Exploring the Effects of Trust and Perception of Environmental Risk on Attitudes Towards Renewable Energy: A Socio-Technical Perspective Data File: http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/ICPSR/studies/34802 SPSS Syntax File: https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B6XjpPGx6J_6cGIyME1VY21WVkU

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! 2016!
Exploring!the!Effects!of!Trust!and!
Perception!of!Environmental!Risk!
on!Attitudes!Towards!Renewable!
Energy:!A!SocioDTechnical!
Perspective!
WESTERN!WASHINGTON!UNVERSITY!
CODY!IGNELZI!SMITH!

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Abstract(
The$development$of$renewable$energy$has$put$importance$on$technological$progress$rather$than$the$expansion$of$social$demand.$Moreover,$recent$literature$
has$found$that$societal$factors$are$just$as$significant$in$determining$the$diffusion$of$renewable$energy$systems.$Therefore,$this$study$seeks$to$better$understand$the$
effects$of$societal>pull$factors$on$attitudes$towards$renewable$energy$systems.$This$research$frames$attitudes$towards$renewable$energy$through$a$socio>technical$
system$framework$of$the$Technology$Acceptance$Model$(TAM).$By$addressing$the$external$constraints$such$as$generalized$trust,$trust$in$institutions$and$perception$of$
risk$–$this$study$takes$a$macro>perspective$on$the$axiom$of$social$factors,$attitudes$and$subjective$norms$related$to$renewable$energy$support.$Utilizing$data$from$the$
2010$General$Social$Survey$(GSS)$environmental$module$and$cumulative$data$file,$this$research$reveals$that$generalized$trust,$trust$in$technology$and$perception$of$
environmental$risk$act$as$a$caveat$for$the$acceptance$of$renewable$energy$systems.$In$addition,$socio>demographic$factors$such$as$conservative$political$views$are$
consistently$correlated$with$negative$attitudes$towards$renewable$energy.$The$findings$suggest$that$scientific$and$technological$institutions$involved$with$renewable$
energy$development$may$find$it$beneficial$to$build$social$responsibility$initiatives$into$marketing$and$technology$introduction$procedures.$
Society!is!in!a!highly!elusive!era!in!which!the!certainty!of!future!energy!technologies,!environmental!policy!and!
environmental!welfare!is!not!assured.!However,!throughout!the!past!twenty!years,!society!has!seen!a!transformation!in!rhetoric!
concerning!ecological!progress.!Overall,!this!transformation!that!is!the!“green!revolution”!or!“sustainalization”!of!the!world!has!
emerged!in!and!through!the!industrialization!process.!From!Elon!Musk’s!SolarCity!and!Tesla!to!the!emergence!of!clean!and!
renewable!energy!technologies;!it!is!clear!that!the!energy!industry’s!socioDtechnological!systems!are!in!the!process!of!considerable!
change.!History!has!shown!us!that!obstructions!to!technological!development!are!not!only!scientific!and!technical,!but!commercial,!
socioDpolitical!and!cultural.!In!a!critical!age!of!political!divides!regarding!the!environment!and!adoption!of!renewable!energy;!we!
must!take!into!account,!that$the$problem$of$technological$stagnation$in$many$instances,$is$not$one$of$animosity$or$lack$of$motivation,$
but$of$false$perception$and$a$lack$of$confidence$in$leading$institutions.!Therefore,!it!is!crucial!to!discern!the!factors,!which!are!
significant!in!influencing!attitudes!towards!renewable!energy.!!
Through!utilizing!previous!literature!and!conceptualizing!a!technology!acceptance!model!this!research!seeks!to!better!
understand!the!predictors!and!social!factors!contributing!to!the!support!or!opposition!to!renewable!energy!systems.!This!research!
will!attempt!to!fill!the!gap!in!environmental!sociology!literature!by!exploring!the!influence!of!generalized!trust,!trust!in!science!and!
technology,!and!the!perception!of!environmental!risk!on!attitudes!towards!renewable!energy.!The!analysis!seeks!to!answer!the!
questions:!To$what$extent$does$trust$in$science$and$technology$affect$attitudes$towards$renewable$energy?$To$what$extent$does$
generalized$trust$affect$attitudes$towards$renewable$energy?$And$to$what$extent$does$the$perception$of$environmental$risk$affect$
attitudes$towards$renewable$energy?!
Dependent!variables!are!measured!using!two!attitudinal!survey!questions!measuring!support!for!spending!on!the!
development!of!alternative!energy!sources!and!U.S.!energy!priorities.!Independent!variables!are!constructed!using!indices!

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measuring!generalized!trust,!confidence/trust!in!science!and!technology!and!the!perception!of!environmental!risk.!This!analysis!also!
tests!the!effect!of!socioDdemographic!variables!on!the!focal!dependent!variables.!Hypotheses!posit:!!
H1:$Increased$trust$science$and$technology$will$have$a$positive$effect$on$attitudes$towards$renewable$energy.$$
H2:$Increased$generalized$trust$will$have$a$positive$effect$on$attitudes$towards$renewable$energy.$$
H3:$Increased$perception$of$environmental$risk$have$a$positive$effect$on$attitudes$towards$renewable$energy.$$
H4:$Those$with$conservative$political$views$will$have$negative$attitudes$towards$renewable$energy.$
Review(of(the(Literature$
While!there!are!ambitious!government!targets!to!increase!the!share!of!renewable!energy!in!many!countries,!it!is!
increasingly!recognized!that!social!acceptance!may!be!a!constraining!factor!in!achieving!this!target.!Previous!literature!on!social!
acceptance!and!the!diffusion!of!technology!largely!takes!a!microDperspective,!focusing!on!the!demandDside!local!and/or!regional!
adoption!of!specific!renewable!energy!programs!or!renewable!energy!purchase!intent.!However,!this!research!takes!a!macroD
perspective,!utilizing!nationally!representative!attitudinal!data!measuring!the!support!of!government!spending!on!the!development!
of!renewable!energy!sources!and!the!prioritization!of!incumbent!vs.!alternative!energy!sources.!This!literature!review!is!categorized!
by!discipline:!(1)!environmental!sociology!literature,!(2)!sustainable!development!and!energy!literature,!(3)!diffusion!and!adoption!of!
technology!literature.!!
1.! Environmental.Sociology.Literature!
A!handful!of!studies!such!as!Macias!(2015),!Newman!and!Fernandes!(2015),!Sherkat!and!Ellison!(2007)!and!Fowler!(2015)!
utilize!the!environmental!modules!from!the!General!Social!Survey.!According!to!Macias,!social!capital!and!generalized!trust!are!key!
issues!to!our!understanding!of!why!people!become!civically!engaged!and!are!willing!to!sacrifice!time!and!resources!for!the!common!
good.!Furthermore,!a!sense!of!trust!among!individuals!is!associated!with!positive!altruistic!outcomes!such!as!volunteering,!giving!to!
charity,!moderation!and!selfDsacrifice.!This!analysis!found!support!for!both!social!capital!and!environmental!justice!arguments!D!
moreover,!the!positive!effect!of!generalized!trust!on!a!willingness!to!sacrifice!suggests!that!generalized!trust!is!a!‘net!catalyst’!for!
environmental!action.!In!other!words,!generalized!trust!is!an!important!motivator!for!selfDsacrifice!in!the!realm!of!environmental!
behavior!and!attitudes.!Newman!and!Fernandes!sought!to!assess!the!social!and!psychological!factors!associated!with!environmental!
concern!and!behavior.!The!researchers!used!the!2010!environmental!module!from!the!GSS!to!study!the!associations!across!social!

