Rome and Paul in British Imperial Ideology

NEW APOSTLES:
THE LASTING
EFFECTS OF
PAUL’S RECEPTION
AMONG BRITISH
MISSIONARIES
The$ideological$
functions$of$Rome$and$
Paul$within$British$
imperial$thought$and$
British$imperial$
missionary$writings,$
with$a$critique$of$anti;
imperial$NT$criticism.$
November(22,(2014( Christina(Harker(

Rome &
British
Imperial
Thought
The$Roman$Empire$as$
Model$to$the$British$
Empire$
The$Narrative$of$Cultural$
and$Imperial$Transfer$
Colonization$of$Ireland$in$
the$Roman$Style$
New$Barbarians:$Ireland$
Barbarism$and$
Paternalism$in$the$Age$of$
Empire$
Racial$Hierarchies$of$
Emprie$

| 3
Lessons from Rome
“The%man%who%studies%the$Roman$frontier$
system,%studies%not%only%a%great%work%but%one%
which%has$given$us$all$modern$Western$
Europe.%“%
%
%
Source: en.numista.com
Francis%Haverfield%(1860A1919) was%a%British%archaeologist%who%sought%
direct%links%between%the%Roman%and%British%Empires,%often%using%
archaeological%study%to%connect%his%contemporary%Britain%to%the%ancient%
Romans.%%
In%the%half%penny%below,%note%the%laureate%presentation%of%Victoria,%the%
Latin%legend,%and%Britannia%presented%in%a%similar%way%to%how%Rome%
was%on%ancient%Roman%coin%reverses%(see%next%slide).%

| 4
The Roman Empire
as Model to the
British Empire
William$Fynes$Moryson’s$An%
Itinerary%(1617):$
The$wise$Romans$enlarged$
their$conquests,$so$did$they$
spread$their$language$with$
their$laws,$and$the$divine$
service$all$in$the$Latin$tongue,$
and$by$their$rewards$and$
preferments$invited$men$to$
speak$it$
Francis$Haverfield,$a$Roman$
archaeologist:*$
The$greatest$work$of$the$
imperial$age$must$be$sought$in$
its(imperial(administration—
in$the$organization(of(its(
frontier$defences$which$
repulsed(the(barbarian,$and$
in$the$development$of$the$
provinces$within$those$
defences...$In(the(lands(that(
[Rome](had(sheltered,(
Roman(civilisation(had(taken(
firm(root.((
*Hingley, Roman Officers and English
Gentlemen: The Imperial Origins of
Roman Archaeology, 37
A%bust%portrait%of%Elagabalus%facing%right,%with%
a%laurel%crown%and%full%name%in%the%Latin%
legend.%On%the%reverse,%his%titles%surround%
Rome%who%sits%with%her%shield%by%her%side,%
holding%the%goddess%of%Victory%who%offers%her%a%
wreath.%This%style%was%often%copied%in%the%
modern%period.%

| 5
The Roman Empire
as Model to the
British Empire
J.C.$Stobart,$The%Grandeur%that%was%Rome%(1912):$
The$modern$reader,$especially$if$he$be$an(Englishman,$is$a$
citizen$of$an$empire$now$extremely$self;conscious$and$
somewhat$bewildered$at$its$own$magnitude.$He$cannot(help(
drawing(analogies(from(Roman(history$and$seeking$in$it$
‘morals’$for$his$own$guidance.$The(Roman(Empire(bears(such(
an(obvious(and(unique(resemblance(to(the(British(that$the$
fate$of$the$former$must$of$enormous$interest$to$the$latter.$$
*Hingley, Roman Officers and English Gentlemen: The Imperial Origins of Roman
Archaeology, 37 . Medal from Yale University Art Gallery. (2001.87.27595)
Other%Modern%European%nations%and%
monarchs%also%modeled%themselves%on%the%
Romans.%Notice%below%Louis%XIV%in%a%Roman%
style%bust%portrait,%with%a%similarly%Roman%
influenced%portrayal%of%Public%Happiness%on%
the%reverse.%

