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Gros Ventre Indians
The Gros Ventre (English pronunciation: /ˈɡroʊvɑːnt/; from French: "big belly"),[1] also known as the A'ani, A'aninin, Haaninin, and Atsina, are a
historically Algonquian-speaking Native American people located in north central Montana. Today the Gros Ventre people are enrolled in the
Fort Belknap Indian Community of the Fort Belknap Reservation of Montana, a federally recognized tribe with 3,682 enrolled members, that
also includes Assiniboine people or Nakoda people, the Gros Ventre's historical enemies.
List of Chiefs of the Gros-Ventres Indians
Mexkemahuastan was Chief of the Gros-Ventres of the Prairies during 1830s.
White Eagle(died February 9, 1881) was "the last major Chief of the Gros Ventre people"in the second half 19th century, died "at the mouth
of the Judith River" on February 9, 1881.
Sinkiuse-Columbia Indians
The Sinkiuse-Columbia were a Native American tribe so-called because of their former prominent association with the Columbia River. They
called themselves .tskowa'xtsEnux, or .skowa'xtsEnEx (meaning has something to do with "main valley"), or Sinkiuse. They applied the name
also to other neighboring Interior Salish peoples. The name may have belonged originally to a band which once inhabited the Umatilla Valley.
Chief of the Sinkiuse-Columbia Indians
Chief Moses (born Kwiltalahun, later called Sulk-stalk-scosum - "The Sun Chief") (c. 1829–March 25, 1899) was a Native
American chief of the Sinkiuse-Columbia, in what is now Washington State. The territory of his tribe extended
approximately from Waterville to White Bluffs, in the Columbia Basin. They were often in the area around Moses Lake. The
tribe numbered perhaps a few hundred individuals. The boy who would become Chief Moses was the third son of Chief
Sulk-stalk-scosum; his mother was Sulk-stalk-scosum's senior wife Kanitsa. He had two older brothers and four younger
ones. In childhood he was named Loo-low-kin (Head Band), but in later life Chief Moses took the name of his father, Sulk-
stalk-scosum. His people lived in the Moses Lake area. At the age of nine, he so impressed the missionary Henry H.
Spalding that he was invited to be educated at the Presbyterian Mission of Lapwai, Idaho, where for three years he learned
the ways of whites and also made extensive contacts with Nez Perce, in whose territory the Mission was located. He became fluent in several
languages, including English, Nez Perce, Spokane, Colville and Yakima, a skill that served him later in life. It was at the mission where he was
given the Christian name "Moses" by Spalding, which he would go by for the rest of his life despite never officially becoming a Christian. At the
time of the Yakima War, his brother Kwilninuk was chief of the Sinkiuse-Columbia; Moses had a minor role and following their defeat in 1858
surrendered in Chewelah. While Moses was away from the tribe, being examined and later negotiating, the tribe proclaimed him their chief;
when he returned to their encampment near Ephrata, he assumed the duties and the name of his deceased father. He was chief of the Sinkiuse-
Columbia for forty years, during which time white encroachment increased and so did conflict. He worked pragmatically to preserve his people
by accommodation to the changing circumstances. In 1878, a white couple was murdered near Rattlesnake Springs by renegade Bannock and
Paiute Indians.[4] The military, however, blamed the incident on Chief Moses. He was captured near present day O'Sullivan Dam and stood trial
in Yakima, where he was acquitted.[5] The next year Chief Moses made his first trip to Washington, D.C., and met with President Rutherford B.
Hayes. He was quoted as telling the president, "you want this god forsaken land, fine." According to Tribal records, Chief Moses was ordered to
Washington on Feb 12, 1879. The charges against him for the murders of Mr. & Mrs. Perkins were dismissed on August 1879, after his trip to
Washington D.C. It probably was an interesting meeting. Chief Moses probably thought that the verdict in his upcoming murder trial would
depend upon whether he agreed to give up his land. On April 18, 1879, the United States set aside the Columbia Reservation for Chief Moses
and his tribe. The tribe agreed to cede their Columbia Basin territory, which was then opened for homesteading. The new reservation was
bordered on the east by the Okanogan River (the western boundary of the Colville Indian Reservation), on the south by the Columbia River, on
the west by the Chelan River, Lake Chelan and the crest of the Cascade Mountains, and on the north by the international boundary with Canada.
This was some distance away from the tribe's original range (which was south of the Columbia), and the terrain was very different.
Approximately the same boundaries formed the Okanogan and Similkameen Mining District, originally organized in 1860. Lead and silver ore
had been found in Toad's Coulee near the Canadian border. The white settlers, miners and ranchers mostly, held a meeting on July 9, 1879 near
Lake Osoyoos and drew up resolutions opposing the creation of the reservation and asking the government to appraise the value of their
properties for compensation if the reservation did go ahead. Interior Secretary Carl Schurz turned the matter over to the Bureau of Indian
Affairs, with instructions that the white settlers would suffer no harm. Moses, however, had little respect for the Bureau and more for the army,
so the army was given the job of administering the reservation. The army set up a camp at the southern end of Lake Chelan to do this. Chief
Moses complained about the white settlers on the reservation, since he had been promised whites would be kept out. Colonel Henry C.
Merriman, the army commander, sent Captain H.C. Cook north on August 19, 1880 to list and assess the improvements made by the white
settlers and to ask them to leave. He did this for seven settlers, estimating the value of their property at $3,577, much less than the owners'
estimate of $11,000. In late 1880 or in 1881 the military determined that there were 17 bona fide white residents of the region prior to April 18,
1879. However fewer than 100 members of Moses's tribe had moved to the reservation. Chief Moses himself did not live there, having relocated
to the Colville Reservation just to the east of the Columbia Reservation when his tribe was expelled from the Columbia Basin. The settlers
began a lobbying campaign to abolish the reservation and move the Sinkiuse-Columbia to the Colville Indian Reservation. Failing that, they
asked for the return to white settlement of that portion of the reservation within 10 miles (16 km) of Canada. (Nearly all the mining claims were
within that region.) Violence broke out in 1882, with angry white settlers destroying Indian property. General Miles also feared an Indian
uprising. Order was soon restored, however. On February 23, 1883, President Chester A. Arthur signed an executive order restoring a 15-mile (24
km) wide strip along the Canadian border to the public domain. Chief Moses and other delegates were taken to Washington, D.C. for a
conference to resolve the outstanding issues. An agreement was reached on July 7, 1883 for the government to purchase the entire Columbia
Reservation from the Indians. Those families formerly assigned to the reservation were to be given the choice of moving to the Colville
Reservation or taking allotments of one section (1 sq mi or 2.6 km²) of land each. By act of Congress on July 4, 1884, the entire reservation was
restored to the public domain. On May 1, 1886 it was formally reopened for white settlement. The influx of settlers was so great that Okanogan
County (roughly the same area as the Columbia Reservation) was split from Stevens County two years later. Chief Moses died in 1899 on the
Colville Reservation. He was buried there, near Nespelem, Washington. Chief Moses once asked a follower to count the grains of sand in a pile.
"There are too many," said the man. "It is the same with whites," replied Moses, "There are too many." Moses Lake, Moses Coulee, and the city of
Moses Lake are named for Chief Moses. One of the two junior high schools in Moses Lake is also named for Chief Moses.
Odawa Indians
The Odawa (also Ottawa or Odaawaa /oʊˈdɒwə/), said to mean "traders," are a Native American and First Nations people. They are one of the
Anishinaabeg, related to but distinct from the Ojibwe and Potawatomi people. Their original homelands are located on Manitoulin Island, near
the northern shores of Lake Huron, on the Bruce Peninsula in the present-day province of Ontario, Canada and in the state of Michigan, United
States. There are approximately 15,000 Odawa living in Ontario, Michigan and Oklahoma. The Odawa language is considered a divergent
dialect of the Ojibwe, characterized by frequent syncope. The Odawa language, like the Ojibwe language, is part of the Algonquian language
family. They also have smaller tribal groups or “bands” commonly called “Tribe” in the United States and “First Nation” in Canada. The Odawa
people formerly lived along the Ottawa River but now live especially on Manitoulin Island.
List of Chiefs of Odawa Indians
Cobmoosa (1768 - 1866) was an Ottawa leader. Some sources claim he was the son of Antoine Campau and his wife,
who was said to have been the daughter of an Ottawa chief. Originally he and his followers lived in the vicinity of
Grand Rapids, Michigan. He was incharge of a band of Ottawa in Ionia, Michigan. He was the leader of the Ojibwe
who sold their crops to the initial settlers of Ionia in 1833. He was also among those who went with Rix Robinson to
negotiate a treaty for removal to Indian Territory, but he like other Ojibwe resisted that removal. In 1855 he signed a
treaty with the federal government to relocate to Oceana County, Michigan. The government built a log cabin for him
in Cobmoosa, Michigan and he along with 1300 others were located by 1858. He was buried in Elbridge, Michigan.
Egushawa (c.1726 – March 1796), also spelled Egouch-e-ouay, Agushaway, Agashawa, Negushwa, and many other variants, was a war chief
and principal political chief of the Ottawa tribe of North American Indians. His name is loosely translated as "The Gatherer" or "Brings
Together" (c.f. Ojibwe agwazhe'waa, "to quilt something(s); to blanket someone(s)"). As a leader in two wars against the United States, Egushawa
was one of the most influential Native Americans of the Great Lakes region in the late eighteenth century. Egushawa first appears in historical
records in 1774, when he signed an indenture granting an island in the Detroit River to Alexis Masonville in 1774, not far from the British Army
outpost of Fort Detroit. Nothing is known for certain about his life before that time. He was likely born in the Detroit River region, in what is
now Michigan or Ontario. He came to prominence as a successor to Pontiac, the famous Ottawa leader, to whom he may have been related.
Egushawa may have fought against the British during the French and Indian War (1754–1763) as an ally of the French. When the American
Revolutionary War (1775–1783) began, Egushawa was living in a village at the mouth of the Maumee River, the location of the present-day
Toledo, Ohio. Egushawa supported the efforts of the British in Fort Detroit to recruit American Indians allies in order to attack U.S. settlements
in Kentucky. In April 1777, he traveled with British officials to Vincennes to help forge an alliance with some of the Wabash tribes. For his
efforts, Henry Hamilton, British lieutenant governor at Detroit, awarded Egushawa a sword in June 1777. Egushawa saw much action in the war.
He accompanied St. Leger's expedition in upstate New York, taking part in the bloody Battle of Oriskany on 6 August 1777. In 1778, he was the
main chief with Hamilton's expedition to recapture Vincennes after it had been taken by Colonel George Rogers Clark of Virginia. Clark made a
surprise return to Vincennes in 1779 and captured Hamilton, but Egushawa escaped. In 1780, his war band accompanied Captain Henry Bird's
invasion of Kentucky, in which two American "stations" (fortified settlements) were captured. In the 1783 peace treaty which ended the
Revolutionary War, the British ceded the land of their Native American allies to the United States. Without British military support, Native
Americans were compelled to sign various peace treaties which ceded portions of the Northwest Territory to the United States, culminating with
the Treaty of Fort Harmar in 1789. Egushawa opposed these treaties and did not consider them to be binding. After the Revolutionary War,
Shawnees of the Ohio Country began to forge a confederacy to oppose U.S. occupation of the land ceded by the British. These efforts were
clandestinely supported by the British, who had refused to abandon Fort Detroit and Fort Mackinac as called for in the 1783 peace treaty.
Egushawa was initially reluctant to take part in the Northwest Indian War, but he joined the native confederacy after the defeat of an American
army led by Josiah Harmar in October 1790. As a war chief, recruiter, and a diplomat to the British, Egushawa became one of the most
prominent leaders in the war. In 1791, he probably led the Ottawa, Ojibwa, and Potawatomi contingent at the Battle of the Wabash, the most
severe defeat ever suffered by the United States at the hands of American Indians. In 1794, Egushawa was seriously wounded in the American
Indian defeat at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, which brought an end to the war. It was the last time he saw combat. Recuperating, he lived on the
Maumee or Raisin Rivers. He continued to urge fellow American Indian leaders to support the British Crown. With the British distracted by
European wars, however, military support was not forthcoming, and so Egushawa agreed to negotiate a peace treaty with the Americans, one of
the last chiefs to do so. He signed the Treaty of Greenville on August 3, 1795, ceding much of present Ohio to the United States. He died near
Detroit shortly thereafter, probably leaving no descendants.
Ningweegon (aka Negwagon) was chief of the Odawa of the Michilimackinac region of Michigan, sometimes known in English as "The
Wing," or "Wing". Although some sources refer to him as "Little Wing", this does not have supporting documentation.
Mack-e-te-be-nessy(Makade-binesi, "black hawk") was chief of Ottawa tribe in the first half 19th century. He was father of Andrew Jackson
Blackbird Ottawa tribe leader and historian. Mack-e-te-be-nessy was chief of the Arbor Croche or Middle Village band. Mack-e-te-be-nessy was
stranded on a small island by white traders he was helping, and was left to die.
Andrew Jackson Blackbird (c. 1814-17 September 1908) was an "Odawa" Ottawa tribe leader and historian. He
was author of the 1887 book, History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan. Blackbird was born in the
L'Arbre Croche area of Michigan (now Harbor Springs) around 1815. At least one account, though, places this date as
late as 1821. His father was an Ottawa chief named Mack-e-te-be-nessy (Makade-binesi, "black hawk"). The name was
mistranslated first by the French and from French to English as "Blackbird", which became the family's English name.
Mack-e-te-be-nessy was chief of the Arbor Croche or Middle Village band. Mack-e-te-be-nessy was stranded on a small
island by white traders he was helping, and was left to die. Although his father survived, this cruelty left a strong
impression on his son. The death of his brother, William, in Rome, Italy on June 25, 1833, under suspicious
circumstances as he was completing his studies for the Roman Catholic priesthood, left an indelible impression on
Andrew and perhaps was the source of his intense antipathy for that religion from then on. Blackbird frequently
bemoaned his limited formal education. Because his father was a chief, Blackbird was solidly educated in traditional
Ottawa culture and practices. Blackbird was baptized a Roman Catholic by a priest called Father Baden in 1825, but
later converted to Protestantism. He served as interpreter at the Protestant mission in L'Arbre Croche. Even though he was a Christian, he knew
the traditional Ottawa religious beliefs well. Blackbird was trained as a blacksmith at mission schools in the L'Arbre Croche area. He studied for
four years at Twinsburg Institute in Twinsburg in Summit County, Ohio, but left without graduating. In 1850 his elderly father's health
worsened. This forced Blackbird to leave school and return home to assist the old chief. Later he attended Eastern Michigan University (then
called Michigan State Normal School) in Ypsilanti, Michigan, for two years, but again did not graduate. In June 1858 Blackbird wrote his
Twinsburg Institute mentor Rev. Samuel Bissell: "...I continue to attend the State Normal School at Ypsilanti, but am getting somewhat
discouraged as to ever being perfect in the knowledge of English Language. I have begun rather too late of attending those things. I shall
always speak__indistinctly__ungrammatically__for being so deeply rooted or stained with my own language....I have begun a grammar in the
Indian tongue__intended to write it upon the same plan in which our first books in Latin and Greek are written...And this I thought would be
about as good that I can do for them, since I cannot personally do good among them, so at least, they can have my writings if not prohibited by
their Priests...The last I heard of my father were still living but very old and feeble...Our school is let out on the 25th of July__and vacation will
last 10 or 11 weeks. I should like to have gone to visit my people but I am considerable in debt, therefore I will have to work out somewheres
here during the time, in order to pay up my debts." Blackbird was loyal to the United States during various uprisings. In 1858 Blackbird married
Elizabeth Margaret Fish, a white woman of English descent. As a result, he was viewed favorably by the United States. By the 1850s, Blackbird
had become a counselor for both sides between the United States government and the Ottawa and Ojibwa peoples. Blackbird helped veterans of
the United States who were Native Americans receive their pensions. He also assisted in settling land claims. During this time, Blackbird
strongly advocated that citizenship be granted to the Ottawa and other Native Americans. When the "Treaty With The Ottawa and Chippewa"
was signed on July 31, 1855, Blackbird served as an interpreter, translator and official witness. In 1858, Blackbird bought a house in Harbor
Springs, Michigan, and settled there permanently. At the time, Harbor Springs was still primarily populated by Ottawas. Blackbird became the
town's postmaster. In 1887, Blackbird published his History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan. The work was published in
Ypsilanti, Michigan, by the Ypsilantian Job Printing House. The book was among the first authoritative accounts of the Ottawa and Ojibwa
(Chippewa) peoples ever published. The book covers not only historical facts, but day-to-day details of how the Ottawa and Ojibwa hunted, fished
and trapped before the coming of the whites. Blackbird explains many of the traditional beliefs and cultural practices of the two tribes. Because
the author was himself a Native American, the book is free of the bias commonly found in books by white authors of the period. Finally, the
book includes a basic grammar of the Ottawa and Ojibwa languages. The Andrew J. Blackbird House in Harbor Springs, Michigan, is a museum
of American Indian artifacts presented in the house in which Blackbird lived from 1858 until his death in 1908. There is a Michigan State
Historical Marker at the site and the house itself is listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
Chihenne (Mimbres) Apache chieftain
Baishan, Spanish name Cuchillo Negro (Black Knife) (c. 1796 – May 24, 1857), was a Chihenne (Mimbres) Apache chieftain, of the Warm
Springs Apache Band during the 1830s to 1850s. Baishan (“Knife”), son of the famed chief Fuerte aka Soldato Fiero, was a most respected war
leader among the Tchihende bands along almost three decades from the beginning of 1830s, and the principal chief the Warm Springs local
group of the Tchihende ("Chihenne") Apaches after Fuerte's death in 1837 near Janos; he was also the second principal chief of the whole
Tchihende (or Mimbreño) Apaches after his long-time companion Mangas Coloradas, chief of the Coppermine local group of the same
Tchihende (or "Chihenne") Apaches. His name was translated by the Mexicans as Cuchillo (“Knife”) or - because of the Apache practice of
blackening their weapons to make them less conspicuous - as Cuchillo Negro (“Black Knife”). Cuchillo Negro's name is mentioned in military
and civilian records of treaties and other dealings with Apaches during the early years of U.S. jurisdiction over the New Mexico Territory. The
U. S. Army claims he was killed in the Black Range by Pueblo scouts, under Col. William W. Loring, during the Bonneville Expedition in
1857.[2] However, the Fort Sill Apache, Chiricahua - Warm Springs Mimbreño Apache website says he "Died in the revenge raid on Ramos
(1850)." Several geological features in Sierra County, New Mexico bear his name: Cuchillo Negro Mountains, Cuchillo Negro Creek, and the
town of Cuchillo, New Mexico. A painting of Cuchillo Negro on horseback was done by John Mix Stanley in 1846. The painting hangs in the
Smithsonian American Art Museum. It measures 42 1/2 x 52 in. (107.8 x 132.1 cm). Since Apaches traditionally did not wear feathers in this way
there is some doubt the artist ever saw his subject. "Black Knife" appears as a character in a 2011 science fiction film, Cowboys & Aliens.
Shoshone chief
Bear Hunter (died January 29, 1863), "also known as Wirasuap (bear spirit)" was a Shoshone chief of the Great Basin who
strongly resisted white colonization of the area in the 1860s. He and his war parties attacked Mormon colonists, telegraph
workers, and wagon trains heading west while federal troops were preoccupied with the American Civil War. In 1862, a
Californian volunteer infantry led by Patrick Edward Connor established a fort on the Wasatch Range near Salt Lake City. In
January 1863, they attacked Bear Hunter's village in an action known as the Bear River Massacre today. Bear Hunter was among
those tortured and killed.
Oglala Lakota Chief
Iron Tail (Oglala Lakota: Siŋté Máza in Standard Lakota Orthography) (1842 - May 29, 1916) was an Oglala
Lakota Chief and a star performer with Buffalo Bill’s Wild West. Iron Tail was one of the most famous Native
American celebrities of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and a popular subject for professional photographers
who circulated his image across the continents. Iron Tail is notable in American history for his distinctive profile on
the Buffalo nickel or Indian Head nickel of 1913 to 1938. Siŋté Máza was the chief’s tribal name. Asked why the
white people call him Iron Tail, he said that when he was a baby his mother saw a band of warriors chasing a herd
of buffalo, in one of their periodic grand hunts, their tails standing upright as if shafts of steel, and she thereafter
called his name Siŋté Máza as something new and novel. Chief Iron Tail was one of the most famous Native
American celebrities of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Professional photographers circulated his image
across the continents. Chief Iron Tail is often mistaken by historians for Chief Iron Hail (“Dewey Beard”), being
Lakota contemporaries with similar sounding names. Most biographies incorrectly report that Chief Iron Tail
fought in the Battle of the Little Bighorn and that family was killed at in 1890 at Wounded Knee, when it truth it
was Chief Iron Hail who suffered the loss. Major Israel McCreight reported: "Iron Tail was not a war chief and no remarkable record as a fighter.
