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1. EVOLUTION OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
• Continent pangia- 2- gondanaland and lorasia to 5. Continental nation – Australia –
beg -6- great barier reef
• Origin of man in Africa. 1000 mosque kayro- Egypt – capital
• Common ancestor – Aryan/ indo – European about 3500 bc to 3000 bc - nomads
dwelled in black sea to asia / Europe
• Tribes: indo- Iranian, Albanian , Armenian, Balto- Slavonic, Hellenic, Celtic, Italic,
Germanic to NEW- West High/low/anglofrisian- old English
• Britain and England are names of tribes (600 AD -1100AD)
• 2tenses; future in meaning, case, endings
• Middle age : (1100- 1500 AD) ’s ,from French ‘of’, 3 genders, beef, sheep, dinner,
banquet, court, custom, rent, price, battle, uncle, aunt, cousin, prison
• Danish: 3rd pp, skin, skill , ill, leg, get, Thursday, infinitive, will shall, adj: more and
most
• Strong verbs: pt and pp – change of root vowels, weak verbs by adding an
inflectional suffix, had 19 forms in case, number and gender.
• Amrigo vaspuhi – Italian traveler- American migration – 1620. Oliver Cromwell #
James 1 – 1630-1640

2. EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE
• Gesture, sound, word, sentence, paragraph,
essay, literature
• Sound =44: vowels: - Pure -12, Diphthongs- 8
• Consonants: 24
• Articles: Indefinite – an, a/ Definite: the
• Capitals: proper, I, God, fest, poems, language,
“”,!

3. PUNCTUATIONS
• Full stop: the longest pause, sentence, statement, command,
abbreviation
• Question mark ?: direct question
• Exclamation mark ! : sudden feelings
• Comma: Parenthesis – But their question, I think, is difficult to
settle.
• Apostrophe: boy’s, boys’, n’t, it’s, ’m, ’ve, ’ll
• Semicolon: it was a small fight, certainly; it was an important event.
Reading makes a full man; speaking, a ready man; writing, an exact
man.
• Colon: examples, quotations, dash – Man proposes: God disposes.
• “” NAmE,BrE : “words of the speaker”
• Dash: parenthesis : Raju is- I hesitate to say it- a criminal.
• Hyphen: compound words – : sea- route, market- place

4. PART OF SPEECH
Noun = Name
• Abstract , Concrete
• Proper, common, material, collective
• Countable and uncountable
• Singular and plural
• Gender: masculine, feminine, neutral,
common

5. Pronoun = proxy for noun
• Personal: 1st , 2nd ,3rd
• Reflexive /Emphatic : pro + self/ves
• Possessive: his
• Demonstrative: this, that
• Indefinite: some, many, all
• Distributive: each, either, neither
• Reciprocal / compound personal: each other, one another
• Relative: who, that, whom, whose,
• Interrogative: what, how, when
• Exclamatory: what, who
• The student who won the second rank attended the meeting.
• What! You don’t know her?

6. Adjectives = qualifying words, ad more
meaning
• Single: little
• Compound: out of the way cottage
• Two functions / position: attributive, predicative = v+o – Raju is clever
• Kind of adjectives:
• Quality: beautiful
• Demonstrative: this, that
• Quantity and Number : much, many
• Interrogative: what time is it?
• Distributive: each, either
• Possessive: my
• Emphasizing: own, very
• Exclamatory: what a fool!
• Noun= the+ adj: the poor = poor men
• Degree: +,&, super(‘ior’ ending “to” /not than )
• Affix= prefix + suffix
• Little, less, least, fever, late, later, latest, latter, last; elder, older, further, farther
•