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demographic,!social!psychological!and!behavioral!blocks.!Newman!and!Fernandes’s!study!expands!the!scope!of!the!original!
framework!by!including!additional!measures!across!social!demographic!factors!such!as!selfDperceived!level!of!spirituality,!income,!
and!political!party!identification.!This!literature!has!focused!on!five!explanatory!variables:!age,!social!class,!place!of!residence,!
political!beliefs,!and!gender.!While!the!Newman!and!Fernandes!note!that!social!demographic!variables!only!explain!limited!variation!
in!environmental!concern,!typically!10D15%!of!the!variance,!they!did!find!that!age,!education,!and!political!ideology!are!consistently!
associated!with!environmental!concern.!Thus,!the!younger,!wellDeducated,!and!politically!liberal!are!more!likely!to!demonstrate!
concern!for!the!environment.!!
Furthermore,!the!associations!with!other!factors!including!race,!income!and!religion,!have!been!found!to!be!less!consistent.!
For!example,!relative!to!other!public!issues,!blacks!have!greater!concern!for!the!environment!than!whites.!However,!blacks!are!less!
likely!to!say!that!they!will!take!political!action!on!these!issues!(Mohai!1990).!Much!of!the!research!has!found!a!weak!negative!
relationship!between!environmentalism!and!identity!with!a!religious!sect!(Hand!and!Van!Liere!1984).!The!fulcrum!of!research!in!this!
field!has!focused!on!social!psychological!determinants!of!environmental!concern.!Social!psychological!factors!such!as!attitudes,!
beliefs,!values,!and!worldviews!are!consistently!associated!with!individual’s!environmental!behavior.!For!example,!Hines!et!al.!(1987)!
identified!several!variables!associated!with!environmental!behavior!D!knowledge!of!issues,!knowledge!of!action!strategies,!locus!of!
control,!attitudes,!verbal!commitment,!and!an!individual!sense!of!responsibility.!Several!studies!examining!environmental!behaviors!
like!energy!conservation!(Black!et!al.!1985)!or!proDenvironmental!buying!(Thogersen!2000)!found!evidence!that!moral!and!social!
norms!contribute!to!explaining!the!behavior.!Furthermore,!in!their!reDassessment,!Bamberg!and!Moser!(2007)!found!a!moderate!
correlation!between!moral!norms!and!proDenvironmental!behavior.!Schwartz’s!normDactivation!model!(NAM)!states!that!“proDsocial!
behavior!occurs!in!response!to!personal!norms!that!are!activated!in!individuals!who!believe!that!particular!conditions!pose!threats!
to!others”!(perception!of!risk)!and!that!they!could!take!action!to!reduce!those!consequences!(ascription!of!responsibility).!Building!
on!this!model,!Stern’s!(2000)!valueDbeliefDnorm!(VBN)!theory!describes!a!causal!chain!of!five!variables!leading!to!proDsocial!behavior:!
personal!values,!beliefs!(ecological!worldview,!perception!of!risk,!ascription!of!responsibility),!and!personal!norms!for!proD
environmental!action.!!
2.! Sustainable.Development.&.Energy.Literature!
Recent!sustainable!development!research!has!focused!on!the!importance!of!social!acceptance!of!renewable!energy!
technologies.!Wüstenhagen,!Wolsink,!and!Bürer!(2007)!introduce!three!dimensions!of!social!acceptance,!specifically!socioDpolitical,!

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community!and!market!acceptance.!Factors!influencing!socioDpolitical!and!community!acceptance!are!increasingly!recognized!as!
being!important!for!understanding!the!apparent!contradictions!between!general!public!support!for!renewable!energy!innovation!
and!the!difficult!realization!of!specific!projects.!Furthermore,!the!localization!of!renewable!energy!conversion!brings!environmental!
impact!closer!to!urban!centers!and!residential!areas.!Additionally,!most!renewable!energy!technologies!do!not!compete!with!
incumbent!technologies!on!a!level!playing!field,!“thereby!making!acceptance!of!them!a!choice!between!shortDterm!costs!and!longD
term!benefits.”!Mallett!(2007)!sought!to!incorporate!the!importance!of!social!acceptance!into!the!discussion!of!technology!transfer!
and!the!adoption!of!renewable!energy.!This!investigation!draws!from!detailed!research!and!analysis!conducted!in!Mexico!City!D!
investigating!the!adoption!of!solar!water!heaters.!Unlike!other!studies!on!technology!however,!rather!than!viewing!the!process!of!
technology!as!a!‘transfer’!from!one!or!more!actors!to!another,!this!study!views!the!process!as!a!‘cooperation’!between!various!
participants!involved.!Therefore,!this!research!examines!the!role!of!technology!cooperation!in!social!acceptance.!This!research!
discusses!factors!affecting!social!acceptance!through!the!framework!from!Roger’s!2005!literature!on!the!diffusion!of!innovations..!
Another!perspective!such!as!Ibrahim’s!2000!study!seeks!to!provide!a!review!of!solutions!to!environmental!problems!with!a!
focus!on!sustainable!development!for!longDterm!potential!actions!to!implement!meaningful!sustainability!initiatives.!Ibrahim!points!
out!that!there!is!a!crucial!connection!between!renewable!energy!and!sustainable!development.!In!recent!times,!it!has!been!
recognized!that!renewable!energy!sources!and!systems!have!had!a!beneficial!impact!on!multiple!facets!in!society.!The!essential!
parameters!that!can!help!in!achieving!successful!sustainable!development!in!society!are:!public!awareness,!information,!
environmental!education!and!training,!promoting!renewable!energy!technologies/sources!and!evaluation!tools.!
3.! Diffusion.and.Adoption.of.Technology.Literature.
A!key!theme!of!the!diffusion!of!technology!literature!is!the!concept!of!a!socioDtechnical!system.!This!is!comprised!of!new!
industries,!their!production!processes,!the!goods!and!services!they!produce,!and!their!distribution!utilization!systems.!The!
introduction!of!a!new!energy!technology!is!not!simply!a!matter!of!taking!an!invention!and!producing!it!for!someone!to!use.!It!
involves!ultimately!the!shaping!and!development!of!social!and!technical!systems.!Not!only!physical!infrastructures!but!institutional!
and!cultural!contexts!and!the!power!of!different!interest!groups!are!critical!factors!determining!the!fate!of!such!innovations!and!
development.!In!other!words,!diffusion!of!technology!occurs!within!a!social$system.!The!social!structure!of!a!system!affects!an!
innovation’s!diffusion!through!the!effect!of!beliefs!about!technology!and!business,!the!roles!of!opinion!leaders,!types!of!innovationD
decisions!and!the!consequences!of!innovation!in!the!past.!In!the!case!of!large!renewable!energy!plants,!the!aspect!of!gaining!social!