| 6
Cultural Transfer:
William Cowper
(1731-1800)
‘Princess!$If$our$aged$eyes$
Weep$upon$thy$matchless$
wrongs,$
‘Tis$because$resentment$ties$
All$the$terrors$of$our$tongues.$
Rome(shall(perish—write$
that$word$
In$the$blood$that$she$has$spilt;$
Perish,$hopeless$and$
abhorred,$
Deep(in(ruin(as(in(guilt.$
‘Rome,(for(empire(far(
renowned,(
Tramples$on$a$thousand$
states;$
Soon$her$pride$shall$kiss$the$
ground—$
Hark!$the$Gaul$is$at$her$Gates!$
Cowper$was$an$English$poet$
who$wrote$“Boadicea:$An$
Ode”$in$1782:$
When$the$British$warrior$
queen,$
Bleeding$from$the$Roman$
rods,$
Sought$with$an$indignant$
mien,$
Counsel$of$her$country’s$gods,$
Sage$beneath$a$spreading$
oak,$
Sat$the$Druid,$hoary$chief;$
Every$burning$word$he$spoke$
Full$of$rage,$and$full$of$grief.$

| 7
The Narrative of
Cultural and Imperial
Transfer
“Boadicea:$An$Ode”$(cont.):$
‘Other(Romans(shall(arise,(
Heedless$of$a$soldier’s$name;$
Sounds,$not$arms,$shall$win$
the$prize—$
Harmony$the$path$to$fame.$
‘Then(the(progeny(that(
springs(
From(the(forests(of(our(
land,(
Armed(with(thunder,(clad(
with(wings,(
Shall(a(wider(world(
command.(
‘Regions(Caesar(never(knew(
Thy(posterity(shall(sway,(
Where(his(eagles(never(
flew,(
None(invincible(as(they.’(
Such$the$bard’s$prophetic$
words,$
Pregnatn$with$celestial$fire,$
Bending,$as$he$swept$the$
chords,$
Of$his$sweet$but$awful$lyre.$
She,$with$a$monarch’s$pride,$
Felt$them$in$her$bosom$glow;$
Rushed$to$battle,$fought,$and$
died;$
Dying,$hurled$them$at$the$
foe.$
Ruffians,$pitiless$as$proud,$
Heaven$awards$the$
vengeance$due:$
Empire(is(on(us(bestowed,(
Shame(and(ruin(wait(for(
you.(

| 8
Cultural Transfer:
The Cantata,
“Caractatus”
H.A.$Ackworth$libretto$for$Elgar’s$cantata$(1897;98)$:$
Do$thy$worst$to$me:$my$people$spare$$
$Whom$fought$for$freedom$in$our$land$at$home.$
Slaves$they$are$not;$be$wise$and$teach$them$there$
Order,$and$law,$and$liberty$with$Rome.$
Georgians,%Victorians,%and%Edwardians%%
understood%ancient%Brittania%to%have%absorbed%
the%virtues%and%strengths%of%its%conquerors,%the%
Romans.%These%virtues%descended%to%the%
modern%Britons,%who%identified%deeply%with%
Rome%during%their%imperial%expansion.%
In%this%gold%sovereign%produced%for%Queen%
Elizabeth’s%diamond%jubilee,%one%of%the%first%
dies—or%coin%images—from%her%reign%is%
reproduced%with%the%new%date.%In%spite%of%her%
modern%1950s%hairstyle%and%dress,%she%is%
presented%bust%right%(typical%of%Roman%
imperial%portraits%on%coins),%with%a%laurel%crown%
in%her%hair%and%an%olive%branch%below.%The%latin%
legend%reads,%“May%God%direct%my%steps.”%The%
coin%uniquely%combines%material%evoking%her%
role%as%Fidei$Defensatrix%and%the%legacy%of%
British%imperial%sovereigns,%linked%back%to%
ancient%Rome%through%the%iconography%of%
Roman%emperors%in%the%presentation%of%British%
ones.%

Rome,%Italy.%Trajan’s%Column%(113).%Victory%columns,%like%the%
iconography%of%coins,%betray%modern%empires’%ideological%debt%to%
Rome.%The%most%famous%is%probably%Nelson’s%Column%in%London.
| 9
H. C. Coote, A
Neglected Fact in
English History
(1864)
On$theories$positing$a$Teutonic$origin$of$the$English:*$
“[the$idea]$post;dates$the$English$origines$and$dries$up$the$
springs$of$our$early$history,$the(merits(and(interest$of$which$
are$by$this$supposition$lavished(upon(a(race(of(strangers.$It$
disentitles$a$large$proportion$of$the$Britons$of$Imperial$Rome$to$
the$sympathies$of$the(present(race(of(Englishmen,(between(
whom(and(the(Eternal(City(it(leaves(a(gap(without(
connection(or(transition.(Provincial(Britain(becomes(a(lost(
nation,(and(four(centuries(of(historical(associations,(with(
their(momentous(consequences(are(divorced(from(our(
annals.”$$
According$to$Coote’s$theory,$Roman$cultural$and$genetic$
heritage$descended$to$the$modern$English$from$ancient$times.$
The$arrival$of$“Gallo;Roman”$reinforcements$in$1066$relieved$
the$darkness$of$the$Anglo;Saxon$and$Danish$conquests,$so$that$
the$British;Roman$descendants$of$Roman$colonists$could$
become$“the$creator,$under$providence,$of$the$medieval$and$
modern$greatness$of$England.”$
*Hingley, Roman Officers and English Gentlemen: The Imperial Origins of Roman
Archaeology, 69-70.

