This document provides an overview of key biology concepts covered in Miss Southwood's biology class. It discusses the macromolecules that make up living things (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids), cell structure and function, DNA and RNA, cell reproduction (mitosis and meiosis), inheritance patterns, evolution and natural selection. Organisms are classified using a hierarchical system of domains, kingdoms, phyla and other categories.

1. Biology ECA Review
Miss Southwood’s Biology Class

2. ● All living things are made of organic compounds
● All contain Carbon
● Bonds with:
● Hydrogen
● Oxygen
● Phosphorus
● Sulfur
● Nitrogen
These 6 are the molecules of life
Organic Compounds

3. Macromolecules
● Carbohydrates
● Lipids
● Nucleic Acids
● Protein

4. ● Carbohydrates (CHO)
o Monomers: monosaccharaides
 glucose, galactose, fructose
o Polymers: polysaccharides (ex:
disaccharides)
 starch, glycogen, cellulose
Macromolecules

5. ● Lipids (CHON)
o Monomers: Fatty Acids
o Polymers: Triglycerides
● Function:
o Energy
Macromolecules

6. ● Nucleic Acids (CHONP)
o Monomers: nucleotide
o Polymers: DNA, RNA
● Function:
o Instructions (blueprints)
Macromolecules

7. ● Proteins (CHONS)
o Monomers: amino acids
o Polymers: peptides
● Function:
o building and repairing cells
o communication
Macromolecules

8. ● Catalyst in living things
● Specific to particular substrates
● Reusable
● Affected by temperature and pH
Enzymes

9. ● Prokaryotes
o simple, no membrane bound organelles
o Bacteria only
o One circular chromosome
o Includes: chromosome, ribosome, plasma
membrane
● Eukaryotes
Cells

10. ● Nucleus
o “Control Center”
o Contains chromosomes
Cells

11. ● Mitochondria
o Power house of the cell
o Produces energy in the form of ATP
o Site of aerobic respiration
Cells

12. ● Ribosomes
o Proteins are synthesized
o Found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Cells

13. ● Chloroplast
o Site of photosynthesis
o Plant cells ONLY
o Contains the pigment chlorophyll (green)
Cells

14. ● Vacuole
o Storage of excess material
o Plant cells normally contain one large vacuole
Cells

15. ● Plasma Membrane
o Surrounds the cell
o Regulates what enters/leaves the cell
o Helps maintain homeostasis
Cells

16. ● Cell Wall
o Found ONLY in plants
o Surrounds cell
o Provides support and structure
o Made of cellulose
Cells

17. •Cell Organization
Cells

18. ● Cell Specialization
o Cells develop to
perform different
functions
o Regulated by genes
Cells

19. ● Cell to Cell Communication
o Chemical signals
(hormones) can be sent
from one cell to another
o Receptor proteins on the
membrane receive the
signal
Cells

20. ● Diffusion
o Passive transport (no energy
needed) across the
membrane
o Move from high
concentration to low
concentration
Cells

21. ● Osmosis
o Diffusion of water
o Passive transport
Cells

22. ● Active Transport
o Particles moving past the
concentration gradient
o Requires ENERGY (ATP)
o Low concentration to high
concentration
Cells

23. ● ATP (adenosine
triphosphate)
o Energy storing molecule
o Can be used for quick
energy by the cell
o Energy is stored in the
phosphate bonds
Cells

24. ● Water and carbon dioxide are used to produce glucose and oxygen
● 6CO2 + 6H2O (+ light energy) → C6H12O6 + 6O2
● Occurs in chloroplast
Photosynthesis

25. ● Used to release energy
(ATP) for cellular use
● glucose + oxygen water +
carbon dioxide (+ energy)
● C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6H2O +
6CO2 + ATP
● Occurs in mitochondria
Aerobic Respiration

26. ● Does not require oxygen
● Used to release energy
o Not as efficient as aerobic respiration (less ATP)
● Products include CO2 and lactic acid or alcohol
● Two types:
 Alcohol Fermentation
 Lactic Acid Fermentation
Anaerobic Respiration

27. ● Carries genetic information
● Made of a chain of nucleotides
● Nucleotides contain:
o Sugar
● DNA: Deoxyribose
● RNA: Ribose
o Phosphate
o Nitrogen base
DNA / RNA

28. ● DNA
o Double strand (double helix)
o Four base pairs: ATGC
o Found in nucleus
● RNA
o Single strand
o Four base pairs: AUGC
DNA / RNA

29. ● Base Pairing Rule
o DNA
● A ←→ T
● G ←→ C
o RNA
● A ←→ U
● G ←→ C
DNA / RNA