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acceptance!becomes!more!important!(Mallet,!2007;!Sauter!and!Watson,!2007).!Rogers!(2005)!also!emphasizes!that!successful!
diffusion!of!innovation!requires!proper!communication.!Innovative!firms!must!not!only!develop!renewable!energy!technologies!and!
produce!renewable!energy!systems,!but!also!put!immense!efforts!to!shape!the!market!through!persuasion!and!education!of!
consumers!in!increasing!their!perceived!benefits!and!increasing!the!perceived!risk!of!environmental!damage!(Kemp,!1994;!Lee!et!al.,!
2006).!.
Therefore,!renewable!energy!systems!should!incorporate!such!consumerDrelated,!social!factors!in!developing!a!research!
model!to!be!tested.!While!a!number!of!studies!have!discovered!that!external,!societal!environment!significantly!influences!the!
decision!making!process!of!consumers!(Fraj!and!Martinez,!2006;!Lin!and!Hsu,!2013),!there!is!a!lack!of!empirical!studies!which!
consider!such!external!environment!and!social!factors!in!the!case!of!renewable!energy!technology!adoption!(Lin!and!Hsu,!2013).!
Theory!of!planned!behavior!(TPB)!is!one!of!the!considered!models!for!social!influence!through!the!subjective!norm;!however,!Kling!
points!out!that!the!use!of!new!technologies!is!affected!by!more!complex!social!environment!where!institutional,!cultural,!and!
technological!elements!are!associated!together!(Kling,!2000).!Therefore,!this!research!merges!factors!ranging!from!social!issues!such!
as!generalized!trust,!social!trust!in!science!and!technology!and!the!perception!of!environmental!risk.!!
Integration!
! The!key!synthesizing!factors!within!each!discipline!is!the!finding!that!demandDside,!societalDpull!factors!such!as;!social!trust!
and!social!support!are!important!aspects!in!discerning!and!predicting!human!behavior!in!relation!to!technological!acceptance.!The!
sociological!literature!suggests!that;!generalized!trust!is!a!‘net!catalyst’!for!environmental!action!(Macias!2015),!supportive!
environmental!attitudes!are!more!likely!to!occur!in!the!young!compared!to!the!old!(Fowler!2015),!proDenvironmental!behavior!is!
motivated!by!a!mixture!of!selfDinterest!and!concern!for!other!people,!the!next!generation,!other!species,!or!whole!ecosystems!
(Bamberg!and!Moser!2007).!The!sustainable!development!literature!suggests!that!factors!influencing!socioDpolitical!and!community!
acceptance!are!increasingly!recognized!as!being!important!for!understanding!the!apparent!contradictions!between!general!public!
support!for!renewable!energy!innovation!(Mallett!2007).!The!diffusion!of!technology!literature!suggests!that;!the!introduction!of!a!
new!energy!technology!is!not!simply!a!matter!of!taking!an!invention!and!producing!it!for!someone!to!use.!It!involves!ultimately!the!
shaping!and!development!of!social!and!technical!systems.!Not!only!physical!infrastructures!but!institutional!and!cultural!contexts!
and!the!power!of!different!interest!groups!are!critical!factors!determining!the!fate!of!such!innovations!and!development!(Burns!and!
Baumgartner!1984).!The!social!influence!is!important!in!persuading!people!to!adopt!renewable!energy!systems,!in!order!to!

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overcome!the!barriers!to!the!new!technology!diffusion!and!demand!expansion,!it!is!necessary!to!consider!socioDtechnical!dimensions!
in!adopting!renewable!energy!(Yun!and!Lee!2015).!From!this!perspective,!all!of!the!discussed!literature!has!a!decisive!focus!on!the!
relationship!between!the!perception!of!social!factors!(sociodemographic!characteristics),!attitudes!(perception!of!risk)!and!
subjective!norms!(trust).!A!conclusion!can!be!made!that!social!trust!in!technological!institutions!related!to!innovation!and!regulation!
positively!impacts!attitudes!toward!the!adoption!of!renewable!energy!systems.!Therefore,!this!research!attempts!to!fill!the!gap!by!
taking!a!macroDperspective!on!the!axiom!of!social!factors,!attitudes!and!subjective!norms!related!to!renewable!energy!support.!! !
Theoretical(Development(
This!study!frames!attitudes!towards!renewable!energy!through!a!socioDtechnical!system!framework!of!the!Technology!
Acceptance!Model!(TAM)..By!addressing!the!external!constraints!such!as!generalized!trust,!trust!in!institutions!and!perception!of!
risk,!this!study!follows!the!sociotechnical!model!mandate,!which!states!that!innovations!must!be!shaped!within!political!and!cultural!
boundaries.!TAM!posits!that!awareness!and!knowledge!of!an!innovation!is!important!in!the!adoption!of!new!technologies.!!
Furthermore,!in!a!sociotechnical!system!model,!it!is!understood!that!an!innovative!behavior!or!technology!that!goes!against!
a!political!and!cultural!force!is!less!likely!to!spread!quickly.!The!diffusion!of!renewable!energy!technologies!can!be!explained!by!
societal!pull!(users!and!markets)!and!technological!push!(technology!advancement)!factors!and!the!interaction!between!the!two!
(Roharacher,!2001;!Smith!et!al.,!2005).!The!theoretical!typology!assumes!that!social!trust!and!social!supports!are!societal!factors!
which!contribute!to!the!acceptance!of!renewable!energy.!Earle!and!Cvetkovich!define!social!trust!as!“people's!willingness!to!rely!on!
experts!and!institutions!in!the!management!of!technological!risks!(Earle!and!Cvetkovich,!1995).”!When!consumers!have!insufficient!
knowledge!about!new!technologies,!they!may!depend!on!actors!who!are!more!specialized!in!the!technologies!(Earle!and!Cvetkovich,!
1995;!Huijts!et!al.,!2012).!Accordingly,!social!trust!is!considered!an!important!factor!behind!the!adoption!of!a!new!technology!within!
a!particular!environment,!specifically!in!the!case!for!public!utilities$(Siegrist!et!al.,!2000;!Chen!et!al.,!2013).!Empirical!data!from!the!
University!of!Texas!shows!that!only!“24%!of!Americans!think!themselves!knowledgeable!about!energy,!while!even!those!who!
thought!themselves!ignorant!typically!worried!about!energy!efficiency!within!their!home!and!were!concerned!about!global!energy!
issues”!(Greentech!media,!2011).!The!current!political!and!cultural!ideologies!inherently!favor!incumbent!energy!technologies!(fossil!
fuels/nuclear)!–!therefore,!when!society!lacks!trust!in!institutions!who!are!leaders!in!the!development!of!renewable!energy,!
acceptance!of!such!technologies!may!be!stifled.!!!