7. Verb
• Transitive and intransitive = O
• Position: Main Verb and Auxiliary Verb
• PAV: be , has, do (MV)
• SAV = will, shall, may, can
• Tense: SP near future: we leave Delhi at 10am and arrive I London at 2pm. We stop there for two hours and then fly to Newyork.
• Vivid: it is a trick used by the narrator to make past events seems immediate.
• Will and Shall
• I /we = shall
• You/3rd pp = will
• I /we +will
• Offer: I will carry that for you
• Promise: I will meet you at 10.
• Determination: I /we will fight against corruption
• 2nd pp & 3rd pp + shall
• Order: you shall go there.
• Threat: lazy students shall be punished
• Compulsion: you shall have to come here
• In the following sentences (shall) the will of the speaker is expressed.
• Assurance: you shall have whatever you need. You shall not go short of money.
• Intention: you shall have the best education possible.
• 23 Special Verbs
• PAVs, SAVs, ought to, must, need, dare (because they can be used with “not”)
• Could
• Indicate ability that existed in the past tense: In my younger days I could run 5 miles at a stretch.
• Report speech
• Unreal condition: you could do it if you tried hard.
• Polite?: could I have a glass of water , please?
• Verbs no ING: 5senses, know, understand, notice, watch, believe, like, love, remember, depend, own, resemble, and observe (notice), have (posses),
listen, look, forget, want, belong, consist, cost.

8. Adverb = qualifying words, ad more
meaning
• Manner: how? = well
• Place: where? = here, there
• Time: when? = all day
• They have been working hard (manner) at
office (place) everyday (time).
• Time always placed in the beginning or end.

9. Phrases
• Noun phrases: The child likes to see his mother. The
boy likes everyone.
• Adjective phrase: The Indian army, a green bird, a
populated city
• Adverb phrase: after sometimes, at this moment, in a
moderate manner
• Manner: Ram spoke wisely.
• Place: you can’t get it any place.
• Time: he is coming after some times.
• Pope says, “A little learning is a dangerous thing”. ‘I
don’t go looking for eggs in other people’s yard.

10. Kind of Prepositions
• Simple: {at, for from, in, of, off, on, out, through, till, to, up, with}
• Compound: which are generally formed by prefixing a prep (usually
a= no or be=by to a noun, an adj/ adv )
• {About, above, across, along, amidst, among, amongst, around,
before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, inside,
outside, underneath, within, without}
• Phrase : {according to, agreeable to, along with, away from,
because of , by dint of, by means of , by reason of, by virtue of , by
way of , conformably to, for the sake of, in accordance with, in
addition to, in/on behalf of, in case of, in compliance with, in
consequence of, in front of, in lieu of, in order to, in place of , in
reference to, in regard to, in spite of, instead of, in the event of, on
account of , owing to, with a view to, with an eye to , with reference
to, with regard to }

11. Conjunctions
• Joining words: Joining words, phrases,
sentences
• Co-ordinating: and, but, or, nor, yet, so, for,
only
• Subordinating: if, although, though, before,
after, until, till
• Correlative: either-or, neither-nor, not only…..
but… also, whether….or, both…and

12. Interjections
• Sudden and deep feelings or emotions
• Alas! What a pity!
• Hurrah! I have won!
• Alas! I am in real trouble!

13. MOOD
• Indicative: question , statement
• Imperative: exhortation, command, prayer
• Subjunctive: wish, desire, purpose
•

14. INFINITIVES
• Change according to number and person = finite
• Kind
• Simple: sub, obj, compliment
• To smoke is forbidden
• I came here to teach
• Our wish is to live happily
• Qualifying: verb, adj, noun
• She is slow to do her duty.
• Omission
• Principle verb: see, hear, let, watch, make , have, know, bid, feel, need, dare
• We saw him leave. He was seen to leave.
• Help : with or without
• He helped us {to} push the boat.
• SAV and do: I can go = I am able to go
• After than & and
• I would rather die than beg.
• I want to sit and hear music.
• Verbs of knowing and thinking: object+ to be
• He is known to be honest.
• Split infinitive: in between to & verb
• Present and past
•

15. CLAUSE
• Subject and predicate form the part of sentence (7)
• Complex: main clause/principle + subordinate
• When I completed my studies I began to work.
• Coordinate: main + main
• He teaches well and he sings well.
• Simple: he teaches well
• Kind
• Noun clause
• I hope to win the race.
• What he does is quite right.
• I know where he stays.
• Hoping that he would succeed, he continues his pursuit.
• I differ with what you say.
• Happiness is what we believe it is.
• Life is what we make it.
• He wants to know what my mobile number is.
• Adjective clause
• The reason he failed is that he was lazy.
• This is the pen which I lost yesterday.
• Tell me the song you like most.