He was not a medicine man or conjuror, but a wise counselor and diplomat, always dignified, quiet and never given to boasting. He seldom
made a speech and cared nothing for gaudy regalia, very much like the famed War Chief Crazy Horse. In this respect he always had a smile and
was fond of children, horses and friends." Chief Iron Tail was an international personality and appeared as the lead with Buffalo Bill at the
Champs-Élysées in Paris, France and the Colosseum in Rome, Italy. In France, as in England, Buffalo Bill and Iron Tail were feted by the
aristocracy. Iron Tail was one of Buffalo Bill’s best friends and they hunted elk and bighorn together on annual trips. On one of his visits to The
Wigwam of Major Israel McCreight, Buffalo Bill asked Iron Tail to illustrate in pantomime how he played and won a game of poker with U S.
army officials during a Treaty Council in the old days. "Going through all the forms of the game from dealing to antes and betting and drawing
a last card during which no word was uttered and his countenance like a statue, he suddenly swept the table clean into his blanket and rose from
the table and strutted away. It was a piece of superb acting, and exceedingly funny.” Iron Tail continued to travel with Buffalo Bill until 1913,
and then the Miller Brothers 101 Ranch Wild West until his death in 1916.Gertrude Käsebier was one of the most influential American
photographers of the early 20th century and best known for her evocative images of Native Americans. Käsebier spent her childhood on the
Great Plains living near and playing with Sioux children. In 1898, Käsebier watched Buffalo Bill’s Wild West troupe parade past her Fifth
Avenue studio in New York City, toward Madison Square Garden. Her memories of affection and respect for the Lakota people inspired her to
send a letter to Buffalo Bill requesting permission to photograph Sioux traveling with the show in her studio. Buffalo Bill and Käsebier were
similar in their abiding Native American culture and maintained friendships with the Sioux. Buffalo Bill quickly approved Käsebier's request
and she began her project on Sunday morning, April 14, 1898. Käsebier's project was purely artistic and her images were not made for
commercial purposes and never used in Buffalo Bill’s Wild West program booklets or promotional posters. Buffalo Bill Cody told Major Israel
McCreight that "Chief Iron Tail is the finest man I know, bar none." Käsebier took classic photographs of the Sioux while they were relaxed.
Chief Iron Tail was one of Käsebier’s most challenging portrait subjects. Käsebier's session with Chief Iron Tail was her only recorded story:
“Preparing for their visit to Käsebier’s photography studio, the Sioux at Buffalo Bill's Wild West Camp met to distribute their finest clothing and
accessories to those chosen to be photographed.” Käsebier admired their efforts, but desired to, in her own words, photograph a “real raw Indian,
the kind I used to see when I was a child’, referring to her early years in Colorado and on the Great Plains. Käsebier selected one Indian, Chief
Iron Tail, to approach for a photograph without regalia. He did not object. The resulting photograph was exactly what Käsebier had envisioned:
a relaxed, intimate, quiet, and beautiful portrait of the man, devoid of decoration and finery, presenting himself to her and the camera without
barriers. Several days later, however, when presented with the photograph, Chief Iron Tail immediately tore up the image, stating it was too
dark. Käsebier photographed him once again, this time in his full feather headdress, much to his satisfaction. Chief Iron Tail was an
international celebrity. He appeared with his fine regalia as the lead with Buffalo Bill at the Avenue des Champs-Élysées in Paris, France, and
the Colosseum of Rome. Chief Iron Tail was a superb showman and chaffed at the photo of him relaxed. but Käsebier chose it as the
frontispiece for a 1901 Everybody’s Magazine article. Käsebier believed all the portraits were a "revelation of Indian character," showing the
strength and individual character of the Native Americans in "new phases for the Sioux." Early in the twentieth century, Iron Tail's distinctive
profile became well known across the United States as one of three models for the five-cent coin Buffalo nickel or Indian Head nickel. The
popular coin was introduced in 1913 and showcases the native beauty of the American West. Bee Ho Gray, the famous Wild West performer,
accompanied Chief Iron Tail to act as an interpreter and guide to Washington D.C. and New York where Iron Tail modeled for sculptor James
Earle Fraser as he worked on designs for the new Buffalo nickel. Iron Tail was the most famous Native American of his day and a popular
subject for professional photographers who circulated his image across the continents. Chief Iron Tail was a friend of Major Israel McCreight
and a frequent visitor to The Wigwam in DuBois, Pennsylvania. Chief Iron Tail and Chief Flying Hawk considered The Wigwam their home in
the East. On June 22, 1908, Chief Iron Tail presided over a ceremony at the tent of Buffalo Bill adopting McCreight as an honorary Chief of the
Oglala Lakota. In 1915, McCreight hosted a grand reception for Iron Tail and Flying Hawk at The Wigwam. On June 22, 1908, Chief Iron Tail
and "Buffalo Bill" Cody visited Du Bois, Pennsylvania with the Wild West Congress of Rough Riders. Twelve thousand people a day attended
Cody’s Wild West performances and 150 Oglalas were in town with 150 ponies. On this occasion, Chief Iron Tail presided over the adoption of
Major Israel McCreight as an honorary Chief of the Oglala Lakota and named McCreight “Čhaŋté Tȟáŋka ("Great Heart"). Chief Iron Tail
performed the ceremony assembled at Buffalo Bill's tent and attended by Chief American Horse, Chief Whirlwind Horse, Chief Lone Bear and
100 Oglala Lakota members of the Wild West Congress of Rough Riders. The Oglala Lakota chiefs formed a small circle around McCreight and
his wife Alice, and Chief Iron Tail began the ceremony with a speech in Lakota, a hearty handshake all around, and then placed a war bonnet
McCreight’s head and moccasins upon his feet. Chief Iron Tail then presented McCreight with a tepee on which an owl had been traced with
yellow chalk and told this was for him and Alice to live in. Tom-tom drums were then beaten and tribal songs put up vigorously. Concluding
remarks were made by Chief Iron Tail ending with hearty handshakes. Chief Iron Tail and Buffalo Bill were loaded into a new 1908 Rambler
touring car and driven to McCreight’s town house for the banquet which followed. There, Chief Iron Tail was presented with a new Winchester
rifle as a souvenir of the event. McCreight was forever moved by the solemnity of the occasion, and carried the honor proudly and with
distinction the rest of his life. McCreight later remarked that the title, honorary Chief of the Oglala Lakota, was a far greater tribute than could
have been conferred by any president or military organization. In 1915, McCreight hosted a grand reception for Chief Iron Tail and Chief Flying
Hawk at The Wigwam in Du Bois, Pennsylvania. “When Chief Iron Tail was finished with greeting the long line of judges, bankers, lawyers,
business men and neighbors who filed past in a receiving line just as the President is obliged to receive and shake the hands of multitude of
strangers who call on New Years, the chief grasped hold of the fine buffalo robe which had been thrown over a porch bench for him to rest on
drawing it around his shoulders, walked out on the lawn and lay down to gaze into the clouds and over the hundred mile sweep of the hills and
valleys forming the Eastern Continental Divide. He had fulfilled his social obligations when he had submitted to an hour of incessant hand-
shaking, as he could talk in English, further crowd mixing did not appeal to him. He preferred to relax and smoke his redstone pipe and wait his
call to the big dining room. There he re-appeared in the place of honor and partook of the good things in the best of grace and gentlemanly
deportment. His courteous behavior, here and at all places and occasions when in company of the writer, was worthy of emulation by the most
exalted white man or woman!” After Chief Iron Tail had shaken hands with the assembled guests he gathered the big buffalo hide about his
shoulders, waived aside the crowd and walked away. He spread the woolly robe on the grass, sat down upon it and lit his pipe, as if to say, “I’ve
done my social duty, now I wish to enjoy myself.” Chief Flying Hawk long remembered the gala festivities. “Here he himself and his close
friend Iron Tail had held a reception once long ago, for hundreds of their friends, when bankers, preachers, teachers, businessmen, farmers,
came from near and far along with their ladies, to pay their respects and say, How Cola!” “The historian Chief Flying Hawk reminded that when
dinner was served, Iron Tail asked to have his own and Flying Hawk’s meals brought to them on the open porch where they ate from a table he
now sat beside, while the many white folks occupied the dining-room, where they could discuss Indians without embarrassment. This, he
remembered, was a good time, and they talked about it for a long time together, but now, his good friend had left him and was in the Sand
Hills.” In May 1916, Chief Iron Tail, at the age of 74, became ill with pneumonia while performing with the Miller Brothers 101 Ranch Wild
West in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and was placed in St. Luke's Hospital. Buffalo Bill was obliged to go on with his show next day to Baltimore,
Maryland, and Iron Tail was left alone in a strange city with doctors and nurses who could not communicate with him. McCreight learned about
the Chief's admission to the hospital in the morning Philadelphia paper, and immediately sent a telegram to Buffalo Bill to send Iron Tail by
next train to Du Bois, Pennsylvania, for care at The Wigwam. No reply was had and the wire was not delivered or forwarded to Baltimore.
Instead the hospital authorities put Chief Iron Tail on a Pullman, ticketed for home to the Black Hills. On May 28, 1916, when the porter of his
car went to wake him at South Bend, Indiana, Iron Tail was dead, his body continuing on to its destination. Buffalo Bill expressed regret that the
Chief was sent to the hospital and that he had not received the telegram. Iron Tail's body was transferred to a hospital in Rushville, Nebraska,
then to Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, where he was buried at Holy Rosary Mission Cemetery on June 3, 1916. With deep emotion, Buffalo Bill
said he was going to put a granite stone on Chief Iron Tail's grave with a replica of the Buffalo nickel (for which Chief Iron Tail had posed)
carved on it as a memento. However, Buffalo Bill passed away on January 10, 1917, just six months after Chief Iron Tail's death. In a ceremony
at Buffalo Bill's grave on Lookout Mountain, west of Denver, Colorado, Chief Flying Hawk laid his war staff of eagle feathers on the grave. Each
of the veteran Wild Westers placed a Buffalo nickel on the imposing stone as a symbol of the Indian, the buffalo, and the scout, figures since the
1880s that were symbolic of the early history of the American West.
Leaders of Delaware (Lenape)
Captain Jacobs (died September 8, 1756) was a Delaware (Lenape) chief during the French and Indian War. His real name was
Tewea.[citation needed] Jacobs received his English moniker from a Pennsylvania settler named Arthur Buchanan, who thought the chief
resembled a "burly German in Cumberland County." Lewistown, Pennsylvania is located where there once was a considerable Delaware
settlement, at the confluence of the Kishacoquillas Creek and the Juniata River. It was in 1754 that the English, led by Buchanan, came to the
area. Captain Jacobs, being the head chief, was at first reluctant to sell any of the nearby land to the English settlers. With the assistance of a keg
of rum, a few trinkets, and some tobacco, Buchanan convinced Jacobs to give them the land. Captain Jacobs initially professed great friendship
toward the British colonists, but was swayed by the French to think otherwise. As the number of English settlers grew, so did Jacobs'
dissatisfaction with them. Without notice or incident, the Delawares destroyed their own settlement and left the area, which the English noted
with caution. Captain Jacobs led the Delaware warriors against the English settlements in multiple raids following Braddock's defeat throughout
the valleys of central Pennsylvania. Jacobs boasted that he "could take any fort that would catch fire, and would make peace with the English
when they had learned him to make gunpowder." It was Jacobs who burned Fort Granville under the direction of the French commander. On
the morning of September 8, 1756, Colonel John Armstrong led a force of 307 Pennsylvanians to attack the village of Kittanning in hopes of
disrupting the raids against the English. Chief Shingas was away during the battle, so Jacobs took command and fought Armstrong's men from
his log cabin. One of Armstrong's soldiers, John Ferguson, managed to set fire to Jacobs' house. The people inside the cabin remained inside
until the magazine erupted and their guns took fire. When they emerged, Jacobs' squaw was killed first, followed by Jacobs himself, and then his
son.
Netawatwees (c. 1686–1776) was a Delaware chief of the Turtle subtribe. His name, meaning "skilled advisor," appears in the colonial records
as Netawatwees, Netahutquemaled, Netodwehement, and Netautwhalemund. In English, he was known as the Newcomer. Probably born in the
Delaware River Valley around 1686, the young Netawatwees was forced to move west with other members of his tribe due to white pressures. In
July 1758, he was living in a Delaware Indian settlement at the mouth of Beaver Creek, a tributary of the Ohio River below Pittsburgh, where
records identify him as "ye great man of the Unami nation." Netawatwees moved to Ohio with other migrant Delaware during the French and
Indian War (1754–63). He favored alliances with the English. He established a village near present-day Cuyahoga Falls. From there, he moved to
the Tuscarawas, a tributary of the Muskingum, where he became chieftain of the Delaware town called Gekelukpechink, meaning "still water."
This town, which became known as Newcomer's Town, was on the north bank of the Tuscarawas on the eastern outskirts of present-day
Newcomerstown. The Great Council met here until the Delaware population was consolidated at nearby Coshocton. Although Netawatwees
never converted to Christianity, the Moravian missionaries made a strong impression on him. Infirm in his old age, he was succeeded by White
Eyes in 1776. His dying word on October 31, 1776, implored the Delaware to give up their native practices and follow the teachings of the
Moravian pastors. Netawatwees' son was Bemino (John Killbuck Sr.), a renowned war leader on the French side during the French and Indian
War. His grandson was Gelelemend (1737–1811), or John Killbuck Jr., a Delaware chief during the American Revolutionary War.
Bemino (fl. 1710s–1780s) — known as John Killbuck, Sr to white settlers — was a renowned medicine man and war leader of Shawnee and
Delaware (Lenape) warriors during the French and Indian War (1754–63). He was a son of Netawatwees, at one time principal chief of the
Delaware, and his own son was Gelelemend (John Killbuck, Jr.), a Delaware chief during the American Revolutionary War. Bemino lived with
his people in what is now eastern Ohio, but was mostly active in the upper Potomac River watershed in what is now the Eastern Panhandle of
West Virginia. Within the Delaware hierarchy, Bemino’s phratry (clan) is unclear, but he was a member of either the Turtle or the Turkey
phratry. He may have been born or raised in what is now eastern Ohio where his father, a Delaware sub-chief named Netawatwees, had been
forced to remove from the Delaware River Valley by white pressure. In any case, by the 1740s and '50s Bemino was well acquainted with all the
white settler families in the valley of the South Branch Potomac River in what is now the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia. This river and
region were known at that time to Indians and whites alike by a Native American name — Wappocomo. Such was the rapport between Bemino
and the newly established whites that, shortly before the outbreak of the French and Indian War (1754), one of them — a Mr Peter Casey —
hired Bemino to chase down and retrieve a "runaway negro" (or, by another account, a runaway "Irish servant"). In trying to collect his payment,
however, he quarreled with Casey, who knocked him to the ground with a cane. (Bemino long held a grudge and, throughout the subsequent
hostilities, attempted without success to find an opportunity to kill Casey.) At times, Bemino would live among some of the English families, a
situation that allowed him to familiarize himself with their habits and assess their resources — knowledge that later proved invaluable when he
allied himself with the French as a leader of marauding warrior bands in the region. After the outbreak of hostilities at the Battle of Jumonville
Glen in Pennsylvania (May 28, 1754), Bemino was among those Indian leaders siding with the French against the English. Bemino is said to
have led the attack in an ambush (the "Battle of the Trough") of white settlers near Fort Pleasant, in what is now Hardy County, West Virginia, in
March or April 1756. A one or two hour firefight left seven whites (out of about 18) dead as against three Indians (out of 60 or 70). At around the
same time, Bemino and a small band apprehended a Mr. Williams, a settler on Patterson's Creek, some 9 miles across Patterson Creek Mountain
from Fort Pleasant. After besieging him in his home (and losing 5 of their party of 7), the Indians managed to kill him and quarter his body,
hanging the four parts at the four corners of the log cabin, and impaling his head upon a fence stake at the front door. An engagement known
as the Battle of Great Cacapon took place on April 18, 1756. A number of years after this incident, Bemino described how he and a band of
Indians (probably composed of both Delawares and Shawnee) killed two men near Fort Edwards, not far from the Cacapon River in what is now
Hampshire County, West Virginia. Deliberately leaving a trail of corn meal, they lay in wait for an ambush along a high stream bank. Captain
John Mercer led a band of militia (said to number either 40 or 100, depending on the source) in pursuit. When they passed the concealed
Indians, the trap was sprung, and the Indians opened a withering crossfire, killing Mercer and 16 of his men. Survivors were soon chased down
and killed, with Bemino claiming that only six men escaped. In 1756 or 1757, Bemino approached Fort Cumberland, just across the Potomac
River in Maryland, with a large warrior force. Agreeing to a parlay, the garrison commander, a Major Livingston, admitted the leaders inside the
gates, but detained them there and, assuming that the encounter was a ruse, humiliated them (perhaps by dressing them in women's clothing)
before expelling them from the fort. Bemino and his Delaware and Shawnee warriors attacked the British settler stockades at Fort Upper Tract
and Fort Seybert (on the South Fork of the South Branch in what is now Pendleton County) on April 27 and 28, 1758, respectively. Fort Seybert
(about 12 miles northeast of the present town of Franklin) was then occupied by about 30 people, apparently only three of which were adult
males. After the defenders surrendered, the Indians spared only eleven white lives. According to the son of one of the survivors: They bound
ten, whom they conveyed without the fort, and then proceeded to massacre the others in the following manner: They seated them in a row upon
a log, with an Indian standing behind each; and at a given signal, each Indian sunk his tomahawk into the head of his victim: an additional blow
or two dispatched them. In later years, the sons of the aforementioned Peter Casey and Mr. Williams visited the elderly Bemino in the Ohio
Territory. By this time he was quite feeble and completely blind. Upon hearing the name of Col. Vincent Williams, his only response was "Your
father was a brave warrior". Upon hearing that the other visitor, Benjamin Casey, was Peter Casey's son, he responded: "Your father owes me
eight shillings; will you pay it?" During this visit, Bemino related many of the details of his exploits which would otherwise have been lost to
history for lack of surviving eyewitnesses. Despite the bitter animosity between Bemino and the white settlers and officials, two places in Ohio
continue to bear his name: the town of Killbuck and the stream known as Killbuck Creek.