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In!addition,!it!is!important!to!take!into!consideration!the!perception!of!environmental!risk!in!relation!to!societal!pulls.!
Without!an!understanding!the!detriments!of!incumbent!energy!sources!on!environmental!and!social!life,!society!will!not!make!a!
distinction!between!renewable!energy!technologies!and!nonDrenewables!in!relation!to!climactic!health.!People!use!energy!every!day!
as!they!do!water!and!air,!yet!people!often!do!not!realize!the!need!to!be!wellDinformed!about!energy!utilities.!In!this!research,!social!
trust!and!perception!of!risk!is!assumed!to!affect!the!intention!to!use!renewable!energy!systems!via!attitudes!and!subjective!norms.!
In!terms!of!attitudes,!trust!in!institutions!is!assumed!directly!affect!consumer!attitudes!toward!adoption.!Therefore,!social!trust!and!
perception!of!risk!is!an!important!catalyst!for!positive!attitudes!toward!renewable!energy!systems.!For!subjective!norms,!researchers!
have!found!that!public!goods!require!there!to!be!public!trust!in!institutions.!The!level!of!social!trust!influences!expectations!of!
members'!intention!and!behavior.!In!other!words,!it!can!be!predicted!that!trust!in!technological!and!scientific!institutions!is!related!
to!beliefs!regarding!renewable!energy!systems.!!
Data(and(Methods!
The!data!used!for!this!study!is!taken!from!the!2010!General!Social!Survey!(GSS),!a!national!probability!sample!of!the!United!
States!conducted!every!two!years!by!the!National!Opinion!Research!Center!(NORC).!The!GSS!contains!a!core!set!of!attitudinal!and!
demographic!questions!as!well!as!a!number!of!research!themed!modules.!This!study!takes!advantage!of!the!general!cumulative!data!
file!and!the!2010!GSS!environmental!module!whose!questions!address!established!areas!of!interest!within!environmental!sociology!
including:!the!support!for!renewable!energy!sources,!perception!of!environmental!risks,!questions!pertaining!to!generalized!trust!
and!confidence!in!institutions.!The!number!of!cases!in!this!analysis!ranges!from!488!to!1,532!respondents!depending!on!the!model!
(nonDinstitutionalized!adults,!ages!ranging!from!18D89!years!old).!This!analysis!employs!IBM’s!SPSS!Statistics!Package!in!order!to!
utilize!multiple!logistic!regression!techniques.!Multiple!logistic!regression!is!applied!to!all!models!(Support!for!Renewable!Energy!and!
U.S.!Energy!Priorities).!In!addition,!reliability!and!collinearity!analysis!is!applied.!
Independent.Variables!
Perception.of.Environmental.Risk.!
This!index!is!constructed!using!three!questions!from!the!2010!GSS!environmental!module!asking!about!a!respondent's!
perception!of!environmental!risk!(extremely!dangerous,!dangerous,!somewhat!dangerous,!no!very!dangerous,!not!dangerous):!(A)!D!
“In!general,!do!you!think!that!air!pollution!caused!by!cars!is…”;!(B)!D!“In!general,!do!you!think!that!pollution!of!America’s!rivers,!lakes,!

9. !
!
9!
!
and!streams!is…”;!(C)!D!“In!general,!do!you!think!that!pesticides!and!chemicals!used!in!farming!are…”.!All!three!of!these!items!are!
reverse!coded!so!that!the!highest!number!represents!the!highest!perception!of!risk,!collapsed!into!three!responses!(“Dangerous,!
Somewhat!Dangerous,!Not!Dangerous”),!and!summed!to!create!an!index!ranging!from!0!D!“Low!Perception!of!Risk”!to!6!D!“High!
Perception!of!Risk.”!Results!of!the!reliability!analysis!show!that!this!index!is!adequately!consistent!(α!=!.664)!
Confidence/Trust.in.Technology.and.Science!
This!index!is!constructed!using!three!questions!from!the!GSS!general!cumulative!data!file!asking!about!a!respondent’s!trust!
and!confidence!in!technology,!science!and!the!scientific!community:!(A)!D!“Do!you!strongly!agree,!agree,!disagree,!or!strongly!
disagree!with!this!statement?!Because!of!science!and!technology,!there!will!be!more!opportunities!for!the!next!generation.”;!(B)!D!
“Do!you!strongly!agree,!agree,!disagree,!or!strongly!disagree!with!this!statement?!Modern!science!will!solve!our!environmental!
problems!with!little!change!to!our!way!of!life.”;!(C)!D!“As!far!as!the!people!in!the!scientific!community!are!concerned,!would!you!say!
you!have!a!great!deal!of!confidence,!only!some!confidence,!or!hardly!any!confidence!at!all!in!them?”!Items!A!and!B!are!collapsed!
into!dummy!variables!and!coded!so!that!1!=!“Agree”!and!0!=!“Disagree”.!Item!C!is!collapsed!into!a!dummy!variable!and!coded!so!that!
1!=!“A!great!deal!of!confidence”!and!0!=!“Only!some/hardly!any!confidence.”!Next,!all!three!dummy!variables!are!summed!to!create!
an!index!ranging!from!0!D!“Lowest!Level!of!Trust/Confidence”!to!3!D!“Highest!Level!of!Trust/Confidence.”!Results!of!the!reliability!
analysis!show!that!this!index!is!marginally!consistent!(α!=!.431)!
Generalized.Trust!
. This!index!is!constructed!using!two!questions!from!the!GSS!general!cumulative!data!file!asking!about!a!respondent’s!
attitudes!towards!others!regarding!trust!and!fairness:!(A)!D!“Generally!speaking,!would!you!say!that!most!people!can!be!trusted!or!
that!you!can’t!be!too!careful!in!dealing!with!people?”;!(B)!D!“Do!you!think!that!most!people!would!try!to!take!advantage!of!you!if!
they!got!a!chance,!or!would!they!try!to!be!fair?”!Items!A!and!B!are!collapsed!into!dummy!variables!and!coded!so!that!1!=!“People!
can!be!trusted/People!are!fair”!and!0!=!“People!cannot!be!trusted/People!take!advantage.”!The!two!items!are!summed!to!create!an!
index!ranging!from!0!D!“Low!Level!of!Generalized!Trust”!to!2!D!“High!Level!of!Generalized!Trust.”!Results!of!the!reliability!analysis!
show!that!this!index!is!adequately!consistent!(α!=!.599)!
Dependent.Variables!
Support.for.Renewable.Energy!

