito Coast in the Gulf of Honduras had created him

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