White Eyes, named Koquethagechton (c. 1730 - November 5, 1778), was a leader of the Lenape (Delaware) people in the Ohio Country during
the era of the American Revolution. Sometimes known as George White Eyes, or Captain Grey Eyes al. Sir William, his given name in Lenape
was rendered in many spelling variations in colonial records. By 1773 he was Speaker of the Delaware Head Council and known as one of the
most important councilors. White Eyes was a war chief and a tireless mediator in turbulent times, negotiating the first Indian treaties with the
fledgling United States, and always working toward his ultimate of goal of establishing a secure Indian territory. His murder by an American
militia officer is believed to have been covered up by United States officials. Nothing is known about the early life of Koquethagechton. Likely
born in present-day Pennsylvania, he was first noted in the English colonial record near the end of the Seven Years' War (French and Indian
War), as a messenger during treaty negotiations. He appeared to be considered well suited for interaction between Indians and whites, although
he could not read or write, and probably did not speak English—at least not well. After the war, when European white colonists began settling
near the Lenape villages around Fort Pitt in western Pennsylvania, the Native Americans moved further west to the Muskingum River valley in
present-day eastern Ohio. By this time, many Lenape had converted to Christianity under the influence of Moravian missionaries and lived in
villages led by them. The missionary towns also moved to the Muskingum, so that the Lenape, both Christian and non-Christian, could stay
together. Though not a Christian, White Eyes ensured that the Christian Lenape remained members of the larger community. In the early
1770s, Lenape attacked the Philip Doddridge family farm, along the shores of killing some members of the nine-person extended family and
capturing others. They carried away three young daughters and a son, and the grandmother. The five-year-old girl Rachel Doddridge was
known to have been adopted into the tribe. After becoming a chief, White Eyes married Rachel Doddridge (d. 1788), a young English colonist
who had been taken captive as a 5-year-old child during a Lenape raid and adopted into the Lenape people, becoming fully assimilated. They
had at least one son, named George Morgan White Eyes. Rachel had been living with her father Philip Doddridge and family at a farm on the
shores of Chartier's Creek near Statler's Fort (Washington County, Pennsylvania). Her cousin Philip Doddridge reported seeing her later as an
adult at a trading post. Thoroughly assimilated by then, she was not interested in a reunion with her British relatives. White Eyes established his
own town, known by the colonists as White Eyes' Town, near the Lenape capital of Coshocton, Ohio. By 1773 White Eyes served as Speaker of the
Delaware Head Council, an important position and indication of his high reputation in the tribe. In 1774, the Lenape Grand Council, an
association of chiefs, named White Eyes as principal chief of the nation. In the early 1770s, violence on the frontier between whites and Indians
threatened to escalate into open warfare. White Eyes unsuccessfully attempted to prevent what would become Lord Dunmore's War in 1774,
fought primarily between the Shawnee and Virginia colonists. He served as a peace emissary between the two armies, and helped negotiate a
treaty to end the war. When the American Revolutionary War began soon after the end of Dunmore's War, White Eyes was negotiating a royal
grant with Lord Dunmore to secure the Lenape territory in the Ohio Country. After the American revolutionaries forced Dunmore out of
Virginia, White Eyes had to begin anew with the Americans. In April 1776, he addressed the Continental Congress in Philadelphia on behalf of
the Lenape. Two years later he completed an alliance of the Delaware with the United States by a treaty signed in 1778 at Fort Pitt. It promised
to establish a Lenape state, with representation in the American Congress, provided that the Congress approved. The treaty provided for the
Lenape to serve as guides for the Americans when they moved through the Ohio Country to strike at their British and Indian enemies to the
north, in and around Detroit. In early November 1778, White Eyes joined an American expedition under General Lachlan McIntosh as a guide
and negotiator. Soon after, the Americans reported that White Eyes had contracted smallpox and died during the expedition. After his death, the
Lenape alliance with the Americans eventually collapsed. The Americans by then had no interest in supporting a state under Lenape control.
After his death, Gelelemend of the Turtle Clan became the principal chief of the Lenape as no other leader was qualified by clan. Years later,
George Morgan, a US Indian agent, trader, and former close associate of White Eyes, wrote a letter to Congress claiming that the chief had been
"treacherously put to death" by American militia in Michigan. Later documentation affirmed that White Eyes had been killed by an American
militia officer on November 5, 1778. (Morgan had helped negotiate with Native Americans in the Fort Pitt area, so was closely involved in these
matters.) He also wrote that the murder of White Eyes had been covered up to prevent the Lenape from abandoning the revolutionaries. White
Eyes' British-Lenape wife Rachel Doddridge was reportedly murdered by white men in 1788. Their mixed-race son George Morgan White Eyes
(1780?–1798) was cared for by the family friend George Morgan. Later he was educated at the College of New Jersey (later Princeton
University), where his tuition was paid by the Continental Congress. He graduated in 1789.
Gelelemend (1737–1811), also known as Killbuck or John Killbuck Jr., was an important Delaware (Lenape) chief during the American
Revolutionary War, who supported the rebel Americans. His name signifies "a leader." Born into the senior Turtle clan, which had responsibility
to lead the tribe, he became principal chief of the Lenape in November 1778, following the death of White Eyes, a war chief and Speaker of the
Delaware Head Council. Gelelemend succeeded his maternal grandfather Netawatwees. Due to undifferentiated American attacks against the
Lenape during the war, chiefs of other clans switched to ally with the British. After being pushed out as principal chief, Gelelemend led an
American attack on a major Lenape town, then retreated to Fort Pitt. After the war, he converted to Christianity at a Moravian mission in Salem,
Ohio, where he took the Christian name of "William Henry." Gelelemend was born near the Lehigh River in Pennsylvania, son of Bemino (John
Killbuck Sr.), a renowned war leader during the French and Indian War, and his wife. Under the matrilineal kinship system of the Lenape,
Gelemend was born into his mother's Turtle clan, which had responsibility for providing hereditary chiefs for the tribe. His maternal
grandfather was Netawatwees ("Newcomer"), principal chief of the Delaware. At that time, the Lenape had three clans or phratries: Turtle,
Turkey, and Wolf. Children were considered born into their mother's clan, which determined their social status in the tribe. The mother's eldest
brother was more important to them in shaping their lives than was their biological father, who belonged to another clan. Each clan had its own
chiefs, councilors, and war captains, as well as a distinct role for serving the tribe. The Turtle phratry was considered the senior clan, with the
role of leading the tribe. Their hereditary chief served as principal chief of the Lenape tribe. By early 1776, the Moravian missionary David
Zeisberger recorded that Gelelemend had been "designated" as the successor to his maternal grandfather Netawatwees, who was thought to be
close to 100 years old. But, after Netawatwees died on October 31, 1776, however, the succession remained uncertain. This was due to the
unsettled situation of the Delaware in the Ohio Country. Situated between the British at Detroit and the Americans to the east, the Delaware
tried to remain neutral in the British-American conflict. They were subjected to strong pressure to enter the conflict from the British, the
Americans, and other Indian nations (nearly all of whom allied with the British, in the hope of pushing American colonists out of their
territories). Under these circumstances, the important counselor White Eyes, who by 1773 was Speaker of the Delaware Head Council, seemed to
have some authority as chief in addition to that exercised by Gelelemend. With White Eyes and Captain Pipe (war captain of the Wolf clan),
Gelelemend signed the Delaware Treaty with the United States in 1778. Only after the death of White Eyes later that year, murdered on
November 5m 1778 by an American militia officer, did Gelelemend become principal chief. However, the Lenape were deeply divided over how
to respond to the war. Following indiscriminate attacks by Continentals against the Lenape, bands led by Captain Pipe and Buckongahelas broke
away from the pro-American leadership of Gelelemend. They allied with the British for the rest of the war and later resettled in Upper Canada,
where they were granted land by the Crown. By 1781, Gelelemend had been forced from power. He helped guide Colonel Daniel Brodhead in an
expedition to destroy the Delaware capital of Coshocton in Ohio, where he had lived and served as chief. With a few of his followers,
Gelelemend returned with the Americans to Fort Pitt. He had become a man without a country. He lived at Fort Pitt until 1785, always in fear
for his life. Long interested in Christianity, Gelelemend joined the Moravian mission at Salem, Ohio in 1788. At the baptism ceremony, he took
the name William Henry, supposedly to honor a man who had rescued him during the French and Indian War. He was the most prominent
convert in the Lenape community. Gelelemend died in Goshen, Ohio in 1811. The village of Killbuck, Ohio in Holmes County is named for
him. To honor William Henry, many of Gelelemend's descendants were given Henry as a middle name. This included a great-grandson, John
Henry Kilbuck, who became a Moravian missionary in Alaska. He named his daughter Katherine Henry Kilbuck in honor of his ancestor.
Mdewakanton Dakota Sioux in Minnesota
Big Eagle (Dakota: Waŋbdí Tháŋka, c. 1827 – 1906) was the leader of a band of Mdewakanton Dakota Sioux in
Minnesota. In 1862 he and his band joined Taoyateduta and took part in a Sioux uprising. He eventually surrendered.
Waŋbdí Tháŋka, also known as Jerome Big Eagle, was born in 1827 at Black Dog village, in present-day Eagan, Minnesota.
His succeeded his father, Máza Ȟóta (Grey Iron) in 1857. He along with the other chiefs and headmen went to Washington
in 1858 on treaty business. In the spring of 1862, Wamditanka, Little Crow and Traveling Hail were candidates for Speaker
of the Mdewakanton tribe which Traveling Hail won. Big Eagle lead his band at the second battles of New Ulm and Fort
Ridgley and also Birch Coulee and Wood Lake. The photograph of Big Eagle was taken in Davenport during the summer
of 1864. W. W. Hathaway, then the assistant commissary at Camp Kearney (the Indian Stockade, at Camp McClellen,
Davenport) described the circumstances of making the File: "I was also a personal friend of Big Eagle, the chief of the tribe
confined in the pen. An amusing incident arose during the summer when I tried to get a photograph of the old chief.
There was a mulatto named Jack confined with the Indians and he conspired with me to get the old brave to sit for a
picture. Accordingly Big Eagle put on all his finery and paraphernalia and we went down to the studio of a photographer who had opened up his
place of business down on the river road at the end of what is still known as “Hog’s Back Ridge.” Everything went well until we neared the place
when Big Eagle began to remove his finery. We asked him what the trouble was and he said he would not pose unless we paid him $15"
(Davenport Weekly Democrat, September 28, 1905). Despite his death sentence, and his tribal importance, President Lincoln pardoned Big Eagle
in November 1864 and he was ordered released on December 3 The History of Carroll County, Illinois... (H. F. Kett & Co., Chicago, n.d.). Big
Eagle, later known as Jerome Big Eagle, narrated his account of the Dakota War in, "A Sioux Story of the War," Collections of the Minnesota
Historical Society 6 (1894):382-400.
Oglala Lakota
American Horse (Oglala Lakota: Wašíčuŋ Tȟašúŋke in Standard Lakota Orthography)(a/k/a "American Horse the
Elder") (1830 - September 9, 1876) was an Oglala Lakota warrior chief renowned for Spartan courage and honor.
American Horse is notable in American history as one of the principal war chiefs allied with Crazy Horse during Red
Cloud's War (1866-1868) and the Battle of the Little Bighorn during the Great Sioux War of 1876-1877. Chief American
Horse was a son of Old Chief Smoke, an Oglala Lakota head chief and one of the last great Shirt Wearers, a highly
prestigious Lakota warrior society. He was a signatory to the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, along with his brothers Chief
Red Cloud and Chief Blue Horse. A month or so after the Treaty, American Horse was chosen a "Ogle Tanka Un" (Shirt
Wearer, or war leader) along with Crazy Horse, Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses and Man That Owns a Sword. On
September 9, 1876, American Horse was mortally wounded in the Battle of Slim Buttes fighting to protect his family and
defending against the white invasion of the “Paha Sapa“ Black Hills. The Battle of Slim Buttes and destruction of the village of Chief American
Horse signaled a series of punitive blows that ultimately broke Sioux armed resistance to reservation captivity and forced their loss of the sacred
Black Hills “Paha Sapa“. Chief American Horse was a son of Old Chief Smoke. Old Chief Smoke was an Oglala Lakota head chief and one of the
last great Shirt Wearers, a highly prestigious Lakota warrior society. The Smoke People were one of the most prominent Lakota families of the
18th and 19th centuries. Old Chief Smoke was one of the first Lakota chiefs to appreciate the power of the whites, their overwhelming numbers
and the futility of war. He appreciated the need for association and learned the customs of the whites. Old Chief Smoke had five wives who bore
him many children.[1] Old Chief Smoke’s sons carried the Smoke People legacy of leadership in Oglala Lakota culture into the early 20th
century. The children of Old Chief Smoke were Spotted Horse Woman, Chief Big Mouth (1822-1869), Chief Blue Horse (1822-1908), Chief Red
Cloud (1822-1909), Chief American Horse (1830-1876), Chief Bull Bear III, Chief Solomon Smoke II, Chief No Neck and Woman Dress (1846-
1920). Chief American Horse was one of the principal war chiefs allied with Crazy Horse and Red Cloud during Red Cloud's War (1866-1868).
American Horse was a signatory to the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, along with Chief Red Cloud and Chief Blue Horse, his brothers. The treaty
was an agreement between the United States and the Lakota Nation guaranteeing the Lakota ownership of the Black Hills “Paha Sapa“ and land
and hunting rights in South Dakota, Wyoming and Montana. The Powder River Country was to be henceforth closed to all whites. The Treaty
ended Red Cloud's War. A month or so after the Treaty of 1868, four "Ogle Tanka Un" (Shirt Wearers, or war leaders) were chosen: Crazy Horse,
American Horse, Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses and Man That Owns a Sword. Crook’s "Horsemeat March” marked the beginning of one of
the most grueling marches in American military history. Crook’s command consisted of about 2,200 men: 1,500 cavalry, 450 infantry, 240
Indian scouts, and a contingent of civilian employees, including 44 white scouts and packers. Crook’s civilian scouts included Frank Grouard,
Baptiste “Big Bat” Pourier, Baptiste “Little Bat” Garnier, Captain Jack Crawford and Charles “Buffalo Chips” White. News of the defeat of George
Armstrong Custer at the Battle of the Little Big Horn on June 25 and 26, 1876, arrived in the East as the U.S. was observing its centennial. The
American public was dismayed and called to punish the Sioux. On August 26, 1876, with his men rationed for fifteen days, a determined
General Crook departed from the Powder River and headed east toward the Little Missouri pursuing the Indians. Crook feared that Indians
would scatter to seek game rather than meet the soldiers in combat after the fight with Custer. All other commanders had withdrawn from
pursuit, but Crook resolved to teach the Indians a lesson. He meant to show that neither distance, bad weather, the loss of horses nor the absence
of rations could deter the U.S. Army from following its enemies to the bitter end. War correspondents with national newspapers fought
alongside General Crook and reported the campaign by telegraph. Correspondents embedded with Crook were Robert Edmund Strahorn for the
New York Times, Chicago Tribune and the Rocky Mountain News; John F. Finerty for the Chicago Times; Reuben Briggs Davenport for New
York Herald and Joe Wasson for the New York Tribune and Alta California (San Francisco). The Battle of Slim Buttes was fought on September
9 and 10, 1876, in the Great Sioux Reservation between the United States Army and the Sioux. The Battle of Slim Buttes was the first U.S. Army
victory after Custer’s defeat at the Battle of the Little Big Horn on June 25 and 26, 1876, in the Great Sioux War of 1876-1877. Brigadier General
George R. Crook, one of the U.S. Army’s ablest Indian fighters led the “Horsemeat March”, one of the most grueling military expeditions in
American history destroying Oglala Chief American Horse’s village at Slim Buttes and repelling a counter-attack by Crazy Horse. The
American public was fixed on news of the defeat of General George Custer at the Battle of Little Bighorn; and war correspondents with national
newspapers fought alongside General Crook and reported the events. The Battle of Slim Buttes signaled a series of punitive blows that
ultimately broke Sioux armed resistance to reservation captivity and forced their loss of the Black Hills “Paha Sapa“. Following the Battle of the
Little Big Horn, Lakota leaders split up, each doing what they thought best for their people. Most were heading back to the reservations. On
September 9, 1876, Chief American Horse’s camp of 37 lodges, about 260 people, of whom 30 to 40 were warriors, was attacked and destroyed by
General George Crook at the Battle of Slim Buttes. Chief American Horse’s camp was a rich prize. “It was the season when the wild plums ripen.
All the agency Sioux were drifting back to the agencies with their packs full of dried meet, buffalo tongues, fresh and dried buffalo berries, wild
cherries, plums and all the staples and dainties which tickled the Indian palate.” The lodges were full of furs and meat, and it seemed to be a
very rich village. Crook destroyed food, seized three or four hundred ponies, arms and ammunition, furs and blankets. In a dispatch written for
the Omaha Daily Bee, Captain Jack Crawford described the cornucopia he encountered: “Tepees full of dried meats, skins, bead work, and all
that an Indian’s head could wish for.” Of significance, troopers recovered items from the Battle of Little Bighorn, including a 7th Cavalry
Regiment guidon from Company I, fastened to the lodge of Chief American Horse, and the bloody gauntlets of slain Captain Myles Keogh.
“One of the largest of the lodges, called by Grouard the “Brave Night Hearts,” supposedly occupied by the guard, contained thirty saddles and
equipment. One man found eleven thousand dollars in one of the tipis. Others found three 7th Cavalry horses; letters written to and by 7th
Cavalry personnel; officers’ clothing; a large amount of cash; jewelry; government-issued guns and ammunition." On September 9, 1876, Chief
American Horse's village at Slim Buttes was assaulted in a dawn attack by Captain Anson Mills and 150 troopers. At the onset of a stampede of
Indian ponies and cavalry charge, Chief American Horse with his family of three warriors and about twenty-five women and children retreated
into one of the ravines that crisscrossed the village amongst the tipis. The winding dry gully was nearly 20 feet deep and ran some 200 yards
back into a hillside. Trees and brush obstructed the view of the interior. “We found that some of the Indians had got into a cave at one side of the
village. One of the men started to go past that spot on the hill, and as he passed the place he and his horse were both shot. This cave or dugout
was down in the bed of a dry creek. The Indian children had been playing there, and dug quite a hole in the bank, so that it made more of a cave
than anything else, large enough to hold a number of people.” Troopers were alerted about the ravine when Private John Wenzel, Company A,
Third Cavalry, became the first army fatality at Slim Buttes when he ill-advisedly approached the ravine from the front and a Sioux bullet
slammed into his forehead. Wenzel’s horse was also shot and killed. An attempt was made to dislodge the Indians and several troopers were
wounded. “Grouard and Big Bat Pourier crept close enough to the banks of the ravine to parley with the concealed Indians in endeavors to get
them to surrender. But the savages were so confident of succor from Crazy Horse and his much larger force, who were encamped only a dozen
miles to the west, and to whom they had sent runners early in the morning, that they were defiant to the last.” The Souix felt no urgent need to
surrender, for they defiantly yelled over to the soldiers that more Sioux camps were at hand and their warriors would soon come to free them.
Chief American Horse, anticipating relief from other villages, constructed a dirt breastworks in front of the cave and and geared for a stout
defense. On September 9, 1876, General Crook’s relief column endured a forced march of twenty-miles to Slim Buttes in about four hours and a
half hours arriving at 11:30 a.m. The whole cheering command entered the valley, and the village teemed with activity like an anthill which had
just been stirred up. Crook immediately established his headquarters and set up a field hospital in one of the Indian lodges. Crook inventoried
the camp and the booty. The camp held thirty-seven lodges. A three or four year old girl was discovered, but no bodies were found. Over 5,000
pounds of dried meat was found and was a “God-send” for the starved troopers. Troopers separated the stores to be saved from the greater
number to be destroyed, and the remaining tipis were pulled down. General Crook then turned his full attention to Chief American Horse and
his family in the ravine. While General Crook had been an adversary in the field of combat, he had also been a man of honor and an advocate
for Indians. “Crook, exasperated by the protracted defense of the hidden Sioux, and annoyed at the casualties inflicted among his men, formed a
perfect cordon of infantry and dismounted cavalry around the Indian den. The soldiers opened upon it an incessant fire, which made the
surrounding hills echo back a terrible music.” “The circumvalleted Indians distributed their shots liberally among the crowding soldiers, but
the shower of close-range bullets from the later terrified the unhappy squaws, and they began singing the awful Indian death chant. The
papooses wailed so loudly, and so piteously, that even not firing could not quell their voices. General Crook ordered the men to suspend
operations immediately, but dozens of angry soldiers surged forward and had to be beat back by officers. “Neither General Crook nor any of his
officers or men suspected that any women and children were in the gully until their cries were heard above the volume of fire poured upon the
fatal spot.” Grouard and Pourier, who spoke Lakota, were ordered by General Crook to offer the women and children quarter. This was accepted
by the besieged, and Crook in person went into the mouth of the ravine and handed out one tall, fine looking woman, who had an infant
strapped to her back. She trembled all over and refused to liberate the General’s hand. Eleven other squaws and six papooses were taken out and
crowded around Crook, but the few surviving warriors refused to surrender and savagely re-commenced the fight. Chief American Horse
refused to leave, and with three warriors, five women and an infant, remained in the cave. Exasperated by the increasing casualties in his ranks,
Crook directed some of his infantry and dismounted cavalry to form across the opening of the gorge. On command, the troopers opened steady
and withering fire on the ravine which sent an estimated 3,000 bullets among the warriors. Finerty reported, “Then our troops reopened with a
very ‘rain of hell’ upon the infatuated braves, who, nevertheless, fought it out with Spartan courage, against such desperate odds, for nearly two
hours. “Such matchless bravery electrified even our enraged soldiers into a spirit of chivalry, and General Crook, recognizing the fact that the
unfortunate savages had fought like fiends, in defense of wives and children, ordered another suspension of hostilities and called upon the
dusky heroes to surrender.” Strahorn recalled the horror of the ravine at Slim Buttes. “The yelling of Indians, discharge of guns, cursing of
soldiers, crying of children, barking of dogs, the dead crowded in the bottom of the gory, slimy ditch, and the shrieks of the wounded, presented
the most agonizing scene that clings in my memory of Sioux warfare.” When matters quieted down, Frank Grouard and Baptiste “Big Bat”
Pourier asked American Horse again if they would come out of the hole before any more were shot, telling them they would be safe if they
surrendered. “After a few minutes deliberation, the chief, American Horse, a fine looking, broad-chested Sioux, with a handsome face and a neck
like a bull, showed himself at the mouth of the cave, presenting the butt end of his rifle toward the General. He had just been shot in the
abdomen, and said in his native language, that he would yield if the lives of the warriors who fought with him were spared. Chief American
Horse had been shot through the bowels and was holding his entrails in his hands as he came out and presented the butt end of his rifle to
General Crook. Pourier recalled that he first saw American Horse kneeling with a gun is his hand in a hole on the side of the ravine that he had
scooped out with a butcher knife. Chief American Horse had been shot through the bowels and was holding his entrails in his hands as he came
out. Two of the squaws were also wounded. Eleven were killed in the hole. Grouard recognized Chief American Horse, “but you would not have
thought he was shot from his appearance and his looks, except for the paleness of his face. He came marching out of that death trap as straight
as an arrow. Holding out one of his blood-stained hands he shook hands with me.” When Chief American Horse presented the butt end of his
rifle, General Crook, who took the proffered rifle, instructed Grouard to ask his name. The Indian replied in Lakota, “American Horse.” Some of
the soldiers who lost their comrades in the skirmish shouted, “No quarter!’, but not a man was base enough to attempt shooting down the
disabled chief. Crook hesitated for a minute and then said, ‘Two or three Sioux, more or less, can make no difference. I can yet use them to good
advantage. "Tell the chief,“ he said turning to Grouard, "that neither he nor his young men will be harmed further.” “This message having been
interpreted to Chief American Horse, he beckoned to his surviving followers, and two strapping Indians, with their long, but quick and graceful
stride, followed him out of the gully. The chieftain’s intestines protruded from his wound, but a squaw, his wife perhaps, tied her shawl around
the injured part, and then the poor, fearless savage, never uttering a complaint, walked slowly to a little camp fire, occupied by his people about
20 yards away, and sat down among the women and children.” Crazy Horse attempted to rescue American Horse and his family. Indians who
escaped Mills’ early morning assault spread the word to nearby Lakota and Cheyenne camps, and informed Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull and other
leaders they were attacked by 100-150 soldiers. Crazy Horse immediately assembled 600-800 warriors and rode about ten miles northward to
rescue Chief American Horse and recover ponies and supplies. During the afternoon Chief American Horse and some of the squaws informed
Gen. Crook, through the scouts, that Crazy Horse was not far off, and that we would certainly be attacked before nightfall. “In anticipation of
that afternoon tea party which was promised to be given by Crazy Horse, Crook deployed his forces to give that chieftain the surprise of his life.