10. !
!
10!
!
. This!measure!is!constructed!using!two!questions!from!the!2010!GSS!environmental!module!asking!about!a!respondent's!
attitude!towards!spending!on!alternative!energy!sources!and!U.S.!future!energy!priorities:!(A)!D!“Are!we!spending!too!much,!too!
little,!or!the!right!amount!on!developing!alternative!energy!sources?”;!(B)!D!“To!which!of!the!following!should!America!give!priority!in!
order!to!meet!its!future!energy!needs?”!Items!A!and!B!are!collapsed!into!dummy!variables!and!coded!so!that!A)!0!=!“Does!not!
support!spending!on!renewable!energy”,!1!=!“Supports!spending!on!renewable!energy”!and!B)!0!=!“Supports!Incumbent!
Technology”!(coal,!oil,!natural!gas,!nuclear!power),!1!=!“Supports!Renewable/Alternative!Technology”!(solar,!wind,!hydro,!biofuels).!!
SocioKDemographic.Variables!
Political.Views!
! This!measure!is!constructed!using!one!question!from!the!GSS!general!cumulative!data!file!asking!about!a!respondent’s!
political!selfDidentity:!“I'm!going!to!show!you!a!sevenDpoint!scale!on!which!the!political!views!that!people!might!hold!are!arranged!
from!extremely!liberal!to!extremely!conservative.!Where!would!you!place!yourself!on!this!scale?”!This!item!is!collapsed!and!recoded!
into!a!dummy!variable!so!that!1!=!“Slightly!Conservative,!Conservative!and!Extremely!Conservative”!and!0!=!“Moderate,!Slightly!
Liberal,!Liberal!and!Extremely!Liberal”.!(Moderate!&!liberal!is!the!omitted!category).!
Region!
. This!measure!is!constructed!using!one!question!from!the!GSS!general!cumulative!data!file!asking!about!where!a!respondent!
lived!at!the!time!of!the!interview.!The!item!is!collapsed!and!recoded!into!two!regions:!South!and!Not!South.!(Not!south!is!the!
omitted!category).!
Age!
This!measure!is!constructed!using!one!question!from!the!GSS!general!cumulative!data!file!asking!about!a!respondent’s!age!
at!the!time!of!the!interview.!The!item!is!collapsed!and!recoded!into!three!categories:!Young!(18D29!years!old),!Middle!Aged!(30D49!
years!old),!and!Old!(50D89!years!old).!(Middle!aged!is!the!omitted!category).!
Race!
This!measure!is!constructed!using!one!question!from!the!GSS!general!cumulative!data!file!asking!about!a!respondent’s!selfD
identified!race.!The!item!is!recoded!into!a!dichotomous!variable!so!that!1!=!“White!and!0!=!“NonDwhite.”!(NonDwhite!is!the!omitted!
category).!

11. !
!
11!
!
Gender!
. This!measure!is!constructed!using!one!question!from!the!GSS!general!cumulative!data!file!asking!about!a!respondent’s!selfD
identified!gender.!The!item!is!recoded!into!a!dichotomous!variable!so!that!1!=!“Male”!and!0!=!“Female.”!(Female!is!the!omitted!
category).!
Education!
This!measure!is!constructed!using!one!question!from!the!GSS!general!cumulative!data!file!asking!about!a!respondent’s!level!of!
education.!The!item!is!coded!so!that!0!=!“Less!than!High!School”,!1!=!“High!School”,!2!=!“Some!College”,!3!=!“Bachelor's”,!4!=!
“Graduate!School.”!Dummy!variables!are!created!for!each!category!of!this!variable.!!(High!School!is!the!omitted!category)..
Income!
! This!measure!is!constructed!using!one!question!from!the!GSS!general!cumulative!data!file!asking!about!a!respondent’s!
annual!income.!The!item!is!coded!so!that!1!=!“$50,000!or!more”!and!0!=!“Less!than!$50,000.”!(The!lowest!observation!is!the!omitted!
category).

12. !
!
12!
!
Table!1.!!Descriptive!Statistics!!
Variable!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!N!of!cases! Description!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Categories! Percent! Mean!–!S.D.! !
Focal!Dependent!Variables!
Support!for!Spending!on!Renewable!Energy!(0F1)!!!1,961!!!!!Attitudes!towards!government!spending!on!development!of!renewable!energy!!! ! !!!!!1.57!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Opposes!Spending!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!35%!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Supports!Spending! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!65%!
!!!!!Incumbent!Sources!vs.!Renewable!Sources!(0F1)!!!!!!1,183!!!!Incumbent!(Fossil!Fuels,!Nuclear)!Renewable!(Wind,!Solar,!Geothermal)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!.73!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Supports!Incumbent!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!26.5%!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Supports!Renewables!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!73.5%!
Focal!Independent!Indices!!
Generalized!Trust!(0F2)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1,199! Additive!index!of!a!respondent’s!level!of!generalized!trust!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!.937!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Low! !!!!!!!!!37.2%! !
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Mid! !!!!!31.9%!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!High!! !!30.9%!
!!!!!Confidence/Trust!in!Science!&!Technology!(0F3)!!!!!1,767!!!!!Additive!index!of!a!respondent’s!level!of!confidence!in!science!&!technology!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1.26!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Low!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!61.7%!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!High!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!38.3%!
!!!!!Perception!of!Environmental!Risk!(0F6)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1,351!!!!!!Additive!index!of!a!respondent’s!perception!of!environmental!risk!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!4.51!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Low!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!8.4%!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Mid! !!!!!15.2%!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!High!! !!76.4%!
Additional!Variables!
Political!Views!(0F1)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1,973! Respondent’s!political!selfFidentification!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Conservative!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!33.4%!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Not!Conservative!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!66.6%!
Region!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2,044! Region!of!interview!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!South! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!38.5%!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Not!South!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!61.5%!
Education!(0F4)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2,044! Respondent’s!educational!attainment!at!time!of!interview! ! !!1.61!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Less!than!High!School!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!14.9%!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!High!School!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!49.0%!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Some!College!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!7.1%!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Bachelor’s!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!18.3%!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Master’s!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!10.7%!
!!!!!!!!!!!!
Male!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2,044! Whether!R!is!a!male!(1!=!yes)! 43.6%! .44!
!
White!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1,861! Whether!R’s!race!is!white!(1!=!yes)! 83.3%! .83!
!
Age!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2,041! R's!age!in!years!at!time!of!interview! ! !!48!/!17.7!
!
Income!($50,000!+)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1,202! Respondents!with!income!more!than!or!equal!to!$50,000!yearly! 29.0%! !
!

13. !
!
13!
!
Table!2.!!Results!of!Logistic!Regression!Analysis!Predicting!Attitudes!towards!Government!Spending!on!the!Development!of!Renewable!Energy!Sources!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Model!1!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Model!2!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Model!3!
! B! Exp(b)! B! Exp(b)! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!B!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Exp(b)!
Generalized!Trust! .195*! 1.215*!
!
Trust!in!Science/Technology! ! ! .205***! 1.228***! !
!
Perception!of!Environmental!Risk! ! ! ! ! .299***! 1.349***!
! ! !! ! ! !!
Control!Variables!
Education!
!!!High!School! .521**! 1.683**! .343! 1.409! .374! 1.454!
!!!Some!College! .975***! 2.650***! .998*! 2.714*! .995***! 2.705***!
!!!Bachelor’s!Degree! .815***! 2.260***! .613***! 1.846***! .623**! 1.864**!
!!!Master’s!Degree! 1.349***! 3.853***! .948***! 2.581***! 1.148***! 3.153***! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
Political!Views!
!!!Conservative! F.653***! .521***! F.551***! .576***! F.518***! .596***! !!!!!!!!!!!
!
Gender!(Male=1)! .333*! 1.395*! .160! 1.174! .243! 1.274!
!
Race!(White=1)! .220! 1.246! .412**! 1.511**! .618***! 1.855***!
!
Income!
!!!$50,000!+! F.013! .987! .002! 1.002! .022! 1.022!
!
Age!
!!!Young!(18F29)! F.233! .793! F.300! .714! F.364*! .695*!
!!!Old!(50F89)! .047! 1.048! .129! 1.137! F.069! .933!
!
Region!
!!!South! !F.270! .763! !F.130! .878!! F.071! .932! !!
!
Constant! F.653***! ! F.274! ! !!F1.582***!
! ! !! ! ! !!
!
!
Cox!and!Snell!R
2
! .076! .054! !.084!
! ! !
!
N!of!Cases!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1,034! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1,532!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1,166! !
!!!!!!!
*!p<.05,!**!p<.01,!***!p<.001!
!