|10
Colonization of
Ireland in the Roman
Style
In$1565,$Sir$Thomas$Smith$advocated$a$path$of$cultural$
extermination$and$settlement$as$the$solution$to$the$“problem”$
of$Ireland$in$his$letter$to$the$Secretary$of$State,$William$Cecil:*$$
...it(needeth(nothing(more(than(to(have(colonies.$To$augment$
our$tongue,$our$laws,$and$our$religion$in$that$Isle,$which$three$be$
the$true$bands$of$the$commonwealth$whereby(the(Romans(
conquered(and(kept(for(a(long(time(a(great(part(of(the(world.((
The%portrayal%of%the%British%as%New%Romans%
required%the%creation%of%foils%that%could%be%
aligned%with%ancient%Rome’s%enemies.%Ireland%
fulfilled%this%role,%but%with%imperial%expansion%
and%colonial%encounters%with%other%
civilizations,%those%new%groups%and%peoples%
began%to%function%as%Britain’s%ultimate%others.%
*Raman, Renaissance Literature and Postcolonial Studies, 74.

| 11
Colonization of
Ireland in the Roman
Style
Sir$FitzWilliam$to$Lord$
Burleigh:*$
This(people...hath(been(long(
misled(in(beastly(liberty(and(
sensual(immunity(so(as(they(
cannot(abide(to(hear(of(
correction,$no;$not$for$the$
horriblest$sins$that$they$can$
commit.$Till$the$sword$have$
thoroughly$and$universally$
tamed...in$vain$is$law$brought$
amongst$them:$nay$
dangerously$is$the$bridle$
thereof$shaked$towards$
them...this$makes$them$all$
tooth$and$nail...to$spurn,$kick$
and$practice$against$it.$$
Sir$Henry$Smith,$Queen$
Elizabeth’s$Secretary$of$State$
to$Lord$FitzWilliam,$Lord$
Deputy$of$Ireland.$Smith$
proposed$establishing$
settlements$in$Ulster$based$
“almost$entirely$upon$Roman$
methods$of$colonization”*$
This$I$write$unto$you$as$I$do$
understand$by$histories$of$
things$past,$how$this(country(
of(England,(once(as(uncivil(
as(Ireland(now(is,(was(by(
colonies(of(the(Romans(
brought(to(understand(the(
laws(and(orders(of(the(
ancient(orders(whereof$there$
hath$no(nation(more(
straightly(and(truly(kept(the(
moulds(even(to(this(day(than(
we,(yea(more(than(the(
Italians(and(Romans(
themselves.((
*Raman, Renaissance Literature and Postcolonial Studies, 74.

|12
New Barbarians:
Spenser, A Vewe of
the present state of
Irelande (c. 1598)
Spenser$advocates$
colonization$based$on$a$
Roman$model,$but$also$
connects$the$Irish$to$the$Gauls$
genealogically$through$Spain:$
Mela,$beinge$himselfe$a$
Spaniarde,$yet$saith$to$have$
descended$from$the$Celtics$of$
Fraunce,$whereby$yt$is$to$be$
gathered,$that$that(nacon(
which(came(out(of(Spain(into(
Ireland(were(auncientlie(
Gaules,$and$that$they$brought$
with$them$those$letters$which$
they$had$learned$in$Spain,$first$
into$Ireland,$the$which$some$
allso$saye$doe$muche$
resemble$the$olde$Phenicon$
carracter,$beinge$likewise$
distinguished$with$pricke$and$
accent,$as$theires$auncyentlie.$
Spanish$descent$is$itself$an$
insult,$and$Spenser$writes$
before$the$decline$of$the$
Spanish$Empire:$
Soe$that$all(nacons(under(
heaven,(I(suppose,(the(
Spaniard(is(the(most(
mingled,(most(uncerten,(and(
most(bastardlie;(wherefore(
most(foolishly(doe(the(Irish(
thinke(to(enoble(themselves(
by(wrestinge(theire(
auncestrie(from(the(
Spaniard,$whoe$is$unable$to$
deryve$himselfe$from$any$
nacon$certen.$$
Nominally%a%work%
aimed%at%discovering%
Ireland’s%“malady”%in%
order%to%cure%it%with%
“a%diet%with%streight%
rules%and%orders%to%be%
dayly%observed,%for%
fear%of%relaps%into%the%
former%disease”,%
Spenser%expands%on%
earlier%chronicles%and%
genealogies%to%create%
the%needed%contrast%
to%the%English%link%to%
Rome.%%