Concealing the major portion in the ravine in up-to-the-minute readiness and eagerness for an attack, he deployed just enough of the boys in
plain sight to carry out the impression that the Indian couriers had conveyed to Crazy Horse, that only about a hundred soldiers would be found
to oppose his eager and confident large reinforcements.” As a grave was being dug for Private Wenzel, and the starved troopers were ready to
dine on captured bison meat, rifle shots were heard from the bluffs above and around the camp. Crook immediately ordered the village to be
burned. “Then followed the most spectacular and tragically gripping and gratifying drama of the whole Sioux War, enacted with a setting and
view for those of us in the ambushing corps that could not be improved upon. The huge amphitheater, leading from our position in the front
orchestra row, up over a gradually rising terrain to the rim of the hills which surrounded on three sides, was not unlike the situation which
Crazy Horse had chosen for his Battle of the Rosebud.” Finerty tells how the Indians attacked. “Like the Napoleonic cuirassiers at Waterloo, they
rode along the line looking for a gap to penetrate. They kept up perpetual motion encouraged by a warrior, doubtless Crazy Horse himself, who,
mounted on a fleet, white horse, galloped around the array and seemed to possess the power of ubiquity.” Strahorn reported, “Suddenly the
summits seemed alive with an eager expectant and gloating host of savages who dashed over and down the slope, whooping and recklessly
firing at every jump.” Crazy Horse was surprised to find American Horse’s village massed with Crook's main column of over 2,000 infantry,
artillery, cavalry and scouts. “Crazy Horse so little dreamed of the heavy reinforcements of Captain Mills’ small band that, in the utmost
confidence of ‘eating us alive’ he launched his followers right down upon the front and flanks of out splendid defensive position. They were
permitted to approach with blood curdling whoops and in a savage array within easy and sure fire rifle range before the order to fire was given.
They reacted to the deadly shock in a manner that was the real beginning of the end of the Sioux War, so far as any major performance of Crazy
Horse was concerned. Bewildered and demoralized by the well-aimed volleys of our two-thousand guns, they dashed for cover in every direction,
closely followed by details of our boys who were allotted that much sought privilege.” “Failing to break into that formidable circle, the Indians,
after firing several volleys, their original order of battle being completely broken, and recognizing the folly of fighting such an outnumbering
force any longer, glided away from our front with all possible speed. As the shadows came down into the valley, the last shots were fired and the
affair at Slim Buttes was over.” Captain Mills reported the assault: “It is usual for commanding officers to call special attention to acts of
distinguished courage, and I trust the extraordinary circumstances of calling on 125 men to attack, in the darkness, and in the wilderness, and
on the heels of the late appalling disasters to their comrades, a village of unknown strength, and in the gallant manner in which they executed
everything requited of them to my entire satisfaction.” U.S. Army casualties were relatively light with a loss of 30 men: 3 killed, 27 wounded,
some seriously. Because the Lakota and Cheyenne warriors maintained a distance of five to eight hundred yards, and consistently fired their
weapons high, casualties were few. Those who died in the field were Private John Wenzel, Private Edward Kennedy and Scout Charles “Buffalo
Chips” White.” Private Kennedy, Company C, Fifth Cavalry, had half the calf of his leg blown away in a barrage, and throughout the night
medical personnel labored to save his life. Private Kennedy and Chief American Horse died in the surgeons’ lodge that evening. Lt. Von
Luettwitz had his shattered leg amputated above the knee and Private John M. Stevenson of Company I, Second Cavalry, received a severe ankle
wound at the ravine. “The Indians must have lost quite heavily. Several of their ponies, bridled but riderless, were captured during the evening.
Indians never abandon their war horses, unless they happen to be surprised or killed. Pools of blood were found on the ledges of the bluffs,
indicating where Crazy Horse’s warriors paid the penalty of their valor with their lives.” Reports of Indian casualties varied, and many bodies
were carried away. Sioux confirmed casualties were at least 10 dead, and an unknown number wounded. About 30 Sioux men, women and
children were in the ravine with Chief American Horse when the firefight began, and 20 women and children surrendered to Crook. Ten
individuals remained in the ravine during the “Rain of Hell” and five were killed; Iron Shield, three women, one infant and Chief American
Horse who died that evening. The rest were made prisoners. Charging Bear resisted most desperately and was finally dragged out of his lair at
the bottom of the deep gully with only one cartridge left. Taken prisoner, he soon after enlisted with General Crook, exhibiting great prowess
and bravery on behalf of his new leader and against his former comrades.” There are two Oglala Lakota chiefs named American Horse notable
in American history. American Horse the Younger is notable in American history as a U.S. Army Indian Scout and a progressive Oglala Lakota
leader who promoted friendly associations with whites and education for his people. Like his great friend Crazy Horse, there are no known
photographs or drawings of Chief American Horse the Elder. Chief American Horse was examined by the two surgeons. One of them pulled the
chief’s hands away, and the intestines dropped out. “Tell him he will die before next morning,” said the surgeon. The surgeons worked futilely to
close his stomach wound, and Chief American Horse refused morphine preferring to clench a stick between his teeth to hide any sign of pain or
emotions and thus he bravely and stolidly died. Chief American Horse lingered until 6:00 a.m. and confirmed that the tribes were scattering and
were becoming discouraged by war. “He appeared satisfied that the lives of his squaws and children were spared.” Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy,
who attended the dying chief, said that he was cheerful to the last and manifested the utmost affection for his wives and children. American
Horse’s squaws and children were allowed to remain on the battleground after the dusky hero’s death, and subsequently fell into the hands of
their own people. Even “Ute John” respected the cold clay of the brave Sioux leader, and his corpse was not subjected to the scalping process.”
Crook was most gentle in his assurances to all of them that no further harm should come if they went along peacefully, and it only required a
day or two of kind treatment to make them feel very much at home. There are two Oglala Lakota chiefs named American Horse notable in
American history. Historian George E. Hyde distinguished them by referring to “Chief American Horse the Elder” as the son of Old Chief
Smoke and the cousin of Red Cloud, and “Chief American Horse the Younger” as the son of Sitting Bear, and son-in-law to Red Cloud. American
Horse the Younger (1840 – December 16, 1908) was an Oglala Lakota chief, statesman, educator and historian. American Horse the Younger is
notable in American history as a U.S. Army Indian Scout and a progressive Oglala Lakota leader who promoted friendly associations with whites
and education for his people. American Horse the Younger opposed Crazy Horse during the Great Sioux War of 1876-1877 and the Ghost Dance
Movement of 1890, and was a Lakota delegate to Washington. American Horse the Younger was one of the first Wild Westers with Buffalo Bill’s
Wild West and a supporter of the Carlisle Indian Industrial School. “His record as a councillor of his people and his policy in the new situation
that confronted them was manly and consistent and he was known for his eloquence." American Horse the Younger gained influence during the
turbulence of the Great Sioux War of 1876-1877. After news of the death of Chief American Horse the Elder at the Battle of Slim Buttes,
Manishnee (Can not walk, or Played out)” seized an opportunity and assumed the name “American Horse.” American Horse the Younger was
not related to American Horse the Elder, son of Old Chief Smoke. He was the son of Sitting Bear, leader of the True Oglalas, a band of Oglala
opposed to the Smoke people The identities and accounts of American Horse the Elder and the American Horse the Younger have been
blended by some historians. Like his great friend Crazy Horse, there are no known photographs or drawings of Chief American Horse the Elder.
“The Oglalas seem incapable of clearing up the tangle.”
Creek Nation
Big Warrioror Tustanagee Thlucco (Tvstanagi Rakkē in Mvskokē «Big Warrior» < rak·kē «big», died 1826) was a principal chief of the Creek
Nation in the first half 19th century until his death in 1826. The name Tustanagee Thlucco is actually a war title, "great warrior," given to the
man who led all the warriors of a town. No other Creek name is recorded for Big Warrior. Big Warrior was from the town of Tukabatchee. For
most of his career he collaborated with the United States government and became wealthy. He was accused of enriching himself by
mishandling annuities paid to the Creeks by the United States. In 1811 Big Warrior welcomed Tecumseh to Tukabatchee to deliver his message
of pan-tribal unity and hostility to the United States. Nevertheless, Big Warrior remained firmly on the U.S. side during the Creek War of 1813-
14. The Treaty of Fort Jackson forced harsh settlement terms on the entire Creek Nation. In the following decade Big Warrior became an
opponent of further land cessions. Big Warrior, representing the Upper Towns of the Creek Nation, shared the leadership of the Creek National
Council with Little Prince, principal chief of the Lower Towns.
Little Prince or Tastanaki Hopayi, Tustanagee Hopae (Tvstanagi Hopvyē in Mvskokē «Far Warrior» < ho·pv·yē «far») (died 1832) was an
18th-century chieftain and longtime representative of the Lower Creeks from the 1780s until his death in 1832. During the early 19th century,
he and Big Warrior shared the leadership of the Creek National Council. Little Prince is first recorded in 1780 living as a chieftain at Broken
Arrow. During the summer, he joined British Indian Agent John Tate who led a combined force of Upper and Lower Creeks to support Colonel
Thomas Brown at Augusta, Georgia who was at the time defending the city against American forces. After Tate died en route to the city, most of
the Upper Creek with the exception of Tukabatchee chieftain Efa Tustenuggee returned to their villages while Little Prince and his 250 warriors
continued on to Augusta. Arriving in time to take part in the Battle of Augusta, Little Prince led an attack to break the siege by Colonel Elijah
Clarke suffering 70 casualties as a result. Following the American retreat, a number of American prisoners were handed over to the Creek and
tortured before their execution most notably the garrison commanding officers Brown and Grierson. How much control Little Prince had over
his warriors at this point is disputed among historians however his ally Efa Tustenuggee was said by General Thomas S. Woodward to be "the
most hostile and bitter enemy the white people ever had". He was a later signatory of the Treaty of Colerain in 1796, thereafter a supporter of
peaceful relations with the United States government, although he would take part in the Creek War in 1813. He and seven other chieftains
were involved in the execution of Little Warrior during the spring of 1813, however he would retain his position of the lower Creek until his
death in 1832.
Ute Tribe
Jake Arropeen (also known as Yene-wood) was a nineteenth-century war chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah.
When Chief Wah-Kara died unexpectedly in 1855, Chief Jake Arropeen (also known as Yene-wood) became chief by succession. In 1865 the
Mormons and Utes were negotiating to reach some sort of agreement at Manti; discussions ended when Arropeen was pulled from his horse by
the settler John Lowry, who was believed to be drunk at the time. Dishonored before his people, Chief Arropeen considered the incident a grave
insult in a 30-year history of encroachment and depredations against the Ute people.
Sanpitch (died April 18, 1866) was a leader of the Sanpits, Ute tribe of American Indians who lived what is now Sanpete County, Utah before
and during settlement by Mormon immigrants. He is the father of Black Hawk, for whom the Black Hawk War in Utah (1865–1872) is named.
In 1850, after measles from newly arrived Mormon settlers decimated their tribes, Walkara and Chief Sanpitch asked the Mormons to come to
the Sanpete Valley teach the band to farm, though this was met with little enthusiasm. After fighting in the Black Hawk War, he was killed on
April 18, 1866 near Fountain Green, Utah. His interactions with early Mormon settlers are chronicled in Gottfredson. The Sanpitch River and
Sanpete County take their names from him or his grandfather of the same name.
Sow e ett was a nineteenth-century chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah.
Tabby was a nineteenth-century chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah.
Old Elk was a nineteenth-century chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah.
Kone was a nineteenth-century chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah.
Colorow was a nineteenth-century chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah.
Old Uinta was a nineteenth-century chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah.
Mountain was a nineteenth-century chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah.
Antonga, or Black Hawk (c. 1830 - September 26, 1870) was a nineteenth-century war chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the
present-day state of Utah. He led the Utes against Mormon settlers and gained alliances with Paiute and Navajo bands in the
territory against them during what became known as the Black Hawk War in Utah (1865–1872). Although Black Hawk made
peace in 1867, other bands continued raiding until the US intervened with about 200 troops in 1872. Black Hawk died of
tuberculosis in 1870, before the war's end. The names "Black Hawk" and "Antonga" by which he was known are not Ute Indian
names. "Black Hawk" was a name that Brigham Young, in jest, called the Ute leader. Young’s term became the name by
which he is now most commonly known. In fact there were some three or more Indians the whites referred to as Black Hawk
in Utah history. It is reminiscent of Chief Black Hawk of the Sauk and Fox Indian (Mesquaki) tribes and the Black Hawk War
of 1832 in Illinois, where the Mormons had migrated from. To the Mexicans he was known as "Antonga", also not a Ute
name. The Utes had long established trade relations with the Mexicans. Utah's Black Hawk was born into a family of legendary leaders and
known to the Utes as Nuch; he was so named in honor of his people the Nuchu, a sacred name the Utes call themselves. Chief Walkara, Chief
Yenewoods, Chief Sanpitch, Chief Sow e ett, Chief Tabby, Chief Old Elk, Chief Kone, Chief Colorow, Chief Old Uinta, and Chief Mountain are
just a few of Chief Nuch's blood relations, according to living descendants of Nuch (Black Hawk). In 1847 the first Mormon pioneers arrived in
the territory, where indigenous peoples had lived for thousands of years. Historic tribes included the Ute, Paiute and Navajo. In 1865 Black
Hawk and the Ute started raiding the livestock and goods of the steadily encroaching settlers. The white population had dramatically increased
to about 50,000 at a time when the Ute population is estimated to have been 15,000 to 20,000. Epidemics of measles and smallpox had caused
many deaths among the Ute, as they had no immunity to the new diseases; the rate of tuberculosis (TB) was high because of the weakened
condition of the people. Mormon farming of domesticated crops and animals had altered the environment, driving off the game which was the
Utes' main source of food. By 1865 hundreds of Ute were starving.. When Chief Wah-Kara died unexpectedly in 1855, Chief Jake Arropeen (also
known as Yene-wood) became chief by succession. In 1865 the Mormons and Utes were negotiating to reach some sort of agreement at Manti;
discussions ended when Arropeen was pulled from his horse by the settler John Lowry, who was believed to be drunk at the time. Dishonored
before his people, Chief Arropeen considered the incident a grave insult in a 30-year history of encroachment and depredations against the Ute
people. Retaliating for the insult, that day Black Hawk raided some settlers for cattle and soon his forces killed five men. He was then about 35
years old. This marked the start of what the Mormons later named "The Black Hawk War". The Black Hawk War in Utah began in 1865 and
ended in 1872. It was a three-part war, involving 16 tribes of the Utes, and allied bands of Paiute and Navajo, who declared war against the
Mormon settlers. For years the US government ignored requests for aid from the Mormons, as many Federal leaders wanted to displace the LDS
Church from its dominance of settlers in Utah. Mormon settlers fought to maintain control of what they called "Zion", long the traditional
territory of the Ute people. As war chief, Noonch Black Hawk made alliances with the Paiute and Navajo, who had also been pushed off their
lands. The Mormons formed militia units and quickly built forts. The Mormon militias had a hard time catching the Ute raiding warriors, but
they sometimes attacked women and children in villages, where they also destroyed Ute stores and goods. The Utes drove off thousands of head
of livestock by their raids, and killed nearly 70 Mormon settlers in the next two years. Over than 100 Native Americans were killed in the raids.
In 1867 Black Hawk signed a treaty with the Mormons. Other warriors continued raiding until the US government sent in 200 Army troops in
1872 to quell the unrest. The 21st-century Utah historian John Alton Peterson describes Black Hawk as having "remarkable vision and capacity.
Given the circumstances under which he operated, he put together an imposing war machine and masterminded a sophisticated strategy that
suggest he had a keen grasp of the economic, political, and geographic contexts in which he operated. Comparable to Cochise, Sitting Bull and
Geronimo, Black Hawk fostered an extraordinary pan-regional movement that enabled him to operate in an enormous section of country and
establish a three-face war. Black Hawk worked to establish a barrier to white expansion and actually succeeded in collapsing the line of Mormon
settlement, causing scores of villages in over a half dozen counties to be abandoned. For almost a decade the tide of white expansion in Utah
came to a dead stop and in most of the territory actually receded. Like other defenders of Indian rights, though, Black Hawk found he could not
hold his position, and his efforts eventually crumbled." Ute history notes that Black Hawk made peace with the "pale-faces" in 1867. He visited
every white village from Cedar City to Payson to plead with the settlers to try to make peace. Without his leadership, the conflict was reduced,
but raids continued until US forces intervened in 1872. Black Hawk died in 1870, before the end of the war, of tuberculosis. The Black Hawk
War was not a single incident, but a series of raids and small-scale conflicts. More than 150 engagements took place over a seven-year period
throughout Utah territory and the conflict spilled over into Colorado, Idaho, and Wyoming. Although migration had slowed during the war
years, soon tens of thousands of Mormon pioneers entered the area again, at the rate of 3,000 a month. By contrast, in 1909 an official
government census showed that the Ute population had declined to just 2,400.
Miniconjou Lakota
Black Moon, Wi Sapa (c. 1821 - March 1, 1893) was a Miniconjou Lakota headman with the northern Lakota during the nineteenth century,
not to be confused with the Hunkpapa leader by the same name. Virtually nothing is known of Black Moon’s early years. He had risen to a
position of influence among his tribe by 1869 when he was present at the appointment of Sitting Bull as head war leader of the Lakota. By the
time of the Great Sioux War of 1876-77, this fifty-five-year-old headman was leader of a small Miniconjou band that chose to remain away from
the Cheyenne River Agency. Black Moon is listed as one of the Miniconjou leaders who had joined the northern village by the early summer of
1876 and was present at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. He and his family fled to Canada in 1877, joining Sitting Bull near Wood Mountain.