14. !
!
14!
!
!
Table!3.!!Results!of!Logistic!Regression!Analysis!Predicting!Attitudes!towards!United!States!Future!Energy!Priorities!!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Model!1!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Model!2!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Model!3!
! B! Exp(b)! B! Exp(b)! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!B!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Exp(b)!
Generalized!Trust! .004! 1.004!
!
Trust!in!Science/Technology! ! ! F.054! .947! !
!
Perception!of!Environmental!Risk! ! ! ! ! .291***! 1.338***!
! ! !! ! ! !!
Control!Variables!
Education!
!!!High!School! .052!!! !!!1.054! F.063! .939! F.140! .870!
!!!Some!College! .430! 1.537! .096! 1.101! F.045! .956!
!!!Bachelor’s!Degree! .078! 1.081! F.221! .801! F.290! .749!
!!!Master’s!Degree! .238! 1.269! F.144! .866! F.230! .794! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
Political!Views!
!!!Conservative! F.728***! .483***! F.914***! .401***! F.774***! .461***! !!!!!!!!!!!
!
Gender!(Male=1)! F.166! .847! F.143! .867! F.079! .924!
!
Race!(White=1)! .773**! 2.165**! .794***! 2.211***! .824***! 2.280***!
!
Income!
!!!$50,000!+! F.049*! .952*! F.023! .978! F.020! .980!
!
Age!
!!!Young!(18F29)! .129! 1.137! .170! 1.186! .159! 1.173!
!!!Old!(50F89)! F.506*! .603*! F.462**! .630**! F.463**! .629**!
!
Region!
!!!South! !.114! 1.121! !.101! 1.107! .140! 1.150! !!
!
Constant! 1.067*! ! 1.196***! ! !!F.194!
! ! !! ! ! !!
!
!
Cox!and!Snell!R
2
!! .064! .065! !.088!
! ! !
!
N!of!Cases!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!488! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1,033!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1,030! !
!
*!p<.05,!**!p<.01,!***!p<.001!

15. !
!
15!
!
!
!
Table!4.!!Results!of!Reliability!Analysis!on!Focal!Independent!Indices!!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Cronbach’s!Alpha!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !
!
Focal!Independent!Indices!
Generalized!Trust! ! .599!
!
Trust!in!Science/Technology! ! .431!
!
Perception!of!Environmental!Risk! !! .664!
!
! ! ! ! !
!
Table!5.!Results!of!Logistic!Regression!Analysis!Including!All!Focal!Independent!Indices,!no!Control!Variables!
! ! ! ! !
! Spending!on!Renewable!Energy!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!U.S.!Future!Energy!Priorities!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
! B! !Exp(b)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!B!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Exp(b)!
Focal!Independent!Indices!
Generalized!Trust! .468***! 1.597***! !!!!!!!! .103!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1.109!
!
Trust!in!Science/Technology! .299**! 1.348**! ! F.065!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!.937!
!
!!!Perception!of!Environmental!Risk! .392***! 1.480***! ! .335***!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1.398***!
!
!
Constant! F1.941***! ! ! F.483! ! ! !!!
! ! !! ! ! !!
!
!
Cox!and!Snell!R
2
!! .101!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!.042! !!
! ! !
!
N!of!Cases!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!589! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!524!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !
!
*!p<.05,!**!p<.01,!***!p<.001!

16. !
!
16!
!
Results'
Table&1.&–&Descriptive!Statistics!
! The!descriptive!statistics!illustrate!that!the!majority!of!respondents’!favor!government!spending!on!renewable!energy!in!
addition!to!the!prioritization!of!renewable!energy!sources.!Generalized!trust!is!split!fairly!evenly!and!the!majority!of!respondents!
tended!to!have!a!reduced!sense!trust!towards!science!and!technology.!In!addition,!the!majority!of!respondents!have!a!high!
perception!of!environmental!risk.!In!terms!of!socioDdemographic!characteristics,!nonDconservatives!and!whites!are!disproportionality!
represented!in!this!sample.!The!mean!age!of!respondents!is!48!years!old!with!a!standard!deviation!of!17.7!years.!!
Table&2.&–&Government!Spending!on!the!Development!of!Renewable!Energy!Sources&
Model'1&–&Generalized&Trust&(Supports&H2)!
! The!results!indicate!that!the!logDodds!of!support!for!government!spending!on!renewable!energy!development!increases!
with!generalized!trust.!Specifically,!the!odds!of!support!for!government!spending!increases!by!21.5%!for!each!additional!unit!in!the!
generalized!trust!scale,!and!this!effect!is!statistically!significant!at!the!.05!level.!The!Cox!and!Snell!RDsquare!of!.076!indicates!that!we!
can!reduce!our!errors!in!predicting!whether!individuals!have!positive!attitudes!towards!government!spending!on!the!development!
of!renewable!energy!sources!by!about!7.6%!if!we!take!into!consideration!their!educational!attainment,!political!views,!gender,!race,!
age!and!region.!!
! Model'2'–&Trust&in&Science&&&Technology&(Supports&H1)&
& The!results!indicate!that!the!logDodds!of!support!for!government!spending!on!renewable!energy!development!increases!
with!trust/confidence!in!science!and!technology.!Specifically,!the!odds!of!support!for!government!spending!increases!by!22.8%!for!
each!additional!unit!in!the!science/technological!trust!scale,!and!this!effect!is!statistically!significant!at!the!.001!level.!The!Cox!and!
Snell!RDsquare!of!.054!indicates!that!we!can!reduce!our!errors!in!predicting!whether!individuals!have!positive!attitudes!towards!
government!spending!on!the!development!of!renewable!energy!sources!by!about!5.4%!if!we!take!into!consideration!their!
educational!attainment,!political!views,!gender,!race,!age!and!region.!
Model'3&–&Perception&of&Environmental&Risk&(Supports&H3)&
& The!results!indicate!that!the!logDodds!of!support!for!government!spending!on!renewable!energy!development!increases!
with!the!perception!of!environmental!risk.!Specifically,!the!odds!of!support!for!government!spending!increases!by!34.9%!for!each!