16. • Adverb clause
• Time: when he came it was to late.
• Condition: if it rains we shall play in rain.
• No conj: Had I been a fish I would swam away.
• Relative pro after adj/adv: whatever happens keeps cool.
• Place: I have hidden it where I can find it.
• Reason: Since you’re small you can’t do it.
• Purpose: you can’t succeed lest you work.
• Comparison: you may work, as you please.
• Effect, result, consequence:
• He worked so hard that he got exhausted.
• He was such a brave man that he went to enemies territory.
• Concession, contrast, supposition:
• Though he is not rich he is honest.
• Whatever you may do you will not be able to save him.
• Extent / manner
• The cow ran as if it was shot at.
• The more you eat, the stronger you become.
• You may do as you like.
• They danced as though they were exited.

17. CONDITIONALS
• Sentence with IF are used to express possibilities.
• First: if clause is present simple and main clause is future
simple: consequence of possible actions.
• Second: past simple and conditional simple
• Hypothetical action = imagination
• Third: past perfect and conditional perfect
• Didn’t happen
• Zero: Present simple {in both} or past simple.
• Sometimes sentences with if express certainty rather than
possibility. The zero conditional is used to talk about sth
that is always true or that was always true in the past.

18. CASE
• Nominative = nirdasica: subject of a verb
• Accusative = prathigrahika : direct object(ive)
• Genitive = sambanthica: possessive
• Ablative = prayogica : cause/ by
• Dative = udasica : Indirect object
• Vocative = samyogica : nominative of address/
call
• Adarika (mal)

19. ADVERB USAGES
• As well as : adupolatanna
• As soon as : kazhivtum vagthil
• No sooner than: in the same moment
• Either….or : choice of two things
• Neither….nor: edum alla atum alla
• Not only …..but also: idu mathramalla adumkoodi
• So…..that
• Both…..and
• Too……to
• Such….that: used to emphasize a great degree.
• As far as : sambnthichidatholam
• Such….as: athupola
• Even if/though: annannirikalum
• Although / though: annirikalum, annalam, anniddum
• Such and such:athoitho
• As though/ as if: inganayokayidum

20. RULES FOR UNCHANGING PAST TENSE
• In theory: written English past simple and past continuous are unchanged
into past perfect and past perfect continuous. But in spoken English
sometimes are not changed.
• He said, “ when I went there, Raju was taking tea.”
• He said that when he had gone there he had been taking tea (odd,
stereotyped)
• He said that when he went there he was taking tea.
• 2. A condition in the past tense
• He exclaimed, “I didn’t buy the car, because it was second hand”
• He exclaimed that he didn’t buy the car because it was second hand
• 3. would, should, must, ought to, might, used to, had better: phrase
• He said, “I would be there”
• 4. It is time, rather, wishes, would rather: She said, “it is time, politicians
realize their mistakes.”
• 5. Second conditional

21. THE TECHNIQUES OF GRAMMATICAL
ANALYSIS
• Can be used to demonstrate the enormous creative power of language:
how , from a finite set of grammatical patterns, even a young child can
express an infinitive set of grammatical patterns, even a young child can
express an infinite set of sentences. They can help us all to identify the
fascinating edges of language, where we find the many kinds of humorous
and dramatic effects, both in literature and in everyday language (David
crystal; 1992:89)
• 6 types
• Prescriptive
• Descriptive
• Pedagogical
• Reference
• Theoretical and Traditional
• Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relation
• Communicative