When majority of the northern Lakota elected to surrender in 1880-81, Black Moon decided to remain in Canada, as did No Neck and a Brulé
named Black Bull. He and his family lived near Moose Jaw and Willow Bunch and established relationships with Canadians in the region. Black
Moon’s daughter, Mary, married a corporal in the Royal Mounted Police stationed at nearby Fort Walsh. Black Moon finally departed Canada for
the U.S. in the spring of 1889 with eleven lodges. Intercepted by soldiers, they were allowed to continue on to the Standing Rock Agency two
weeks later. Black Moon and his family were transferred to the Cheyenne River Agency in October 1890. Part of his family traveled with Big
Foot when he fled the agency during the Ghost Dance troubles. According to Dickson, "Black Moon's wife, daughter and son were killed" at
Wounded Knee; and "another son and other family members were wounded."[1] Afterwards, survivor Alice War Bonnet Charging Cloud
reported seeing Black Moon with his brothers, Iron Horn and Wood Pile, at Pine Ridge, according to her son, William War Bonnet. Black Moon
lived the remainder of his life along Cherry Creek on the Cheyenne River Reservation.
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Gros ventre indians

  • 1. Gros Ventre Indians The Gros Ventre (English pronunciation: /ˈɡroʊvɑːnt/; from French: "big belly"),[1] also known as the A'ani, A'aninin, Haaninin, and Atsina, are a historically Algonquian-speaking Native American people located in north central Montana. Today the Gros Ventre people are enrolled in the Fort Belknap Indian Community of the Fort Belknap Reservation of Montana, a federally recognized tribe with 3,682 enrolled members, that also includes Assiniboine people or Nakoda people, the Gros Ventre's historical enemies. List of Chiefs of the Gros-Ventres Indians Mexkemahuastan was Chief of the Gros-Ventres of the Prairies during 1830s. White Eagle(died February 9, 1881) was "the last major Chief of the Gros Ventre people"in the second half 19th century, died "at the mouth of the Judith River" on February 9, 1881. Sinkiuse-Columbia Indians The Sinkiuse-Columbia were a Native American tribe so-called because of their former prominent association with the Columbia River. They called themselves .tskowa'xtsEnux, or .skowa'xtsEnEx (meaning has something to do with "main valley"), or Sinkiuse. They applied the name also to other neighboring Interior Salish peoples. The name may have belonged originally to a band which once inhabited the Umatilla Valley. Chief of the Sinkiuse-Columbia Indians Chief Moses (born Kwiltalahun, later called Sulk-stalk-scosum - "The Sun Chief") (c. 1829–March 25, 1899) was a Native American chief of the Sinkiuse-Columbia, in what is now Washington State. The territory of his tribe extended approximately from Waterville to White Bluffs, in the Columbia Basin. They were often in the area around Moses Lake. The tribe numbered perhaps a few hundred individuals. The boy who would become Chief Moses was the third son of Chief Sulk-stalk-scosum; his mother was Sulk-stalk-scosum's senior wife Kanitsa. He had two older brothers and four younger ones. In childhood he was named Loo-low-kin (Head Band), but in later life Chief Moses took the name of his father, Sulk- stalk-scosum. His people lived in the Moses Lake area. At the age of nine, he so impressed the missionary Henry H. Spalding that he was invited to be educated at the Presbyterian Mission of Lapwai, Idaho, where for three years he learned the ways of whites and also made extensive contacts with Nez Perce, in whose territory the Mission was located. He became fluent in several languages, including English, Nez Perce, Spokane, Colville and Yakima, a skill that served him later in life. It was at the mission where he was given the Christian name "Moses" by Spalding, which he would go by for the rest of his life despite never officially becoming a Christian. At the time of the Yakima War, his brother Kwilninuk was chief of the Sinkiuse-Columbia; Moses had a minor role and following their defeat in 1858 surrendered in Chewelah. While Moses was away from the tribe, being examined and later negotiating, the tribe proclaimed him their chief; when he returned to their encampment near Ephrata, he assumed the duties and the name of his deceased father. He was chief of the Sinkiuse- Columbia for forty years, during which time white encroachment increased and so did conflict. He worked pragmatically to preserve his people by accommodation to the changing circumstances. In 1878, a white couple was murdered near Rattlesnake Springs by renegade Bannock and Paiute Indians.[4] The military, however, blamed the incident on Chief Moses. He was captured near present day O'Sullivan Dam and stood trial in Yakima, where he was acquitted.[5] The next year Chief Moses made his first trip to Washington, D.C., and met with President Rutherford B. Hayes. He was quoted as telling the president, "you want this god forsaken land, fine." According to Tribal records, Chief Moses was ordered to Washington on Feb 12, 1879. The charges against him for the murders of Mr. & Mrs. Perkins were dismissed on August 1879, after his trip to Washington D.C. It probably was an interesting meeting. Chief Moses probably thought that the verdict in his upcoming murder trial would
  • 2. depend upon whether he agreed to give up his land. On April 18, 1879, the United States set aside the Columbia Reservation for Chief Moses and his tribe. The tribe agreed to cede their Columbia Basin territory, which was then opened for homesteading. The new reservation was bordered on the east by the Okanogan River (the western boundary of the Colville Indian Reservation), on the south by the Columbia River, on the west by the Chelan River, Lake Chelan and the crest of the Cascade Mountains, and on the north by the international boundary with Canada. This was some distance away from the tribe's original range (which was south of the Columbia), and the terrain was very different. Approximately the same boundaries formed the Okanogan and Similkameen Mining District, originally organized in 1860. Lead and silver ore had been found in Toad's Coulee near the Canadian border. The white settlers, miners and ranchers mostly, held a meeting on July 9, 1879 near Lake Osoyoos and drew up resolutions opposing the creation of the reservation and asking the government to appraise the value of their properties for compensation if the reservation did go ahead. Interior Secretary Carl Schurz turned the matter over to the Bureau of Indian Affairs, with instructions that the white settlers would suffer no harm. Moses, however, had little respect for the Bureau and more for the army, so the army was given the job of administering the reservation. The army set up a camp at the southern end of Lake Chelan to do this. Chief Moses complained about the white settlers on the reservation, since he had been promised whites would be kept out. Colonel Henry C. Merriman, the army commander, sent Captain H.C. Cook north on August 19, 1880 to list and assess the improvements made by the white settlers and to ask them to leave. He did this for seven settlers, estimating the value of their property at $3,577, much less than the owners' estimate of $11,000. In late 1880 or in 1881 the military determined that there were 17 bona fide white residents of the region prior to April 18, 1879. However fewer than 100 members of Moses's tribe had moved to the reservation. Chief Moses himself did not live there, having relocated to the Colville Reservation just to the east of the Columbia Reservation when his tribe was expelled from the Columbia Basin. The settlers began a lobbying campaign to abolish the reservation and move the Sinkiuse-Columbia to the Colville Indian Reservation. Failing that, they asked for the return to white settlement of that portion of the reservation within 10 miles (16 km) of Canada. (Nearly all the mining claims were within that region.) Violence broke out in 1882, with angry white settlers destroying Indian property. General Miles also feared an Indian uprising. Order was soon restored, however. On February 23, 1883, President Chester A. Arthur signed an executive order restoring a 15-mile (24 km) wide strip along the Canadian border to the public domain. Chief Moses and other delegates were taken to Washington, D.C. for a conference to resolve the outstanding issues. An agreement was reached on July 7, 1883 for the government to purchase the entire Columbia Reservation from the Indians. Those families formerly assigned to the reservation were to be given the choice of moving to the Colville Reservation or taking allotments of one section (1 sq mi or 2.6 km²) of land each. By act of Congress on July 4, 1884, the entire reservation was restored to the public domain. On May 1, 1886 it was formally reopened for white settlement. The influx of settlers was so great that Okanogan County (roughly the same area as the Columbia Reservation) was split from Stevens County two years later. Chief Moses died in 1899 on the Colville Reservation. He was buried there, near Nespelem, Washington. Chief Moses once asked a follower to count the grains of sand in a pile. "There are too many," said the man. "It is the same with whites," replied Moses, "There are too many." Moses Lake, Moses Coulee, and the city of Moses Lake are named for Chief Moses. One of the two junior high schools in Moses Lake is also named for Chief Moses. Odawa Indians The Odawa (also Ottawa or Odaawaa /oʊˈdɒwə/), said to mean "traders," are a Native American and First Nations people. They are one of the Anishinaabeg, related to but distinct from the Ojibwe and Potawatomi people. Their original homelands are located on Manitoulin Island, near the northern shores of Lake Huron, on the Bruce Peninsula in the present-day province of Ontario, Canada and in the state of Michigan, United States. There are approximately 15,000 Odawa living in Ontario, Michigan and Oklahoma. The Odawa language is considered a divergent dialect of the Ojibwe, characterized by frequent syncope. The Odawa language, like the Ojibwe language, is part of the Algonquian language family. They also have smaller tribal groups or “bands” commonly called “Tribe” in the United States and “First Nation” in Canada. The Odawa people formerly lived along the Ottawa River but now live especially on Manitoulin Island. List of Chiefs of Odawa Indians Cobmoosa (1768 - 1866) was an Ottawa leader. Some sources claim he was the son of Antoine Campau and his wife, who was said to have been the daughter of an Ottawa chief. Originally he and his followers lived in the vicinity of Grand Rapids, Michigan. He was incharge of a band of Ottawa in Ionia, Michigan. He was the leader of the Ojibwe who sold their crops to the initial settlers of Ionia in 1833. He was also among those who went with Rix Robinson to negotiate a treaty for removal to Indian Territory, but he like other Ojibwe resisted that removal. In 1855 he signed a treaty with the federal government to relocate to Oceana County, Michigan. The government built a log cabin for him in Cobmoosa, Michigan and he along with 1300 others were located by 1858. He was buried in Elbridge, Michigan. Egushawa (c.1726 – March 1796), also spelled Egouch-e-ouay, Agushaway, Agashawa, Negushwa, and many other variants, was a war chief and principal political chief of the Ottawa tribe of North American Indians. His name is loosely translated as "The Gatherer" or "Brings Together" (c.f. Ojibwe agwazhe'waa, "to quilt something(s); to blanket someone(s)"). As a leader in two wars against the United States, Egushawa was one of the most influential Native Americans of the Great Lakes region in the late eighteenth century. Egushawa first appears in historical records in 1774, when he signed an indenture granting an island in the Detroit River to Alexis Masonville in 1774, not far from the British Army outpost of Fort Detroit. Nothing is known for certain about his life before that time. He was likely born in the Detroit River region, in what is now Michigan or Ontario. He came to prominence as a successor to Pontiac, the famous Ottawa leader, to whom he may have been related. Egushawa may have fought against the British during the French and Indian War (1754–1763) as an ally of the French. When the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) began, Egushawa was living in a village at the mouth of the Maumee River, the location of the present-day Toledo, Ohio. Egushawa supported the efforts of the British in Fort Detroit to recruit American Indians allies in order to attack U.S. settlements in Kentucky. In April 1777, he traveled with British officials to Vincennes to help forge an alliance with some of the Wabash tribes. For his
  • 3. efforts, Henry Hamilton, British lieutenant governor at Detroit, awarded Egushawa a sword in June 1777. Egushawa saw much action in the war. He accompanied St. Leger's expedition in upstate New York, taking part in the bloody Battle of Oriskany on 6 August 1777. In 1778, he was the main chief with Hamilton's expedition to recapture Vincennes after it had been taken by Colonel George Rogers Clark of Virginia. Clark made a surprise return to Vincennes in 1779 and captured Hamilton, but Egushawa escaped. In 1780, his war band accompanied Captain Henry Bird's invasion of Kentucky, in which two American "stations" (fortified settlements) were captured. In the 1783 peace treaty which ended the Revolutionary War, the British ceded the land of their Native American allies to the United States. Without British military support, Native Americans were compelled to sign various peace treaties which ceded portions of the Northwest Territory to the United States, culminating with the Treaty of Fort Harmar in 1789. Egushawa opposed these treaties and did not consider them to be binding. After the Revolutionary War, Shawnees of the Ohio Country began to forge a confederacy to oppose U.S. occupation of the land ceded by the British. These efforts were clandestinely supported by the British, who had refused to abandon Fort Detroit and Fort Mackinac as called for in the 1783 peace treaty. Egushawa was initially reluctant to take part in the Northwest Indian War, but he joined the native confederacy after the defeat of an American army led by Josiah Harmar in October 1790. As a war chief, recruiter, and a diplomat to the British, Egushawa became one of the most prominent leaders in the war. In 1791, he probably led the Ottawa, Ojibwa, and Potawatomi contingent at the Battle of the Wabash, the most severe defeat ever suffered by the United States at the hands of American Indians. In 1794, Egushawa was seriously wounded in the American Indian defeat at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, which brought an end to the war. It was the last time he saw combat. Recuperating, he lived on the Maumee or Raisin Rivers. He continued to urge fellow American Indian leaders to support the British Crown. With the British distracted by European wars, however, military support was not forthcoming, and so Egushawa agreed to negotiate a peace treaty with the Americans, one of the last chiefs to do so. He signed the Treaty of Greenville on August 3, 1795, ceding much of present Ohio to the United States. He died near Detroit shortly thereafter, probably leaving no descendants. Ningweegon (aka Negwagon) was chief of the Odawa of the Michilimackinac region of Michigan, sometimes known in English as "The Wing," or "Wing". Although some sources refer to him as "Little Wing", this does not have supporting documentation. Mack-e-te-be-nessy(Makade-binesi, "black hawk") was chief of Ottawa tribe in the first half 19th century. He was father of Andrew Jackson Blackbird Ottawa tribe leader and historian. Mack-e-te-be-nessy was chief of the Arbor Croche or Middle Village band. Mack-e-te-be-nessy was stranded on a small island by white traders he was helping, and was left to die. Andrew Jackson Blackbird (c. 1814-17 September 1908) was an "Odawa" Ottawa tribe leader and historian. He was author of the 1887 book, History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan. Blackbird was born in the L'Arbre Croche area of Michigan (now Harbor Springs) around 1815. At least one account, though, places this date as late as 1821. His father was an Ottawa chief named Mack-e-te-be-nessy (Makade-binesi, "black hawk"). The name was mistranslated first by the French and from French to English as "Blackbird", which became the family's English name. Mack-e-te-be-nessy was chief of the Arbor Croche or Middle Village band. Mack-e-te-be-nessy was stranded on a small island by white traders he was helping, and was left to die. Although his father survived, this cruelty left a strong impression on his son. The death of his brother, William, in Rome, Italy on June 25, 1833, under suspicious circumstances as he was completing his studies for the Roman Catholic priesthood, left an indelible impression on Andrew and perhaps was the source of his intense antipathy for that religion from then on. Blackbird frequently bemoaned his limited formal education. Because his father was a chief, Blackbird was solidly educated in traditional Ottawa culture and practices. Blackbird was baptized a Roman Catholic by a priest called Father Baden in 1825, but later converted to Protestantism. He served as interpreter at the Protestant mission in L'Arbre Croche. Even though he was a Christian, he knew the traditional Ottawa religious beliefs well. Blackbird was trained as a blacksmith at mission schools in the L'Arbre Croche area. He studied for four years at Twinsburg Institute in Twinsburg in Summit County, Ohio, but left without graduating. In 1850 his elderly father's health worsened. This forced Blackbird to leave school and return home to assist the old chief. Later he attended Eastern Michigan University (then called Michigan State Normal School) in Ypsilanti, Michigan, for two years, but again did not graduate. In June 1858 Blackbird wrote his Twinsburg Institute mentor Rev. Samuel Bissell: "...I continue to attend the State Normal School at Ypsilanti, but am getting somewhat discouraged as to ever being perfect in the knowledge of English Language. I have begun rather too late of attending those things. I shall always speak__indistinctly__ungrammatically__for being so deeply rooted or stained with my own language....I have begun a grammar in the Indian tongue__intended to write it upon the same plan in which our first books in Latin and Greek are written...And this I thought would be about as good that I can do for them, since I cannot personally do good among them, so at least, they can have my writings if not prohibited by their Priests...The last I heard of my father were still living but very old and feeble...Our school is let out on the 25th of July__and vacation will last 10 or 11 weeks. I should like to have gone to visit my people but I am considerable in debt, therefore I will have to work out somewheres here during the time, in order to pay up my debts." Blackbird was loyal to the United States during various uprisings. In 1858 Blackbird married Elizabeth Margaret Fish, a white woman of English descent. As a result, he was viewed favorably by the United States. By the 1850s, Blackbird had become a counselor for both sides between the United States government and the Ottawa and Ojibwa peoples. Blackbird helped veterans of the United States who were Native Americans receive their pensions. He also assisted in settling land claims. During this time, Blackbird strongly advocated that citizenship be granted to the Ottawa and other Native Americans. When the "Treaty With The Ottawa and Chippewa" was signed on July 31, 1855, Blackbird served as an interpreter, translator and official witness. In 1858, Blackbird bought a house in Harbor Springs, Michigan, and settled there permanently. At the time, Harbor Springs was still primarily populated by Ottawas. Blackbird became the town's postmaster. In 1887, Blackbird published his History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan. The work was published in Ypsilanti, Michigan, by the Ypsilantian Job Printing House. The book was among the first authoritative accounts of the Ottawa and Ojibwa (Chippewa) peoples ever published. The book covers not only historical facts, but day-to-day details of how the Ottawa and Ojibwa hunted, fished and trapped before the coming of the whites. Blackbird explains many of the traditional beliefs and cultural practices of the two tribes. Because the author was himself a Native American, the book is free of the bias commonly found in books by white authors of the period. Finally, the book includes a basic grammar of the Ottawa and Ojibwa languages. The Andrew J. Blackbird House in Harbor Springs, Michigan, is a museum of American Indian artifacts presented in the house in which Blackbird lived from 1858 until his death in 1908. There is a Michigan State Historical Marker at the site and the house itself is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Chihenne (Mimbres) Apache chieftain