17. !
!
17!
!
additional!unit!in!the!perception!of!risk!scale,!and!this!effect!is!statistically!significant!at!the!.001!level.!The!Cox!and!Snell!RDsquare!of!
.084!indicates!that!we!can!reduce!our!errors!in!predicting!whether!individuals!have!positive!attitudes!towards!government!spending!
on!the!development!of!renewable!energy!sources!by!about!8.4%!if!we!take!into!consideration!their!educational!attainment,!political!
views,!gender,!race,!age!and!region.!!
Models'1,2,3'–&Political&Views/Conservatism&(Supports&H4)&
& Throughout!all!of!the!models,!the!results!indicate!that!conservative!political!views!significantly!decreases!the!support!for!
government!spending!on!the!development!of!renewable!energy!sources.!Specifically,!the!odds!of!positive!attitudes!towards!
government!spending!on!the!development!of!renewable!energy!sources!range!from,!40%!to!48%!lower!across!the!three!models!for!
those!with!conservative!political!views!as!compared!to!those!who!do!not,!and!this!effect!is!statistically!significant!at!the!.001!level.!
Models'2,3'–&Race&
& For!both!models!2!and!3,!the!results!indicate!that!being!of!Caucasian/white!ethnicity!significantly!increases!the!support!for!
government!spending!on!the!development!of!renewable!energy!sources.!Specifically,!the!odds!of!positive!attitudes!towards!
government!spending!on!the!development!of!renewable!energy!sources!range!from!51.1%!to!85.5%!higher!for!those!who!are!of!
Caucasian/white!ethnicity!as!compared!to!nonDwhites,!and!this!effect!is!statistically!significant!at!the!.01!level!in!both!models.!!
Models'1,2,3'–&Education&
! Throughout!all!of!the!models,!the!results!indicate!that!educational!attainment!incrementally!increases!the!support!for!
government!spending!on!the!development!of!renewable!energy!sources.!Specifically,!the!odds!of!positive!attitudes!towards!
government!spending!on!the!development!of!renewable!energy!sources!are,!on!average,!twice!as!likely!for!those!with!a!Bachelor’s!
degree!and!threeDtimes!as!likely!for!those!with!a!Master’s!degree!or!higher,!and!this!effect!is!statistically!significant!at!the!.001!level!
in!all!of!the!models.!
Table&3.&–&United&States&Future&Energy&Priorities:&Incumbent&vs.&Renewable&Energy&Technologies&
! Model'1&–&Generalized&Trust&(Does&not&support&H2)&
& The!results!indicate!that!an!increased!sense!of!generalized!trust!does!not!have!any!significant!effect!on!one’s!priorities!for!
the!United!States’!future!energy!needs.!The!Cox!and!Snell!RDsquare!of!.064!indicates!that!we!can!reduce!our!errors!in!predicting!

18. !
!
18!
!
whether!individuals!have!positive!attitudes!towards!government!spending!on!the!development!of!renewable!energy!sources!by!
about!6.4%!if!we!take!into!consideration!their!educational!attainment,!political!views,!gender,!race,!age!and!region.!
! Model'2&–&Trust&in&Science&&&Technology&(Does&not&support&H1)&
The!results!indicate!that!an!increased!sense!of!trust!and!confidence!in!science!and!technology!does!not!have!any!significant!
effect!on!one’s!priorities!for!the!United!States’!future!energy!needs.!The!Cox!and!Snell!RDsquare!of!.065!indicates!that!we!can!reduce!
our!errors!in!predicting!whether!individuals!have!positive!attitudes!towards!government!spending!on!the!development!of!renewable!
energy!sources!by!about!6.5%!if!we!take!into!consideration!their!educational!attainment,!political!views,!gender,!race,!age!and!
region.!
Model'3&–&Perception&of&Environmental&Risk&(Supports&H3)&
The!results!indicate!that!the!logDodds!of!prioritization!for!renewable!energy!technologies!increases!with!the!perception!of!
environmental!risk.!Specifically,!the!odds!of!prioritization!for!renewable!energy!technologies!increases!by!33.8%!for!each!additional!
unit!in!the!perception!of!risk!scale,!and!this!effect!is!statistically!significant!at!the!.001!level.!The!Cox!and!Snell!RDsquare!of!.088!
indicates!that!we!can!reduce!our!errors!in!predicting!whether!individuals!have!positive!attitudes!towards!government!spending!on!
the!development!of!renewable!energy!sources!by!about!8.8%!if!we!take!into!consideration!their!educational!attainment,!political!
views,!gender,!race,!age!and!region.!
Models'1,2,3'–&Political&Views/Conservatism&(Supports&H4)&
All!three!models!indicate!that!those!who!consider!themselves!to!be!“conservative!or!extremely!conservative”!are!less!likely!
to!prioritize!renewable!energy!technologies.!Specifically,!the!odds!of!prioritization!for!renewable!energy!ranges!from,!51.7%!to!
59.9%!lower!for!those!with!conservative!political!views!as!compared!to!those!who!do!not,!and!this!effect!is!statistically!significant!at!
the!.001!level!in!all!models.!!
Models'1,2,3'–&Age&&
All!three!models!indicate!that!those!who!fall!within!the!age!range!of!50D89!years!old!are!less!likely!to!prioritize!renewable!
energy!technologies.!Specifically,!the!odds!of!prioritization!for!renewable!energy!technologies!range!from!37%!to!39.7%!lower!for!
those!who!fall!within!the!age!range!of!50D89!years!old,!and!this!effect!is!statistically!significant!at!the!.01!level!in!all!models.!!
Models'1,2,3'–&Race&

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All!three!models!indicate!that!being!of!Caucasian/white!ethnicity!significantly!increases!the!prioritization!of!renewable!
energy!technologies.!Specifically,!the!odds!of!prioritization!for!renewable!energy!ranges!from,!116.5%!to!128%!higher!for!those!who!
are!of!Caucasian/white!ethnicity!as!compared!to!nonDwhites,!and!this!effect!is!statistically!significant!at!the!.001!level!in!all!models.!!
Models'1,2,3'–&Education&
Interestingly,!as!compared!to!attitudes!towards!spending!on!the!development!of!renewable!energy,!education!does!not!
seem!to!play!an!important!role!in!predicting!attitudes!towards!U.S.!future!energy!priorities.!!
Discussion'
The!results!reveal!that!a!heightened!sense!of!generalized!trust,!trust!in!science!and!technology!and!perception!of!
environmental!risk!are!positively!correlated!with!attitudes!towards!government!spending!on!the!development!of!renewable!energy!
and!renewable!energy!prioritization.!Hypotheses!H1,!H2!and!H3!are!supported!by!all!three!models!in!Table!2.!In!addition,!H3!is!
supported!by!Model!3!in!Table!3!and!H4!is!supported!by!all!three!models!in!both!Table!2!and!Table!3.!Dissimilarities!in!results!
between!the!two!dependent!variables!may!be!explained!due!to!the!fact!that!the!U.S.!future!energy!priorities!measure!implies!
meeting!needs!for!energy,!rather!than!supporting!innovation!through!the!use!of!taxpayer!dollars.!Moreover,!the!results!suggest!a!
confirmation!of!the!notion!of!a!technology!acceptance!model!conceptualized!through!the!socioDtechnical!framework!when!applied!
to!renewable!energy!system!acceptance.!The!data!implies!that!government!institutions!involved!in!collaboration!with!scientific!and!
technological!agents!striving!to!implement!renewable!energy!programs!must!take!into!account!the!effects!of!social!trust!and!
perception!of!environmental!risk.!Likewise,!public!utilities!interested!in!implementing!sustainability!initiatives!may!also!find!it!
beneficial!to!connect!with!populations!to!promote!transparency!and!the!risks!of!climate!change.!These!findings!reiterate!and!
advance!Macias’s!2015!research!on!the!effects!of!generalized!trust!and!willingness!to!sacrifice!through!applying!a!focused!approach!
on!trust!in!science!and!technology!and!the!effect!of!risk!perceptions.!!In!sum,!when!people!have!trust!in!technological!institutions!
and!a!true!understanding!of!environmental!risk,!they!are!more!likely!to!have!a!positive!attitude!toward!renewable!energy!
development.!Therefore,!policy!makers,!government!and!technological!institutions!may!find!it!beneficial!to!build!social!responsibility!
initiatives!into!technology!introduction!procedures!and!marketing!in!order!to!instill!credibility!in!the!institutions!responsible!for!
renewable!energy!systems!to!drive!public!adoption.!!
Apart!from!the!three!focal!variables,!this!study!also!highlights!some!of!the!important!ways!demographic!characteristics!can!
drive!public!opinion!towards!renewable!energy,!which!is!consistent!with!previous!research.!The!most!consistently!influential!