30. ● Replication
o Making an identical
strand of DNA
o DNA helicase “unzips”
and unwinds
o DNA polymerase adds
complementary bases
DNA / RNA

31. ● Central Dogma
o DNA → RNA → Protein → Trait
DNA / RNA

32. ● Transcription
o DNA mRNA
o Occurs in nucleus
o Complementary mRNA strand is produced from a DNA segment
DNA / RNA

33. ● Translation
o Connects amino acids
to create proteins
o Occurs in the
cytoplasm within the
ribosomes
DNA / RNA

34. ● Codons
o Sequence of three mRNA bases
o Code for an amino acid
o 64 amino acids
● 4x4x4=64
DNA / RNA

35. ● Mutations
o Change in the DNA code
o May cause a different protein to be produced
o Types:
 Frame shift (bases added or deleted)
 Substitution (Bases is changed)
● Silent: does not change the amino acid
DNA / RNA

36. • Cell division
• Produces two identical daughter cells (diploid)
• Occurs in body cells to grow and repair
Mitosis

37. • Error in cell growth that causes uncontrollable cell
growth
• Can be caused by genetics and environment
Cancer

38. • Cell division
• Produces 4 different haploid daughter cells
• Occurs in sex cells to form gametes
Meiosis

39. • Crossing over
• Homologous chromosomes exchange parts of their
DNA
• Creates variation in gametes
Meiosis

40. • Homologous chromosomes fail to separate during
meiosis
• Can lead to disorders such as: Down Syndrome,
Turners and Klinefelters Syndrome
Nondisjunction

41. Asexual Reproduction
• One parent
• Identical offspring
• Variation only through mutations
• Examples: budding,
fragmentation, fission
Asexual VS Sexual Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
• Two parents
• Offspring different from
parents
• More variation
• Fertilization (fusion of
gametes

42. • Traits are specific characteristics that are inherited from
their parents
• Genes are the factors that determine traits
• Different forms of a gene are called alleles
Inheritance

43. • Dominant alleles will be expressed when
present
• Recessive allele will only be expressed if
paired with another recessive allele
Dominant and Recessive

44. • Actual alleles an individual has for a trait
• Homozygous: Same alleles
• Homozygous Dominant: two dominant alleles (BB)
• Homozygous Recessive: two recessive alleles (bb)
• Heterozygous: Two different alleles (Bb)
Genotype

45. • The actual characteristic displayed by the
individual
• Example: eye color, hair color, dimples,
etc.
Phenotype

46. • A heterozygous shows a “blending” of a dominant and
recessive
• Dominant is not fully expressed
Incomplete Dominance

47. • When a gene has more than one dominant
allele
• Both dominant alleles are expressed
Codominance

48. • Traits that are influenced by more than one gene
• Example: Height, skin color
Polygenic Traits

49. • When there are more than two alleles for a
trait
• Example:
Multiple Alleles

50. • Sex Chromosomes
• Male: XY
• Female: XX
• Sex linked traits are carried on the X chromosome
• Examples: Hemophilia and colorblindness
Sex-linked Traits

51. • Punnett Square
• Used to determine the probable outcome of
the offspring
• Test Cross
• Used to determine the phenotype of an
unknown dominant individual
• Uses a homozygous individual as a “test”
Test Cross

52. • Similar to a family tree
• Shows the pattern of inheritance of a specific trait
through a family
Pedigrees

53. • Picture of someone’s chromosomes
• Can detect chromosomal disorders
Karyotypes

54. • Sequencing of human DNA
• Used to help develop gene
therapies
Human Genome Project

55. • Theory of Evolution
• Fit organisms survive and
reproduce to pass on traits
• Requirements:
• Competition
• Variation
Natural Selection

56. • Traits that increase
survival
• Examples: Beaks
that make eating
insects easier,
bright flowers that
attract pollinators
Adaptation

57. • Fossil Record
• Biochemical Similarities
• Shared anatomical structures
Evidence of Evolution

58. • Evolution of a new species
• Must be isolations between species
Speciation

59. • Two organisms evolve in response to each other
• Example:
• Flowering plants and their pollinators
Coevolution

60. • Convergent Evolution
• When two species evolve to have similar traits
• Bats and butterflies
• Divergent Evolution
• When two similar organisms evolve separately from each other
• Finches (beaks)
Convergent and Divergent

61. • Two word naming system
• Scientific name
• Genus species written in italicize
• Genus = first letter Capitalized
• Species = all lowercase
Binomial Nomenclature
• Example: Dog
• Canis familiaris

62. • Used to identify organisms
• Paired set of questions with two choices
Dichotomous Key

63. • Domain
• Kingdom
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Specie
Levels of Classification

64. Phylogenetic Tree