22. TENSE USAGES (aspect)
The Present Simple
• To express a habitual action:
• He drinks tea every day.
• General truth:
• The sun rises in the east.
• In exclamatory sentences beginning with here and there to express what actually taking place in the present:
• Here comes the bus.
• In vivid narratives as substitute for past simple:
• Ram now rushes, forward and deals a heavy blow to Raju.
• Express an future event that is part of a fixed time table or fixed programme:
• The match starts at 6 O’clock.
• Introduce a quotation:
• Keats says, “A thing of beauty is a joy forever.”
• It is used instead of the future simple in clauses of time and condition:
• If it rains we shall get wet.
• As in broadcast commentaries on sporting events, the present simple is used instead of the present continuous to
describe activities in progress where there is stress on the succession of happening rather than on the duration.
• Instead of present continuous :
• verbs of perception: notice, recognize
• appearing : look, seem
• emotion: want, wish, desire, feel, like, love, hate, hope, refuse, prefer
• posses: own
• thinking

23. The Present Continuous
• for the action going on at the time of speaking:
• He is dancing.
• For a temporary action which may not be actually happening at the
time of speaking:
• I am reading Tagore. (But I am not reading now)
• For an action that already been arranged to take place in the near
future:
• I am going to cinema to night.
• It has been pointed out before that the present simple is used for a
habitual action. However when the reference is to a particularly
obstinate habit sth which persist.
• In spite of advice or warning: we use the present continuous with
adverbs like: always, continually, constantly.

24. The Present Perfect
• To indicate completed activities in immediate past: with Just:
• He has just gone out.
• To express past actions whose time is not given or not definite:
• Have you read Gulliver’s Travls?
• To describe past events when we think more of their effect in the present
than of the action itself:
• Gopi has eaten all the mangos.
• To denote an action beginning at sometimes in the past and continuing up
to the present: often with since and for phrases :
• I have known him for a long time.
• The following adv/adv phrases can also be used with the present perfect:
never, ever =? So far, till, now yet = -ve, already, today, this week.
• Present perfect is never used with adverbs of past time:
• We should not say: He has gone to UK yesterday.

25. The Present Perfect Continuous
• Is used for an action which began at
sometime in the past and still continuing:
• He has been sleeping for 7 hours.
• Activities is emphasized as an explanation of
sth:
• Why are your clothes so wet? I have been
watering the plants.
•

26. The Past Simple
• Is used to indicate an action completed in the
past: it often occurs with adv and phrases of the
past time:
• The steamer sailed yesterday.
• Used without adv of time: it may be either
implied or indicated by the context: I learnt Hindi
in Nagpur.
• Is also used for past habit:
• He studied many hours a day.
•

27. The Past Continuous
• Used to denote an action going on at sometime in the past: time
may/not be indicated:
• They were listing to the radio all evening.
• It was getting darker.
• The past continuous are used together when a new action
happened in the middle of a longer action. the past simple is used
for the new action:
• The light went out while I was reading.
• When I saw him, he was playing chess.
• Used with always, continually, ect for persistent habit in the past:
• She was always grumbling.
•

28. The Past Perfect
• It describes an action completed before a certain
moment in the past:
• I had seen him last 5 years before.
• If two actions happened in the past , it may be
necessary to show which action happened earlier
than other. The past perfect is mainly used in
situations. The past simple is used in one clause
and past perfect in the another:
• I had done my exercise when Hari came to see
me.
• When I reached the station the train had started.

29. The Past Perfect Continuous
• Is used for an action that began before a
certain point in the past and continued up to
that time:
• At that time he had been writing a novel for
two months.

30. The Future Simple
• Is used to talk about things which we can’t control. It
expresses the future as fact:
• I shall be 20 next year.
• We use this tense to talk about what we think or
believe will happen in the future:
• I am sure Helen will get a first class.
• As in the above sentence we often use this tense with:
I think, I’m sure, I expect, I believe….
• We can use this tense when we decide to do sth at the
time of speaking:
• It is raining I will take an umbrella.

31. The Future Continuous
• To talk about actions which will be in progress
at time in the future:
• I suppose it will be raining when we start.
• To talk about actions in the future which are
already planed or which are expected to
happen in normal course of things:
• I will be staying here till Sunday.

32. The Future Perfect
• Is used to talk about actions that will be
completed by a certain future time:
• I shall have written my research paper by
then.
• He will have left before you go to see him.

33. The Future Perfect Continuous
• Is used for actions which will be in progress
over a period of time that will end in the
future:
• By next may we shall have been living here for
4 years.
• This tense usage is not very common.