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exogenous!variable!is!political!views,!the!results!imply!that!those!with!conservative!political!views!are,!on!average,!50%!less!likely!to!
have!positive!views!towards!renewable!energy.!In!addition,!educational!attainment!incrementally!increases!support!towards!
renewable!energy!by!a!multiple!of!two!to!three!for!each!degree.!Furthermore,!those!who!fall!between!the!ages!of!50!and!89!years!
old!are!roughly!40%!less!likely!to!support!renewable!energy,!and!these!findings!are!supported!by!previous!research.!Finally,!the!
results!show!that!whites!are!more!than!twice!as!likely!to!prioritize!renewable!energy!sources!as!compared!to!nonDwhites;!income!
and!region!did!not!show!any!statistically!significant!effects.!These!exogenous!effects!imply!that!social!marketing!initiatives!focused!
on!renewable!energy!and!environmental!literacy!should!focus!on!nonDwhite,!older,!lessDeducated!and!conservative!individuals!in!
order!to!make!a!significant!impact!on!the!social!acceptance!of!renewable!energy!systems.!In!sum,!social!trust!and!perception!of!
environmental!risk!act!as!a!caveat!for!the!acceptance!of!renewable!energy!systems!–!this!finding!is!supported!by!the!sociotechnical!
system!framework!via!addressing!external!constraints!and!societal!pull!factors!in!relation!to!technology!acceptance.!It!is!worth!
emphasizing!some!of!the!limitations!of!the!GSS!environmental!module!used!in!this!research;!first,!better!measures!of!the!source!of!
generalized!trust!would!have!been!desirable.!Similarly,!more!inDdepth!questions!regarding!trust!and!confidence!in!technological!
institutions!would!have!been!an!improvement!for!drawing!conclusions.!Furthermore,!questions!pertaining!to!knowledge!and!use!of!
specific!renewable!energy!technologies!would!have!been!crucial!in!understanding!respondents’!acceptance!of!these!sources!of!
energy.!Despite!these!limitations,!this!research!has!attempted!to!make!the!most!of!a!great!source!of!representative!data!on!
environmental!issues!available!at!the!national!level.!!
Recommendations:!
•! Public&and&private&institutions&striving&to&implement&renewable&energy&programs/systems&must&consider&the&effects&
of&social&trust&and&perception&of&environmental&risk.!
•! Scientific&and&technological&institutions&involved&with&renewable&energy&development&may&find&it&beneficial&to&
connect&with&populations&to&promote&transparency&and&the&risks&of&climate&change&in&order&to&drive&consumer&
engagement.!
•! Scientific&and&technological&institutions&involved&with&renewable&energy&development&may&find&it&beneficial&to&build&
social&responsibility&initiatives&into&marketing&and&technology&introduction&procedures.!
•! Social&marketing&initiatives&focused&on&renewable&energy&and&environmental&literacy&must&consider&political&views&
in&order&to&optimize&market&segmentation.&

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The!concern!about!the!pace!of!innovation,!and!the!motives!behind!it,!is!on!a!steady!increase.!Technology!remains!the!most!
trusted!industry,!but,!for!the!first!time!this!past!year,!trust!in!the!sector!subsided!in!most!markets!(The&Economist&2015).!An!article!
from!The&Economist!states!that,!government!is!now!the!“least!trusted!institution.”!Yet,!over!half!of!those!surveyed!want!more!
governmental!regulation!of!businesses,!especially!in!energy.!In!addition,!“87%!of!consumers!polled!in!a!related!survey!said!they!
would!refuse!to!buy!a!new!product!or!service!due!to!concerns!that!included!the!risks!to!data!and!the!environment.”!NonD
governmental!organizations!are!also!losing!trust!as!they!are!perceived!as!ineffective.!According!to!the!US!Energy!Information!
Administration!(EIA),!fossil!fuels!meet!around!82%!of!energy!demand!D!if!we!are!to!meet!the!Paris!Agreement!of!a!1.5!degrees!
Celsius!target!rise!in!global!temperatures!D!there!must!be!an!increased!focus!on!the!energy!industry’s!social!marketing!and!social!
responsibility!initiatives!in!order!to!increase!consumers’!sense!of!trust!in!the!industry!itself.!Additional!research!may!further!explore!
the!effects!of!trust!on!the!acceptance!of!renewable!energy!systems!by!taking!a!more!focused!approach!on!leading!renewable!energy!
development!institutions.!It!would!be!beneficial!to!collect!data!which!concentrates!on!trust!in!leading!institutions!and!the!
acceptance!of!more!specific!types!of!alternative!energy!sources.!In!recent!times,!it!has!been!recognized!that!renewable!energy!
sources!and!systems!have!had!a!beneficial!impact!on!multiple!facets!in!society.!Besides!the!obvious!environmental!benefits,!socioD
economic!welfare!is!directly!linked!to!the!development!of!renewable!energy.!First,!compared!with!fossil!fuel!technologies,!which!are!
typically!mechanized!and!capital!intensive,!the!renewable!energy!industry!is!more!laborDintensive!D!meaning!that,!on!average,!more!
jobs!are!created!for!each!unit!of!electricity!generated.!Second,!economic!benefits!from!investment!in!renewable!energy!
technologies!make!beneficial!impact!for!both!large,!industrial!markets!and!local!markets.!!
There!are!three!significant!broad!benefits!that!can!accrue!from!the!use!of!renewable!energy.!1)!Renewable!energy!has!
much!less!environmental!impact!compared!to!nonDrenewable!sources.!2)!Renewable!energy!sources!cannot!be!depleted!unlike!fossil!
fuels!and!uranium.!3)!They!favor!power!system!decentralization!and!locally!applicable!solutions!more!or!less!independent!of!the!
national!network,!thus!enhancing!the!flexibility!of!energy!systems.!!
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