  • 4. Baishan, Spanish name Cuchillo Negro (Black Knife) (c. 1796 – May 24, 1857), was a Chihenne (Mimbres) Apache chieftain, of the Warm Springs Apache Band during the 1830s to 1850s. Baishan (“Knife”), son of the famed chief Fuerte aka Soldato Fiero, was a most respected war leader among the Tchihende bands along almost three decades from the beginning of 1830s, and the principal chief the Warm Springs local group of the Tchihende ("Chihenne") Apaches after Fuerte's death in 1837 near Janos; he was also the second principal chief of the whole Tchihende (or Mimbreño) Apaches after his long-time companion Mangas Coloradas, chief of the Coppermine local group of the same Tchihende (or "Chihenne") Apaches. His name was translated by the Mexicans as Cuchillo (“Knife”) or - because of the Apache practice of blackening their weapons to make them less conspicuous - as Cuchillo Negro (“Black Knife”). Cuchillo Negro's name is mentioned in military and civilian records of treaties and other dealings with Apaches during the early years of U.S. jurisdiction over the New Mexico Territory. The U. S. Army claims he was killed in the Black Range by Pueblo scouts, under Col. William W. Loring, during the Bonneville Expedition in 1857.[2] However, the Fort Sill Apache, Chiricahua - Warm Springs Mimbreño Apache website says he "Died in the revenge raid on Ramos (1850)." Several geological features in Sierra County, New Mexico bear his name: Cuchillo Negro Mountains, Cuchillo Negro Creek, and the town of Cuchillo, New Mexico. A painting of Cuchillo Negro on horseback was done by John Mix Stanley in 1846. The painting hangs in the Smithsonian American Art Museum. It measures 42 1/2 x 52 in. (107.8 x 132.1 cm). Since Apaches traditionally did not wear feathers in this way there is some doubt the artist ever saw his subject. "Black Knife" appears as a character in a 2011 science fiction film, Cowboys & Aliens. Shoshone chief Bear Hunter (died January 29, 1863), "also known as Wirasuap (bear spirit)" was a Shoshone chief of the Great Basin who strongly resisted white colonization of the area in the 1860s. He and his war parties attacked Mormon colonists, telegraph workers, and wagon trains heading west while federal troops were preoccupied with the American Civil War. In 1862, a Californian volunteer infantry led by Patrick Edward Connor established a fort on the Wasatch Range near Salt Lake City. In January 1863, they attacked Bear Hunter's village in an action known as the Bear River Massacre today. Bear Hunter was among those tortured and killed. Oglala Lakota Chief Iron Tail (Oglala Lakota: Siŋté Máza in Standard Lakota Orthography) (1842 - May 29, 1916) was an Oglala Lakota Chief and a star performer with Buffalo Bill’s Wild West. Iron Tail was one of the most famous Native American celebrities of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and a popular subject for professional photographers who circulated his image across the continents. Iron Tail is notable in American history for his distinctive profile on the Buffalo nickel or Indian Head nickel of 1913 to 1938. Siŋté Máza was the chief’s tribal name. Asked why the white people call him Iron Tail, he said that when he was a baby his mother saw a band of warriors chasing a herd of buffalo, in one of their periodic grand hunts, their tails standing upright as if shafts of steel, and she thereafter called his name Siŋté Máza as something new and novel. Chief Iron Tail was one of the most famous Native American celebrities of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Professional photographers circulated his image across the continents. Chief Iron Tail is often mistaken by historians for Chief Iron Hail (“Dewey Beard”), being Lakota contemporaries with similar sounding names. Most biographies incorrectly report that Chief Iron Tail fought in the Battle of the Little Bighorn and that family was killed at in 1890 at Wounded Knee, when it truth it was Chief Iron Hail who suffered the loss. Major Israel McCreight reported: "Iron Tail was not a war chief and no remarkable record as a fighter. He was not a medicine man or conjuror, but a wise counselor and diplomat, always dignified, quiet and never given to boasting. He seldom made a speech and cared nothing for gaudy regalia, very much like the famed War Chief Crazy Horse. In this respect he always had a smile and was fond of children, horses and friends." Chief Iron Tail was an international personality and appeared as the lead with Buffalo Bill at the Champs-Élysées in Paris, France and the Colosseum in Rome, Italy. In France, as in England, Buffalo Bill and Iron Tail were feted by the aristocracy. Iron Tail was one of Buffalo Bill’s best friends and they hunted elk and bighorn together on annual trips. On one of his visits to The Wigwam of Major Israel McCreight, Buffalo Bill asked Iron Tail to illustrate in pantomime how he played and won a game of poker with U S. army officials during a Treaty Council in the old days. "Going through all the forms of the game from dealing to antes and betting and drawing a last card during which no word was uttered and his countenance like a statue, he suddenly swept the table clean into his blanket and rose from the table and strutted away. It was a piece of superb acting, and exceedingly funny.” Iron Tail continued to travel with Buffalo Bill until 1913, and then the Miller Brothers 101 Ranch Wild West until his death in 1916.Gertrude Käsebier was one of the most influential American photographers of the early 20th century and best known for her evocative images of Native Americans. Käsebier spent her childhood on the Great Plains living near and playing with Sioux children. In 1898, Käsebier watched Buffalo Bill’s Wild West troupe parade past her Fifth Avenue studio in New York City, toward Madison Square Garden. Her memories of affection and respect for the Lakota people inspired her to send a letter to Buffalo Bill requesting permission to photograph Sioux traveling with the show in her studio. Buffalo Bill and Käsebier were similar in their abiding Native American culture and maintained friendships with the Sioux. Buffalo Bill quickly approved Käsebier's request and she began her project on Sunday morning, April 14, 1898. Käsebier's project was purely artistic and her images were not made for commercial purposes and never used in Buffalo Bill’s Wild West program booklets or promotional posters. Buffalo Bill Cody told Major Israel
  • 5. McCreight that "Chief Iron Tail is the finest man I know, bar none." Käsebier took classic photographs of the Sioux while they were relaxed. Chief Iron Tail was one of Käsebier’s most challenging portrait subjects. Käsebier's session with Chief Iron Tail was her only recorded story: “Preparing for their visit to Käsebier’s photography studio, the Sioux at Buffalo Bill's Wild West Camp met to distribute their finest clothing and accessories to those chosen to be photographed.” Käsebier admired their efforts, but desired to, in her own words, photograph a “real raw Indian, the kind I used to see when I was a child’, referring to her early years in Colorado and on the Great Plains. Käsebier selected one Indian, Chief Iron Tail, to approach for a photograph without regalia. He did not object. The resulting photograph was exactly what Käsebier had envisioned: a relaxed, intimate, quiet, and beautiful portrait of the man, devoid of decoration and finery, presenting himself to her and the camera without barriers. Several days later, however, when presented with the photograph, Chief Iron Tail immediately tore up the image, stating it was too dark. Käsebier photographed him once again, this time in his full feather headdress, much to his satisfaction. Chief Iron Tail was an international celebrity. He appeared with his fine regalia as the lead with Buffalo Bill at the Avenue des Champs-Élysées in Paris, France, and the Colosseum of Rome. Chief Iron Tail was a superb showman and chaffed at the photo of him relaxed. but Käsebier chose it as the frontispiece for a 1901 Everybody’s Magazine article. Käsebier believed all the portraits were a "revelation of Indian character," showing the strength and individual character of the Native Americans in "new phases for the Sioux." Early in the twentieth century, Iron Tail's distinctive profile became well known across the United States as one of three models for the five-cent coin Buffalo nickel or Indian Head nickel. The popular coin was introduced in 1913 and showcases the native beauty of the American West. Bee Ho Gray, the famous Wild West performer, accompanied Chief Iron Tail to act as an interpreter and guide to Washington D.C. and New York where Iron Tail modeled for sculptor James Earle Fraser as he worked on designs for the new Buffalo nickel. Iron Tail was the most famous Native American of his day and a popular subject for professional photographers who circulated his image across the continents. Chief Iron Tail was a friend of Major Israel McCreight and a frequent visitor to The Wigwam in DuBois, Pennsylvania. Chief Iron Tail and Chief Flying Hawk considered The Wigwam their home in the East. On June 22, 1908, Chief Iron Tail presided over a ceremony at the tent of Buffalo Bill adopting McCreight as an honorary Chief of the Oglala Lakota. In 1915, McCreight hosted a grand reception for Iron Tail and Flying Hawk at The Wigwam. On June 22, 1908, Chief Iron Tail and "Buffalo Bill" Cody visited Du Bois, Pennsylvania with the Wild West Congress of Rough Riders. Twelve thousand people a day attended Cody’s Wild West performances and 150 Oglalas were in town with 150 ponies. On this occasion, Chief Iron Tail presided over the adoption of Major Israel McCreight as an honorary Chief of the Oglala Lakota and named McCreight “Čhaŋté Tȟáŋka ("Great Heart"). Chief Iron Tail performed the ceremony assembled at Buffalo Bill's tent and attended by Chief American Horse, Chief Whirlwind Horse, Chief Lone Bear and 100 Oglala Lakota members of the Wild West Congress of Rough Riders. The Oglala Lakota chiefs formed a small circle around McCreight and his wife Alice, and Chief Iron Tail began the ceremony with a speech in Lakota, a hearty handshake all around, and then placed a war bonnet McCreight’s head and moccasins upon his feet. Chief Iron Tail then presented McCreight with a tepee on which an owl had been traced with yellow chalk and told this was for him and Alice to live in. Tom-tom drums were then beaten and tribal songs put up vigorously. Concluding remarks were made by Chief Iron Tail ending with hearty handshakes. Chief Iron Tail and Buffalo Bill were loaded into a new 1908 Rambler touring car and driven to McCreight’s town house for the banquet which followed. There, Chief Iron Tail was presented with a new Winchester rifle as a souvenir of the event. McCreight was forever moved by the solemnity of the occasion, and carried the honor proudly and with distinction the rest of his life. McCreight later remarked that the title, honorary Chief of the Oglala Lakota, was a far greater tribute than could have been conferred by any president or military organization. In 1915, McCreight hosted a grand reception for Chief Iron Tail and Chief Flying Hawk at The Wigwam in Du Bois, Pennsylvania. “When Chief Iron Tail was finished with greeting the long line of judges, bankers, lawyers, business men and neighbors who filed past in a receiving line just as the President is obliged to receive and shake the hands of multitude of strangers who call on New Years, the chief grasped hold of the fine buffalo robe which had been thrown over a porch bench for him to rest on drawing it around his shoulders, walked out on the lawn and lay down to gaze into the clouds and over the hundred mile sweep of the hills and valleys forming the Eastern Continental Divide. He had fulfilled his social obligations when he had submitted to an hour of incessant hand- shaking, as he could talk in English, further crowd mixing did not appeal to him. He preferred to relax and smoke his redstone pipe and wait his call to the big dining room. There he re-appeared in the place of honor and partook of the good things in the best of grace and gentlemanly deportment. His courteous behavior, here and at all places and occasions when in company of the writer, was worthy of emulation by the most exalted white man or woman!” After Chief Iron Tail had shaken hands with the assembled guests he gathered the big buffalo hide about his shoulders, waived aside the crowd and walked away. He spread the woolly robe on the grass, sat down upon it and lit his pipe, as if to say, “I’ve done my social duty, now I wish to enjoy myself.” Chief Flying Hawk long remembered the gala festivities. “Here he himself and his close friend Iron Tail had held a reception once long ago, for hundreds of their friends, when bankers, preachers, teachers, businessmen, farmers, came from near and far along with their ladies, to pay their respects and say, How Cola!” “The historian Chief Flying Hawk reminded that when dinner was served, Iron Tail asked to have his own and Flying Hawk’s meals brought to them on the open porch where they ate from a table he now sat beside, while the many white folks occupied the dining-room, where they could discuss Indians without embarrassment. This, he remembered, was a good time, and they talked about it for a long time together, but now, his good friend had left him and was in the Sand Hills.” In May 1916, Chief Iron Tail, at the age of 74, became ill with pneumonia while performing with the Miller Brothers 101 Ranch Wild West in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and was placed in St. Luke's Hospital. Buffalo Bill was obliged to go on with his show next day to Baltimore, Maryland, and Iron Tail was left alone in a strange city with doctors and nurses who could not communicate with him. McCreight learned about the Chief's admission to the hospital in the morning Philadelphia paper, and immediately sent a telegram to Buffalo Bill to send Iron Tail by next train to Du Bois, Pennsylvania, for care at The Wigwam. No reply was had and the wire was not delivered or forwarded to Baltimore. Instead the hospital authorities put Chief Iron Tail on a Pullman, ticketed for home to the Black Hills. On May 28, 1916, when the porter of his car went to wake him at South Bend, Indiana, Iron Tail was dead, his body continuing on to its destination. Buffalo Bill expressed regret that the Chief was sent to the hospital and that he had not received the telegram. Iron Tail's body was transferred to a hospital in Rushville, Nebraska, then to Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, where he was buried at Holy Rosary Mission Cemetery on June 3, 1916. With deep emotion, Buffalo Bill said he was going to put a granite stone on Chief Iron Tail's grave with a replica of the Buffalo nickel (for which Chief Iron Tail had posed) carved on it as a memento. However, Buffalo Bill passed away on January 10, 1917, just six months after Chief Iron Tail's death. In a ceremony at Buffalo Bill's grave on Lookout Mountain, west of Denver, Colorado, Chief Flying Hawk laid his war staff of eagle feathers on the grave. Each of the veteran Wild Westers placed a Buffalo nickel on the imposing stone as a symbol of the Indian, the buffalo, and the scout, figures since the 1880s that were symbolic of the early history of the American West. Leaders of Delaware (Lenape) Captain Jacobs (died September 8, 1756) was a Delaware (Lenape) chief during the French and Indian War. His real name was Tewea.[citation needed] Jacobs received his English moniker from a Pennsylvania settler named Arthur Buchanan, who thought the chief resembled a "burly German in Cumberland County." Lewistown, Pennsylvania is located where there once was a considerable Delaware
  • 6. settlement, at the confluence of the Kishacoquillas Creek and the Juniata River. It was in 1754 that the English, led by Buchanan, came to the area. Captain Jacobs, being the head chief, was at first reluctant to sell any of the nearby land to the English settlers. With the assistance of a keg of rum, a few trinkets, and some tobacco, Buchanan convinced Jacobs to give them the land. Captain Jacobs initially professed great friendship toward the British colonists, but was swayed by the French to think otherwise. As the number of English settlers grew, so did Jacobs' dissatisfaction with them. Without notice or incident, the Delawares destroyed their own settlement and left the area, which the English noted with caution. Captain Jacobs led the Delaware warriors against the English settlements in multiple raids following Braddock's defeat throughout the valleys of central Pennsylvania. Jacobs boasted that he "could take any fort that would catch fire, and would make peace with the English when they had learned him to make gunpowder." It was Jacobs who burned Fort Granville under the direction of the French commander. On the morning of September 8, 1756, Colonel John Armstrong led a force of 307 Pennsylvanians to attack the village of Kittanning in hopes of disrupting the raids against the English. Chief Shingas was away during the battle, so Jacobs took command and fought Armstrong's men from his log cabin. One of Armstrong's soldiers, John Ferguson, managed to set fire to Jacobs' house. The people inside the cabin remained inside until the magazine erupted and their guns took fire. When they emerged, Jacobs' squaw was killed first, followed by Jacobs himself, and then his son. Netawatwees (c. 1686–1776) was a Delaware chief of the Turtle subtribe. His name, meaning "skilled advisor," appears in the colonial records as Netawatwees, Netahutquemaled, Netodwehement, and Netautwhalemund. In English, he was known as the Newcomer. Probably born in the Delaware River Valley around 1686, the young Netawatwees was forced to move west with other members of his tribe due to white pressures. In July 1758, he was living in a Delaware Indian settlement at the mouth of Beaver Creek, a tributary of the Ohio River below Pittsburgh, where records identify him as "ye great man of the Unami nation." Netawatwees moved to Ohio with other migrant Delaware during the French and Indian War (1754–63). He favored alliances with the English. He established a village near present-day Cuyahoga Falls. From there, he moved to the Tuscarawas, a tributary of the Muskingum, where he became chieftain of the Delaware town called Gekelukpechink, meaning "still water." This town, which became known as Newcomer's Town, was on the north bank of the Tuscarawas on the eastern outskirts of present-day Newcomerstown. The Great Council met here until the Delaware population was consolidated at nearby Coshocton. Although Netawatwees never converted to Christianity, the Moravian missionaries made a strong impression on him. Infirm in his old age, he was succeeded by White Eyes in 1776. His dying word on October 31, 1776, implored the Delaware to give up their native practices and follow the teachings of the Moravian pastors. Netawatwees' son was Bemino (John Killbuck Sr.), a renowned war leader on the French side during the French and Indian War. His grandson was Gelelemend (1737–1811), or John Killbuck Jr., a Delaware chief during the American Revolutionary War. Bemino (fl. 1710s–1780s) — known as John Killbuck, Sr to white settlers — was a renowned medicine man and war leader of Shawnee and Delaware (Lenape) warriors during the French and Indian War (1754–63). He was a son of Netawatwees, at one time principal chief of the Delaware, and his own son was Gelelemend (John Killbuck, Jr.), a Delaware chief during the American Revolutionary War. Bemino lived with his people in what is now eastern Ohio, but was mostly active in the upper Potomac River watershed in what is now the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia. Within the Delaware hierarchy, Bemino’s phratry (clan) is unclear, but he was a member of either the Turtle or the Turkey phratry. He may have been born or raised in what is now eastern Ohio where his father, a Delaware sub-chief named Netawatwees, had been forced to remove from the Delaware River Valley by white pressure. In any case, by the 1740s and '50s Bemino was well acquainted with all the white settler families in the valley of the South Branch Potomac River in what is now the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia. This river and region were known at that time to Indians and whites alike by a Native American name — Wappocomo. Such was the rapport between Bemino and the newly established whites that, shortly before the outbreak of the French and Indian War (1754), one of them — a Mr Peter Casey — hired Bemino to chase down and retrieve a "runaway negro" (or, by another account, a runaway "Irish servant"). In trying to collect his payment, however, he quarreled with Casey, who knocked him to the ground with a cane. (Bemino long held a grudge and, throughout the subsequent hostilities, attempted without success to find an opportunity to kill Casey.) At times, Bemino would live among some of the English families, a situation that allowed him to familiarize himself with their habits and assess their resources — knowledge that later proved invaluable when he allied himself with the French as a leader of marauding warrior bands in the region. After the outbreak of hostilities at the Battle of Jumonville Glen in Pennsylvania (May 28, 1754), Bemino was among those Indian leaders siding with the French against the English. Bemino is said to have led the attack in an ambush (the "Battle of the Trough") of white settlers near Fort Pleasant, in what is now Hardy County, West Virginia, in March or April 1756. A one or two hour firefight left seven whites (out of about 18) dead as against three Indians (out of 60 or 70). At around the same time, Bemino and a small band apprehended a Mr. Williams, a settler on Patterson's Creek, some 9 miles across Patterson Creek Mountain from Fort Pleasant. After besieging him in his home (and losing 5 of their party of 7), the Indians managed to kill him and quarter his body, hanging the four parts at the four corners of the log cabin, and impaling his head upon a fence stake at the front door. An engagement known as the Battle of Great Cacapon took place on April 18, 1756. A number of years after this incident, Bemino described how he and a band of Indians (probably composed of both Delawares and Shawnee) killed two men near Fort Edwards, not far from the Cacapon River in what is now Hampshire County, West Virginia. Deliberately leaving a trail of corn meal, they lay in wait for an ambush along a high stream bank. Captain John Mercer led a band of militia (said to number either 40 or 100, depending on the source) in pursuit. When they passed the concealed Indians, the trap was sprung, and the Indians opened a withering crossfire, killing Mercer and 16 of his men. Survivors were soon chased down and killed, with Bemino claiming that only six men escaped. In 1756 or 1757, Bemino approached Fort Cumberland, just across the Potomac River in Maryland, with a large warrior force. Agreeing to a parlay, the garrison commander, a Major Livingston, admitted the leaders inside the gates, but detained them there and, assuming that the encounter was a ruse, humiliated them (perhaps by dressing them in women's clothing) before expelling them from the fort. Bemino and his Delaware and Shawnee warriors attacked the British settler stockades at Fort Upper Tract and Fort Seybert (on the South Fork of the South Branch in what is now Pendleton County) on April 27 and 28, 1758, respectively. Fort Seybert (about 12 miles northeast of the present town of Franklin) was then occupied by about 30 people, apparently only three of which were adult males. After the defenders surrendered, the Indians spared only eleven white lives. According to the son of one of the survivors: They bound ten, whom they conveyed without the fort, and then proceeded to massacre the others in the following manner: They seated them in a row upon a log, with an Indian standing behind each; and at a given signal, each Indian sunk his tomahawk into the head of his victim: an additional blow or two dispatched them. In later years, the sons of the aforementioned Peter Casey and Mr. Williams visited the elderly Bemino in the Ohio Territory. By this time he was quite feeble and completely blind. Upon hearing the name of Col. Vincent Williams, his only response was "Your father was a brave warrior". Upon hearing that the other visitor, Benjamin Casey, was Peter Casey's son, he responded: "Your father owes me eight shillings; will you pay it?" During this visit, Bemino related many of the details of his exploits which would otherwise have been lost to history for lack of surviving eyewitnesses. Despite the bitter animosity between Bemino and the white settlers and officials, two places in Ohio continue to bear his name: the town of Killbuck and the stream known as Killbuck Creek.
  • 7. White Eyes, named Koquethagechton (c. 1730 - November 5, 1778), was a leader of the Lenape (Delaware) people in the Ohio Country during the era of the American Revolution. Sometimes known as George White Eyes, or Captain Grey Eyes al. Sir William, his given name in Lenape was rendered in many spelling variations in colonial records. By 1773 he was Speaker of the Delaware Head Council and known as one of the most important councilors. White Eyes was a war chief and a tireless mediator in turbulent times, negotiating the first Indian treaties with the fledgling United States, and always working toward his ultimate of goal of establishing a secure Indian territory. His murder by an American militia officer is believed to have been covered up by United States officials. Nothing is known about the early life of Koquethagechton. Likely born in present-day Pennsylvania, he was first noted in the English colonial record near the end of the Seven Years' War (French and Indian War), as a messenger during treaty negotiations. He appeared to be considered well suited for interaction between Indians and whites, although he could not read or write, and probably did not speak English—at least not well. After the war, when European white colonists began settling near the Lenape villages around Fort Pitt in western Pennsylvania, the Native Americans moved further west to the Muskingum River valley in present-day eastern Ohio. By this time, many Lenape had converted to Christianity under the influence of Moravian missionaries and lived in villages led by them. The missionary towns also moved to the Muskingum, so that the Lenape, both Christian and non-Christian, could stay together. Though not a Christian, White Eyes ensured that the Christian Lenape remained members of the larger community. In the early 1770s, Lenape attacked the Philip Doddridge family farm, along the shores of killing some members of the nine-person extended family and capturing others. They carried away three young daughters and a son, and the grandmother. The five-year-old girl Rachel Doddridge was known to have been adopted into the tribe. After becoming a chief, White Eyes married Rachel Doddridge (d. 1788), a young English colonist who had been taken captive as a 5-year-old child during a Lenape raid and adopted into the Lenape people, becoming fully assimilated. They had at least one son, named George Morgan White Eyes. Rachel had been living with her father Philip Doddridge and family at a farm on the shores of Chartier's Creek near Statler's Fort (Washington County, Pennsylvania). Her cousin Philip Doddridge reported seeing her later as an adult at a trading post. Thoroughly assimilated by then, she was not interested in a reunion with her British relatives. White Eyes established his own town, known by the colonists as White Eyes' Town, near the Lenape capital of Coshocton, Ohio. By 1773 White Eyes served as Speaker of the Delaware Head Council, an important position and indication of his high reputation in the tribe. In 1774, the Lenape Grand Council, an association of chiefs, named White Eyes as principal chief of the nation. In the early 1770s, violence on the frontier between whites and Indians threatened to escalate into open warfare. White Eyes unsuccessfully attempted to prevent what would become Lord Dunmore's War in 1774, fought primarily between the Shawnee and Virginia colonists. He served as a peace emissary between the two armies, and helped negotiate a treaty to end the war. When the American Revolutionary War began soon after the end of Dunmore's War, White Eyes was negotiating a royal grant with Lord Dunmore to secure the Lenape territory in the Ohio Country. After the American revolutionaries forced Dunmore out of Virginia, White Eyes had to begin anew with the Americans. In April 1776, he addressed the Continental Congress in Philadelphia on behalf of the Lenape. Two years later he completed an alliance of the Delaware with the United States by a treaty signed in 1778 at Fort Pitt. It promised to establish a Lenape state, with representation in the American Congress, provided that the Congress approved. The treaty provided for the Lenape to serve as guides for the Americans when they moved through the Ohio Country to strike at their British and Indian enemies to the north, in and around Detroit. In early November 1778, White Eyes joined an American expedition under General Lachlan McIntosh as a guide and negotiator. Soon after, the Americans reported that White Eyes had contracted smallpox and died during the expedition. After his death, the Lenape alliance with the Americans eventually collapsed. The Americans by then had no interest in supporting a state under Lenape control. After his death, Gelelemend of the Turtle Clan became the principal chief of the Lenape as no other leader was qualified by clan. Years later, George Morgan, a US Indian agent, trader, and former close associate of White Eyes, wrote a letter to Congress claiming that the chief had been "treacherously put to death" by American militia in Michigan. Later documentation affirmed that White Eyes had been killed by an American militia officer on November 5, 1778. (Morgan had helped negotiate with Native Americans in the Fort Pitt area, so was closely involved in these matters.) He also wrote that the murder of White Eyes had been covered up to prevent the Lenape from abandoning the revolutionaries. White Eyes' British-Lenape wife Rachel Doddridge was reportedly murdered by white men in 1788. Their mixed-race son George Morgan White Eyes (1780?–1798) was cared for by the family friend George Morgan. Later he was educated at the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University), where his tuition was paid by the Continental Congress. He graduated in 1789. Gelelemend (1737–1811), also known as Killbuck or John Killbuck Jr., was an important Delaware (Lenape) chief during the American Revolutionary War, who supported the rebel Americans. His name signifies "a leader." Born into the senior Turtle clan, which had responsibility to lead the tribe, he became principal chief of the Lenape in November 1778, following the death of White Eyes, a war chief and Speaker of the Delaware Head Council. Gelelemend succeeded his maternal grandfather Netawatwees. Due to undifferentiated American attacks against the Lenape during the war, chiefs of other clans switched to ally with the British. After being pushed out as principal chief, Gelelemend led an American attack on a major Lenape town, then retreated to Fort Pitt. After the war, he converted to Christianity at a Moravian mission in Salem, Ohio, where he took the Christian name of "William Henry." Gelelemend was born near the Lehigh River in Pennsylvania, son of Bemino (John Killbuck Sr.), a renowned war leader during the French and Indian War, and his wife. Under the matrilineal kinship system of the Lenape, Gelemend was born into his mother's Turtle clan, which had responsibility for providing hereditary chiefs for the tribe. His maternal grandfather was Netawatwees ("Newcomer"), principal chief of the Delaware. At that time, the Lenape had three clans or phratries: Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf. Children were considered born into their mother's clan, which determined their social status in the tribe. The mother's eldest brother was more important to them in shaping their lives than was their biological father, who belonged to another clan. Each clan had its own chiefs, councilors, and war captains, as well as a distinct role for serving the tribe. The Turtle phratry was considered the senior clan, with the role of leading the tribe. Their hereditary chief served as principal chief of the Lenape tribe. By early 1776, the Moravian missionary David Zeisberger recorded that Gelelemend had been "designated" as the successor to his maternal grandfather Netawatwees, who was thought to be close to 100 years old. But, after Netawatwees died on October 31, 1776, however, the succession remained uncertain. This was due to the unsettled situation of the Delaware in the Ohio Country. Situated between the British at Detroit and the Americans to the east, the Delaware tried to remain neutral in the British-American conflict. They were subjected to strong pressure to enter the conflict from the British, the Americans, and other Indian nations (nearly all of whom allied with the British, in the hope of pushing American colonists out of their territories). Under these circumstances, the important counselor White Eyes, who by 1773 was Speaker of the Delaware Head Council, seemed to have some authority as chief in addition to that exercised by Gelelemend. With White Eyes and Captain Pipe (war captain of the Wolf clan), Gelelemend signed the Delaware Treaty with the United States in 1778. Only after the death of White Eyes later that year, murdered on November 5m 1778 by an American militia officer, did Gelelemend become principal chief. However, the Lenape were deeply divided over how to respond to the war. Following indiscriminate attacks by Continentals against the Lenape, bands led by Captain Pipe and Buckongahelas broke away from the pro-American leadership of Gelelemend. They allied with the British for the rest of the war and later resettled in Upper Canada, where they were granted land by the Crown. By 1781, Gelelemend had been forced from power. He helped guide Colonel Daniel Brodhead in an expedition to destroy the Delaware capital of Coshocton in Ohio, where he had lived and served as chief. With a few of his followers, Gelelemend returned with the Americans to Fort Pitt. He had become a man without a country. He lived at Fort Pitt until 1785, always in fear
  • 8. for his life. Long interested in Christianity, Gelelemend joined the Moravian mission at Salem, Ohio in 1788. At the baptism ceremony, he took the name William Henry, supposedly to honor a man who had rescued him during the French and Indian War. He was the most prominent convert in the Lenape community. Gelelemend died in Goshen, Ohio in 1811. The village of Killbuck, Ohio in Holmes County is named for him. To honor William Henry, many of Gelelemend's descendants were given Henry as a middle name. This included a great-grandson, John Henry Kilbuck, who became a Moravian missionary in Alaska. He named his daughter Katherine Henry Kilbuck in honor of his ancestor. Mdewakanton Dakota Sioux in Minnesota Big Eagle (Dakota: Waŋbdí Tháŋka, c. 1827 – 1906) was the leader of a band of Mdewakanton Dakota Sioux in Minnesota. In 1862 he and his band joined Taoyateduta and took part in a Sioux uprising. He eventually surrendered. Waŋbdí Tháŋka, also known as Jerome Big Eagle, was born in 1827 at Black Dog village, in present-day Eagan, Minnesota. His succeeded his father, Máza Ȟóta (Grey Iron) in 1857. He along with the other chiefs and headmen went to Washington in 1858 on treaty business. In the spring of 1862, Wamditanka, Little Crow and Traveling Hail were candidates for Speaker of the Mdewakanton tribe which Traveling Hail won. Big Eagle lead his band at the second battles of New Ulm and Fort Ridgley and also Birch Coulee and Wood Lake. The photograph of Big Eagle was taken in Davenport during the summer of 1864. W. W. Hathaway, then the assistant commissary at Camp Kearney (the Indian Stockade, at Camp McClellen, Davenport) described the circumstances of making the File: "I was also a personal friend of Big Eagle, the chief of the tribe confined in the pen. An amusing incident arose during the summer when I tried to get a photograph of the old chief. There was a mulatto named Jack confined with the Indians and he conspired with me to get the old brave to sit for a picture. Accordingly Big Eagle put on all his finery and paraphernalia and we went down to the studio of a photographer who had opened up his place of business down on the river road at the end of what is still known as “Hog’s Back Ridge.” Everything went well until we neared the place when Big Eagle began to remove his finery. We asked him what the trouble was and he said he would not pose unless we paid him $15" (Davenport Weekly Democrat, September 28, 1905). Despite his death sentence, and his tribal importance, President Lincoln pardoned Big Eagle in November 1864 and he was ordered released on December 3 The History of Carroll County, Illinois... (H. F. Kett & Co., Chicago, n.d.). Big Eagle, later known as Jerome Big Eagle, narrated his account of the Dakota War in, "A Sioux Story of the War," Collections of the Minnesota Historical Society 6 (1894):382-400. Oglala Lakota American Horse (Oglala Lakota: Wašíčuŋ Tȟašúŋke in Standard Lakota Orthography)(a/k/a "American Horse the Elder") (1830 - September 9, 1876) was an Oglala Lakota warrior chief renowned for Spartan courage and honor. American Horse is notable in American history as one of the principal war chiefs allied with Crazy Horse during Red Cloud's War (1866-1868) and the Battle of the Little Bighorn during the Great Sioux War of 1876-1877. Chief American Horse was a son of Old Chief Smoke, an Oglala Lakota head chief and one of the last great Shirt Wearers, a highly prestigious Lakota warrior society. He was a signatory to the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, along with his brothers Chief Red Cloud and Chief Blue Horse. A month or so after the Treaty, American Horse was chosen a "Ogle Tanka Un" (Shirt Wearer, or war leader) along with Crazy Horse, Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses and Man That Owns a Sword. On September 9, 1876, American Horse was mortally wounded in the Battle of Slim Buttes fighting to protect his family and defending against the white invasion of the “Paha Sapa“ Black Hills. The Battle of Slim Buttes and destruction of the village of Chief American Horse signaled a series of punitive blows that ultimately broke Sioux armed resistance to reservation captivity and forced their loss of the sacred Black Hills “Paha Sapa“. Chief American Horse was a son of Old Chief Smoke. Old Chief Smoke was an Oglala Lakota head chief and one of the last great Shirt Wearers, a highly prestigious Lakota warrior society. The Smoke People were one of the most prominent Lakota families of the 18th and 19th centuries. Old Chief Smoke was one of the first Lakota chiefs to appreciate the power of the whites, their overwhelming numbers and the futility of war. He appreciated the need for association and learned the customs of the whites. Old Chief Smoke had five wives who bore him many children.[1] Old Chief Smoke’s sons carried the Smoke People legacy of leadership in Oglala Lakota culture into the early 20th century. The children of Old Chief Smoke were Spotted Horse Woman, Chief Big Mouth (1822-1869), Chief Blue Horse (1822-1908), Chief Red Cloud (1822-1909), Chief American Horse (1830-1876), Chief Bull Bear III, Chief Solomon Smoke II, Chief No Neck and Woman Dress (1846- 1920). Chief American Horse was one of the principal war chiefs allied with Crazy Horse and Red Cloud during Red Cloud's War (1866-1868). American Horse was a signatory to the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, along with Chief Red Cloud and Chief Blue Horse, his brothers. The treaty was an agreement between the United States and the Lakota Nation guaranteeing the Lakota ownership of the Black Hills “Paha Sapa“ and land and hunting rights in South Dakota, Wyoming and Montana. The Powder River Country was to be henceforth closed to all whites. The Treaty ended Red Cloud's War. A month or so after the Treaty of 1868, four "Ogle Tanka Un" (Shirt Wearers, or war leaders) were chosen: Crazy Horse, American Horse, Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses and Man That Owns a Sword. Crook’s "Horsemeat March” marked the beginning of one of the most grueling marches in American military history. Crook’s command consisted of about 2,200 men: 1,500 cavalry, 450 infantry, 240 Indian scouts, and a contingent of civilian employees, including 44 white scouts and packers. Crook’s civilian scouts included Frank Grouard, Baptiste “Big Bat” Pourier, Baptiste “Little Bat” Garnier, Captain Jack Crawford and Charles “Buffalo Chips” White. News of the defeat of George Armstrong Custer at the Battle of the Little Big Horn on June 25 and 26, 1876, arrived in the East as the U.S. was observing its centennial. The American public was dismayed and called to punish the Sioux. On August 26, 1876, with his men rationed for fifteen days, a determined General Crook departed from the Powder River and headed east toward the Little Missouri pursuing the Indians. Crook feared that Indians would scatter to seek game rather than meet the soldiers in combat after the fight with Custer. All other commanders had withdrawn from pursuit, but Crook resolved to teach the Indians a lesson. He meant to show that neither distance, bad weather, the loss of horses nor the absence of rations could deter the U.S. Army from following its enemies to the bitter end. War correspondents with national newspapers fought alongside General Crook and reported the campaign by telegraph. Correspondents embedded with Crook were Robert Edmund Strahorn for the New York Times, Chicago Tribune and the Rocky Mountain News; John F. Finerty for the Chicago Times; Reuben Briggs Davenport for New York Herald and Joe Wasson for the New York Tribune and Alta California (San Francisco). The Battle of Slim Buttes was fought on September
  • 9. 9 and 10, 1876, in the Great Sioux Reservation between the United States Army and the Sioux. The Battle of Slim Buttes was the first U.S. Army victory after Custer’s defeat at the Battle of the Little Big Horn on June 25 and 26, 1876, in the Great Sioux War of 1876-1877. Brigadier General George R. Crook, one of the U.S. Army’s ablest Indian fighters led the “Horsemeat March”, one of the most grueling military expeditions in American history destroying Oglala Chief American Horse’s village at Slim Buttes and repelling a counter-attack by Crazy Horse. The American public was fixed on news of the defeat of General George Custer at the Battle of Little Bighorn; and war correspondents with national newspapers fought alongside General Crook and reported the events. The Battle of Slim Buttes signaled a series of punitive blows that ultimately broke Sioux armed resistance to reservation captivity and forced their loss of the Black Hills “Paha Sapa“. Following the Battle of the Little Big Horn, Lakota leaders split up, each doing what they thought best for their people. Most were heading back to the reservations. On September 9, 1876, Chief American Horse’s camp of 37 lodges, about 260 people, of whom 30 to 40 were warriors, was attacked and destroyed by General George Crook at the Battle of Slim Buttes. Chief American Horse’s camp was a rich prize. “It was the season when the wild plums ripen. All the agency Sioux were drifting back to the agencies with their packs full of dried meet, buffalo tongues, fresh and dried buffalo berries, wild cherries, plums and all the staples and dainties which tickled the Indian palate.” The lodges were full of furs and meat, and it seemed to be a very rich village. Crook destroyed food, seized three or four hundred ponies, arms and ammunition, furs and blankets. In a dispatch written for the Omaha Daily Bee, Captain Jack Crawford described the cornucopia he encountered: “Tepees full of dried meats, skins, bead work, and all that an Indian’s head could wish for.” Of significance, troopers recovered items from the Battle of Little Bighorn, including a 7th Cavalry Regiment guidon from Company I, fastened to the lodge of Chief American Horse, and the bloody gauntlets of slain Captain Myles Keogh. “One of the largest of the lodges, called by Grouard the “Brave Night Hearts,” supposedly occupied by the guard, contained thirty saddles and equipment. One man found eleven thousand dollars in one of the tipis. Others found three 7th Cavalry horses; letters written to and by 7th Cavalry personnel; officers’ clothing; a large amount of cash; jewelry; government-issued guns and ammunition." On September 9, 1876, Chief American Horse's village at Slim Buttes was assaulted in a dawn attack by Captain Anson Mills and 150 troopers. At the onset of a stampede of Indian ponies and cavalry charge, Chief American Horse with his family of three warriors and about twenty-five women and children retreated into one of the ravines that crisscrossed the village amongst the tipis. The winding dry gully was nearly 20 feet deep and ran some 200 yards back into a hillside. Trees and brush obstructed the view of the interior. “We found that some of the Indians had got into a cave at one side of the village. One of the men started to go past that spot on the hill, and as he passed the place he and his horse were both shot. This cave or dugout was down in the bed of a dry creek. The Indian children had been playing there, and dug quite a hole in the bank, so that it made more of a cave than anything else, large enough to hold a number of people.” Troopers were alerted about the ravine when Private John Wenzel, Company A, Third Cavalry, became the first army fatality at Slim Buttes when he ill-advisedly approached the ravine from the front and a Sioux bullet slammed into his forehead. Wenzel’s horse was also shot and killed. An attempt was made to dislodge the Indians and several troopers were wounded. “Grouard and Big Bat Pourier crept close enough to the banks of the ravine to parley with the concealed Indians in endeavors to get them to surrender. But the savages were so confident of succor from Crazy Horse and his much larger force, who were encamped only a dozen miles to the west, and to whom they had sent runners early in the morning, that they were defiant to the last.” The Souix felt no urgent need to surrender, for they defiantly yelled over to the soldiers that more Sioux camps were at hand and their warriors would soon come to free them. Chief American Horse, anticipating relief from other villages, constructed a dirt breastworks in front of the cave and and geared for a stout defense. On September 9, 1876, General Crook’s relief column endured a forced march of twenty-miles to Slim Buttes in about four hours and a half hours arriving at 11:30 a.m. The whole cheering command entered the valley, and the village teemed with activity like an anthill which had just been stirred up. Crook immediately established his headquarters and set up a field hospital in one of the Indian lodges. Crook inventoried the camp and the booty. The camp held thirty-seven lodges. A three or four year old girl was discovered, but no bodies were found. Over 5,000 pounds of dried meat was found and was a “God-send” for the starved troopers. Troopers separated the stores to be saved from the greater number to be destroyed, and the remaining tipis were pulled down. General Crook then turned his full attention to Chief American Horse and his family in the ravine. While General Crook had been an adversary in the field of combat, he had also been a man of honor and an advocate for Indians. “Crook, exasperated by the protracted defense of the hidden Sioux, and annoyed at the casualties inflicted among his men, formed a perfect cordon of infantry and dismounted cavalry around the Indian den. The soldiers opened upon it an incessant fire, which made the surrounding hills echo back a terrible music.” “The circumvalleted Indians distributed their shots liberally among the crowding soldiers, but the shower of close-range bullets from the later terrified the unhappy squaws, and they began singing the awful Indian death chant. The papooses wailed so loudly, and so piteously, that even not firing could not quell their voices. General Crook ordered the men to suspend operations immediately, but dozens of angry soldiers surged forward and had to be beat back by officers. “Neither General Crook nor any of his officers or men suspected that any women and children were in the gully until their cries were heard above the volume of fire poured upon the fatal spot.” Grouard and Pourier, who spoke Lakota, were ordered by General Crook to offer the women and children quarter. This was accepted by the besieged, and Crook in person went into the mouth of the ravine and handed out one tall, fine looking woman, who had an infant strapped to her back. She trembled all over and refused to liberate the General’s hand. Eleven other squaws and six papooses were taken out and crowded around Crook, but the few surviving warriors refused to surrender and savagely re-commenced the fight. Chief American Horse refused to leave, and with three warriors, five women and an infant, remained in the cave. Exasperated by the increasing casualties in his ranks, Crook directed some of his infantry and dismounted cavalry to form across the opening of the gorge. On command, the troopers opened steady and withering fire on the ravine which sent an estimated 3,000 bullets among the warriors. Finerty reported, “Then our troops reopened with a very ‘rain of hell’ upon the infatuated braves, who, nevertheless, fought it out with Spartan courage, against such desperate odds, for nearly two hours. “Such matchless bravery electrified even our enraged soldiers into a spirit of chivalry, and General Crook, recognizing the fact that the unfortunate savages had fought like fiends, in defense of wives and children, ordered another suspension of hostilities and called upon the dusky heroes to surrender.” Strahorn recalled the horror of the ravine at Slim Buttes. “The yelling of Indians, discharge of guns, cursing of soldiers, crying of children, barking of dogs, the dead crowded in the bottom of the gory, slimy ditch, and the shrieks of the wounded, presented the most agonizing scene that clings in my memory of Sioux warfare.” When matters quieted down, Frank Grouard and Baptiste “Big Bat” Pourier asked American Horse again if they would come out of the hole before any more were shot, telling them they would be safe if they surrendered. “After a few minutes deliberation, the chief, American Horse, a fine looking, broad-chested Sioux, with a handsome face and a neck like a bull, showed himself at the mouth of the cave, presenting the butt end of his rifle toward the General. He had just been shot in the abdomen, and said in his native language, that he would yield if the lives of the warriors who fought with him were spared. Chief American Horse had been shot through the bowels and was holding his entrails in his hands as he came out and presented the butt end of his rifle to General Crook. Pourier recalled that he first saw American Horse kneeling with a gun is his hand in a hole on the side of the ravine that he had scooped out with a butcher knife. Chief American Horse had been shot through the bowels and was holding his entrails in his hands as he came out. Two of the squaws were also wounded. Eleven were killed in the hole. Grouard recognized Chief American Horse, “but you would not have thought he was shot from his appearance and his looks, except for the paleness of his face. He came marching out of that death trap as straight as an arrow. Holding out one of his blood-stained hands he shook hands with me.” When Chief American Horse presented the butt end of his rifle, General Crook, who took the proffered rifle, instructed Grouard to ask his name. The Indian replied in Lakota, “American Horse.” Some of the soldiers who lost their comrades in the skirmish shouted, “No quarter!’, but not a man was base enough to attempt shooting down the
  • 10. disabled chief. Crook hesitated for a minute and then said, ‘Two or three Sioux, more or less, can make no difference. I can yet use them to good advantage. "Tell the chief,“ he said turning to Grouard, "that neither he nor his young men will be harmed further.” “This message having been interpreted to Chief American Horse, he beckoned to his surviving followers, and two strapping Indians, with their long, but quick and graceful stride, followed him out of the gully. The chieftain’s intestines protruded from his wound, but a squaw, his wife perhaps, tied her shawl around the injured part, and then the poor, fearless savage, never uttering a complaint, walked slowly to a little camp fire, occupied by his people about 20 yards away, and sat down among the women and children.” Crazy Horse attempted to rescue American Horse and his family. Indians who escaped Mills’ early morning assault spread the word to nearby Lakota and Cheyenne camps, and informed Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull and other leaders they were attacked by 100-150 soldiers. Crazy Horse immediately assembled 600-800 warriors and rode about ten miles northward to rescue Chief American Horse and recover ponies and supplies. During the afternoon Chief American Horse and some of the squaws informed Gen. Crook, through the scouts, that Crazy Horse was not far off, and that we would certainly be attacked before nightfall. “In anticipation of that afternoon tea party which was promised to be given by Crazy Horse, Crook deployed his forces to give that chieftain the surprise of his life. Concealing the major portion in the ravine in up-to-the-minute readiness and eagerness for an attack, he deployed just enough of the boys in plain sight to carry out the impression that the Indian couriers had conveyed to Crazy Horse, that only about a hundred soldiers would be found to oppose his eager and confident large reinforcements.” As a grave was being dug for Private Wenzel, and the starved troopers were ready to dine on captured bison meat, rifle shots were heard from the bluffs above and around the camp. Crook immediately ordered the village to be burned. “Then followed the most spectacular and tragically gripping and gratifying drama of the whole Sioux War, enacted with a setting and view for those of us in the ambushing corps that could not be improved upon. The huge amphitheater, leading from our position in the front orchestra row, up over a gradually rising terrain to the rim of the hills which surrounded on three sides, was not unlike the situation which Crazy Horse had chosen for his Battle of the Rosebud.” Finerty tells how the Indians attacked. “Like the Napoleonic cuirassiers at Waterloo, they rode along the line looking for a gap to penetrate. They kept up perpetual motion encouraged by a warrior, doubtless Crazy Horse himself, who, mounted on a fleet, white horse, galloped around the array and seemed to possess the power of ubiquity.” Strahorn reported, “Suddenly the summits seemed alive with an eager expectant and gloating host of savages who dashed over and down the slope, whooping and recklessly firing at every jump.” Crazy Horse was surprised to find American Horse’s village massed with Crook's main column of over 2,000 infantry, artillery, cavalry and scouts. “Crazy Horse so little dreamed of the heavy reinforcements of Captain Mills’ small band that, in the utmost confidence of ‘eating us alive’ he launched his followers right down upon the front and flanks of out splendid defensive position. They were permitted to approach with blood curdling whoops and in a savage array within easy and sure fire rifle range before the order to fire was given. They reacted to the deadly shock in a manner that was the real beginning of the end of the Sioux War, so far as any major performance of Crazy Horse was concerned. Bewildered and demoralized by the well-aimed volleys of our two-thousand guns, they dashed for cover in every direction, closely followed by details of our boys who were allotted that much sought privilege.” “Failing to break into that formidable circle, the Indians, after firing several volleys, their original order of battle being completely broken, and recognizing the folly of fighting such an outnumbering force any longer, glided away from our front with all possible speed. As the shadows came down into the valley, the last shots were fired and the affair at Slim Buttes was over.” Captain Mills reported the assault: “It is usual for commanding officers to call special attention to acts of distinguished courage, and I trust the extraordinary circumstances of calling on 125 men to attack, in the darkness, and in the wilderness, and on the heels of the late appalling disasters to their comrades, a village of unknown strength, and in the gallant manner in which they executed everything requited of them to my entire satisfaction.” U.S. Army casualties were relatively light with a loss of 30 men: 3 killed, 27 wounded, some seriously. Because the Lakota and Cheyenne warriors maintained a distance of five to eight hundred yards, and consistently fired their weapons high, casualties were few. Those who died in the field were Private John Wenzel, Private Edward Kennedy and Scout Charles “Buffalo Chips” White.” Private Kennedy, Company C, Fifth Cavalry, had half the calf of his leg blown away in a barrage, and throughout the night medical personnel labored to save his life. Private Kennedy and Chief American Horse died in the surgeons’ lodge that evening. Lt. Von Luettwitz had his shattered leg amputated above the knee and Private John M. Stevenson of Company I, Second Cavalry, received a severe ankle wound at the ravine. “The Indians must have lost quite heavily. Several of their ponies, bridled but riderless, were captured during the evening. Indians never abandon their war horses, unless they happen to be surprised or killed. Pools of blood were found on the ledges of the bluffs, indicating where Crazy Horse’s warriors paid the penalty of their valor with their lives.” Reports of Indian casualties varied, and many bodies were carried away. Sioux confirmed casualties were at least 10 dead, and an unknown number wounded. About 30 Sioux men, women and children were in the ravine with Chief American Horse when the firefight began, and 20 women and children surrendered to Crook. Ten individuals remained in the ravine during the “Rain of Hell” and five were killed; Iron Shield, three women, one infant and Chief American Horse who died that evening. The rest were made prisoners. Charging Bear resisted most desperately and was finally dragged out of his lair at the bottom of the deep gully with only one cartridge left. Taken prisoner, he soon after enlisted with General Crook, exhibiting great prowess and bravery on behalf of his new leader and against his former comrades.” There are two Oglala Lakota chiefs named American Horse notable in American history. American Horse the Younger is notable in American history as a U.S. Army Indian Scout and a progressive Oglala Lakota leader who promoted friendly associations with whites and education for his people. Like his great friend Crazy Horse, there are no known photographs or drawings of Chief American Horse the Elder. Chief American Horse was examined by the two surgeons. One of them pulled the chief’s hands away, and the intestines dropped out. “Tell him he will die before next morning,” said the surgeon. The surgeons worked futilely to close his stomach wound, and Chief American Horse refused morphine preferring to clench a stick between his teeth to hide any sign of pain or emotions and thus he bravely and stolidly died. Chief American Horse lingered until 6:00 a.m. and confirmed that the tribes were scattering and were becoming discouraged by war. “He appeared satisfied that the lives of his squaws and children were spared.” Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy, who attended the dying chief, said that he was cheerful to the last and manifested the utmost affection for his wives and children. American Horse’s squaws and children were allowed to remain on the battleground after the dusky hero’s death, and subsequently fell into the hands of their own people. Even “Ute John” respected the cold clay of the brave Sioux leader, and his corpse was not subjected to the scalping process.” Crook was most gentle in his assurances to all of them that no further harm should come if they went along peacefully, and it only required a day or two of kind treatment to make them feel very much at home. There are two Oglala Lakota chiefs named American Horse notable in American history. Historian George E. Hyde distinguished them by referring to “Chief American Horse the Elder” as the son of Old Chief Smoke and the cousin of Red Cloud, and “Chief American Horse the Younger” as the son of Sitting Bear, and son-in-law to Red Cloud. American Horse the Younger (1840 – December 16, 1908) was an Oglala Lakota chief, statesman, educator and historian. American Horse the Younger is notable in American history as a U.S. Army Indian Scout and a progressive Oglala Lakota leader who promoted friendly associations with whites and education for his people. American Horse the Younger opposed Crazy Horse during the Great Sioux War of 1876-1877 and the Ghost Dance Movement of 1890, and was a Lakota delegate to Washington. American Horse the Younger was one of the first Wild Westers with Buffalo Bill’s Wild West and a supporter of the Carlisle Indian Industrial School. “His record as a councillor of his people and his policy in the new situation that confronted them was manly and consistent and he was known for his eloquence." American Horse the Younger gained influence during the turbulence of the Great Sioux War of 1876-1877. After news of the death of Chief American Horse the Elder at the Battle of Slim Buttes, Manishnee (Can not walk, or Played out)” seized an opportunity and assumed the name “American Horse.” American Horse the Younger was not related to American Horse the Elder, son of Old Chief Smoke. He was the son of Sitting Bear, leader of the True Oglalas, a band of Oglala
  • 11. opposed to the Smoke people The identities and accounts of American Horse the Elder and the American Horse the Younger have been blended by some historians. Like his great friend Crazy Horse, there are no known photographs or drawings of Chief American Horse the Elder. “The Oglalas seem incapable of clearing up the tangle.” Creek Nation Big Warrioror Tustanagee Thlucco (Tvstanagi Rakkē in Mvskokē «Big Warrior» < rak·kē «big», died 1826) was a principal chief of the Creek Nation in the first half 19th century until his death in 1826. The name Tustanagee Thlucco is actually a war title, "great warrior," given to the man who led all the warriors of a town. No other Creek name is recorded for Big Warrior. Big Warrior was from the town of Tukabatchee. For most of his career he collaborated with the United States government and became wealthy. He was accused of enriching himself by mishandling annuities paid to the Creeks by the United States. In 1811 Big Warrior welcomed Tecumseh to Tukabatchee to deliver his message of pan-tribal unity and hostility to the United States. Nevertheless, Big Warrior remained firmly on the U.S. side during the Creek War of 1813- 14. The Treaty of Fort Jackson forced harsh settlement terms on the entire Creek Nation. In the following decade Big Warrior became an opponent of further land cessions. Big Warrior, representing the Upper Towns of the Creek Nation, shared the leadership of the Creek National Council with Little Prince, principal chief of the Lower Towns. Little Prince or Tastanaki Hopayi, Tustanagee Hopae (Tvstanagi Hopvyē in Mvskokē «Far Warrior» < ho·pv·yē «far») (died 1832) was an 18th-century chieftain and longtime representative of the Lower Creeks from the 1780s until his death in 1832. During the early 19th century, he and Big Warrior shared the leadership of the Creek National Council. Little Prince is first recorded in 1780 living as a chieftain at Broken Arrow. During the summer, he joined British Indian Agent John Tate who led a combined force of Upper and Lower Creeks to support Colonel Thomas Brown at Augusta, Georgia who was at the time defending the city against American forces. After Tate died en route to the city, most of the Upper Creek with the exception of Tukabatchee chieftain Efa Tustenuggee returned to their villages while Little Prince and his 250 warriors continued on to Augusta. Arriving in time to take part in the Battle of Augusta, Little Prince led an attack to break the siege by Colonel Elijah Clarke suffering 70 casualties as a result. Following the American retreat, a number of American prisoners were handed over to the Creek and tortured before their execution most notably the garrison commanding officers Brown and Grierson. How much control Little Prince had over his warriors at this point is disputed among historians however his ally Efa Tustenuggee was said by General Thomas S. Woodward to be "the most hostile and bitter enemy the white people ever had". He was a later signatory of the Treaty of Colerain in 1796, thereafter a supporter of peaceful relations with the United States government, although he would take part in the Creek War in 1813. He and seven other chieftains were involved in the execution of Little Warrior during the spring of 1813, however he would retain his position of the lower Creek until his death in 1832. Ute Tribe Jake Arropeen (also known as Yene-wood) was a nineteenth-century war chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah. When Chief Wah-Kara died unexpectedly in 1855, Chief Jake Arropeen (also known as Yene-wood) became chief by succession. In 1865 the Mormons and Utes were negotiating to reach some sort of agreement at Manti; discussions ended when Arropeen was pulled from his horse by the settler John Lowry, who was believed to be drunk at the time. Dishonored before his people, Chief Arropeen considered the incident a grave insult in a 30-year history of encroachment and depredations against the Ute people. Sanpitch (died April 18, 1866) was a leader of the Sanpits, Ute tribe of American Indians who lived what is now Sanpete County, Utah before and during settlement by Mormon immigrants. He is the father of Black Hawk, for whom the Black Hawk War in Utah (1865–1872) is named. In 1850, after measles from newly arrived Mormon settlers decimated their tribes, Walkara and Chief Sanpitch asked the Mormons to come to the Sanpete Valley teach the band to farm, though this was met with little enthusiasm. After fighting in the Black Hawk War, he was killed on April 18, 1866 near Fountain Green, Utah. His interactions with early Mormon settlers are chronicled in Gottfredson. The Sanpitch River and Sanpete County take their names from him or his grandfather of the same name. Sow e ett was a nineteenth-century chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah. Tabby was a nineteenth-century chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah. Old Elk was a nineteenth-century chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah. Kone was a nineteenth-century chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah. Colorow was a nineteenth-century chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah. Old Uinta was a nineteenth-century chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah.
  • 12. Mountain was a nineteenth-century chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah. Antonga, or Black Hawk (c. 1830 - September 26, 1870) was a nineteenth-century war chief of the Ute Tribe in what is the present-day state of Utah. He led the Utes against Mormon settlers and gained alliances with Paiute and Navajo bands in the territory against them during what became known as the Black Hawk War in Utah (1865–1872). Although Black Hawk made peace in 1867, other bands continued raiding until the US intervened with about 200 troops in 1872. Black Hawk died of tuberculosis in 1870, before the war's end. The names "Black Hawk" and "Antonga" by which he was known are not Ute Indian names. "Black Hawk" was a name that Brigham Young, in jest, called the Ute leader. Young’s term became the name by which he is now most commonly known. In fact there were some three or more Indians the whites referred to as Black Hawk in Utah history. It is reminiscent of Chief Black Hawk of the Sauk and Fox Indian (Mesquaki) tribes and the Black Hawk War of 1832 in Illinois, where the Mormons had migrated from. To the Mexicans he was known as "Antonga", also not a Ute name. The Utes had long established trade relations with the Mexicans. Utah's Black Hawk was born into a family of legendary leaders and known to the Utes as Nuch; he was so named in honor of his people the Nuchu, a sacred name the Utes call themselves. Chief Walkara, Chief Yenewoods, Chief Sanpitch, Chief Sow e ett, Chief Tabby, Chief Old Elk, Chief Kone, Chief Colorow, Chief Old Uinta, and Chief Mountain are just a few of Chief Nuch's blood relations, according to living descendants of Nuch (Black Hawk). In 1847 the first Mormon pioneers arrived in the territory, where indigenous peoples had lived for thousands of years. Historic tribes included the Ute, Paiute and Navajo. In 1865 Black Hawk and the Ute started raiding the livestock and goods of the steadily encroaching settlers. The white population had dramatically increased to about 50,000 at a time when the Ute population is estimated to have been 15,000 to 20,000. Epidemics of measles and smallpox had caused many deaths among the Ute, as they had no immunity to the new diseases; the rate of tuberculosis (TB) was high because of the weakened condition of the people. Mormon farming of domesticated crops and animals had altered the environment, driving off the game which was the Utes' main source of food. By 1865 hundreds of Ute were starving.. When Chief Wah-Kara died unexpectedly in 1855, Chief Jake Arropeen (also known as Yene-wood) became chief by succession. In 1865 the Mormons and Utes were negotiating to reach some sort of agreement at Manti; discussions ended when Arropeen was pulled from his horse by the settler John Lowry, who was believed to be drunk at the time. Dishonored before his people, Chief Arropeen considered the incident a grave insult in a 30-year history of encroachment and depredations against the Ute people. Retaliating for the insult, that day Black Hawk raided some settlers for cattle and soon his forces killed five men. He was then about 35 years old. This marked the start of what the Mormons later named "The Black Hawk War". The Black Hawk War in Utah began in 1865 and ended in 1872. It was a three-part war, involving 16 tribes of the Utes, and allied bands of Paiute and Navajo, who declared war against the Mormon settlers. For years the US government ignored requests for aid from the Mormons, as many Federal leaders wanted to displace the LDS Church from its dominance of settlers in Utah. Mormon settlers fought to maintain control of what they called "Zion", long the traditional territory of the Ute people. As war chief, Noonch Black Hawk made alliances with the Paiute and Navajo, who had also been pushed off their lands. The Mormons formed militia units and quickly built forts. The Mormon militias had a hard time catching the Ute raiding warriors, but they sometimes attacked women and children in villages, where they also destroyed Ute stores and goods. The Utes drove off thousands of head of livestock by their raids, and killed nearly 70 Mormon settlers in the next two years. Over than 100 Native Americans were killed in the raids. In 1867 Black Hawk signed a treaty with the Mormons. Other warriors continued raiding until the US government sent in 200 Army troops in 1872 to quell the unrest. The 21st-century Utah historian John Alton Peterson describes Black Hawk as having "remarkable vision and capacity. Given the circumstances under which he operated, he put together an imposing war machine and masterminded a sophisticated strategy that suggest he had a keen grasp of the economic, political, and geographic contexts in which he operated. Comparable to Cochise, Sitting Bull and Geronimo, Black Hawk fostered an extraordinary pan-regional movement that enabled him to operate in an enormous section of country and establish a three-face war. Black Hawk worked to establish a barrier to white expansion and actually succeeded in collapsing the line of Mormon settlement, causing scores of villages in over a half dozen counties to be abandoned. For almost a decade the tide of white expansion in Utah came to a dead stop and in most of the territory actually receded. Like other defenders of Indian rights, though, Black Hawk found he could not hold his position, and his efforts eventually crumbled." Ute history notes that Black Hawk made peace with the "pale-faces" in 1867. He visited every white village from Cedar City to Payson to plead with the settlers to try to make peace. Without his leadership, the conflict was reduced, but raids continued until US forces intervened in 1872. Black Hawk died in 1870, before the end of the war, of tuberculosis. The Black Hawk War was not a single incident, but a series of raids and small-scale conflicts. More than 150 engagements took place over a seven-year period throughout Utah territory and the conflict spilled over into Colorado, Idaho, and Wyoming. Although migration had slowed during the war years, soon tens of thousands of Mormon pioneers entered the area again, at the rate of 3,000 a month. By contrast, in 1909 an official government census showed that the Ute population had declined to just 2,400. Miniconjou Lakota Black Moon, Wi Sapa (c. 1821 - March 1, 1893) was a Miniconjou Lakota headman with the northern Lakota during the nineteenth century, not to be confused with the Hunkpapa leader by the same name. Virtually nothing is known of Black Moon’s early years. He had risen to a position of influence among his tribe by 1869 when he was present at the appointment of Sitting Bull as head war leader of the Lakota. By the time of the Great Sioux War of 1876-77, this fifty-five-year-old headman was leader of a small Miniconjou band that chose to remain away from the Cheyenne River Agency. Black Moon is listed as one of the Miniconjou leaders who had joined the northern village by the early summer of 1876 and was present at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. He and his family fled to Canada in 1877, joining Sitting Bull near Wood Mountain. When majority of the northern Lakota elected to surrender in 1880-81, Black Moon decided to remain in Canada, as did No Neck and a Brulé named Black Bull. He and his family lived near Moose Jaw and Willow Bunch and established relationships with Canadians in the region. Black Moon’s daughter, Mary, married a corporal in the Royal Mounted Police stationed at nearby Fort Walsh. Black Moon finally departed Canada for the U.S. in the spring of 1889 with eleven lodges. Intercepted by soldiers, they were allowed to continue on to the Standing Rock Agency two weeks later. Black Moon and his family were transferred to the Cheyenne River Agency in October 1890. Part of his family traveled with Big Foot when he fled the agency during the Ghost Dance troubles. According to Dickson, "Black Moon's wife, daughter and son were killed" at Wounded Knee; and "another son and other family members were wounded."[1] Afterwards, survivor Alice War Bonnet Charging Cloud reported seeing Black Moon with his brothers, Iron Horn and Wood Pile, at Pine Ridge, according to her son, William War Bonnet. Black Moon lived the remainder of his life along Cherry Creek on the Cheyenne River Reservation.