|13
New Barbarians:
Spenser’s Links
between Celtic Tribal
Names and the
Modern Irish
Spenser$links$the$Irish$to$ancient$Celts$through$group$names:$
Moreover$there$be(of(the(olde(Galles(certaine(nacons(yett(
remayninge(in(Irelande(which(retaine(the(olde(
denominacons(of(the(Galles,$as$the$Manapi,$the$Cauci,$the$
Venti$and$others;$by$all$which$and$many$other$very$reasonable$
probabilities,$which$this$shorte$course,$will$not$suffer$to$be$laid$
forth,$it$appeareth$that$the$cheef$inhabitantes$in$the$Iland$were$
Galles$cominge$thither$first$from$Spayne,$and$afterwards$from$
besides$Tannius,$where$the$Gothes,$Hunnes,$and$the$Getes$sat$
downe,$they$allso$beinge$(as$it$is$said)$of$some$ancient$Galles,$
and$lastly(passinge(out(of(Gallia(it(self,(from(all(the(sea(
Coaste(of(Belgia(and(Celtica,(into(all(the(sotherne(coastes(of(
Ireland,$which$they$possessed$and$inhabited,$whereupon$it$is$at$
this$daye,$amongst$all$the$Irishe$a$common$use$to$call$any$
strange$inhabitante$there$amongst$them,$Gald,$that$is,$
descended$of$[or]$from$the$Gaules.$$
Rome,%Italy.%Justinian’s%Column%(543)

|14
Spenser and
Apocryphal stories
of Irish “barbarism”
The(possession(of(their(Bardes(was,(as(Caesar(writeth,(
usuall(amongst(the(Gaules;$and$the$same$was$also$common$
amongst$the$Brittans,$and$is$not$yett$altogether$left$of$with$the$
Walshe,$which$are$ther$posterity.$…The$longe$dearts$came$also$
from$the$Gaules,$as$ye$may$read$in$the$same$Caesar,$and$in$John$
Boemius.$Likewise$the$said$Jo.$Boemius$wrighteth,$that$the$
Gaules$used$swordes,$a$hanfull$broad,$and$soe$doe$the$Irish$
nowe.$Also$that$they$used$long$wicker$sheilds$in$battell$that$
should$cover$their$whole$bodyes,$and$soe$doe$the$Northerne$
Irish.$But$because$I$have$not$seen$such$fashioned$targettes$in$
the$Southerne$partes,$but$only$amongst$those$Northerne$
people,$and$Irish$Scottes,$I$doe$thinke$that$they$were$brought$in$
rather$by$the$Scythians,$then$by$the$Gaules.$Alsoe(the(Gaules(
used(to(drincke(ther(enymyes(blood,(and(to(paynte(
themselves(therewith:(soe(alsoe(they(wright,(that(the(ould(
Irish(were(wonte,(and(soe(have(I(sene(some(of(the(Irish(doe,(
but(not(theire(enymyes(but(frendes(bloode.$As$namely$at$the$
execution$of$a$notable$traytor$at$Lymbricke,$called$Murrogh$
Obrien,$I$saw$an$ould$woman,$which$was$his$foster$mother,$
tooke$up$his$heade,$whilst$he$was$quartered,$and$sucked$up$all$
the$blood$running$thereout,$saying,$that$the$earth$was$not$
worthy$to$drincke$it,$and$therewith$also$steeped$her$face$and$
brest,$and$tare$her$heare,$crying$and$shriking$out$most$terribly.$$
But$he$also$links$them$
through$cultural$practices$he$
ascribes$to$them:$

|15
Theodore
Mommsen
(1817-1903), The
History of Rome
We(may(be(allowed(to(call(attention(to(the(fact,(that(in(the(
accounts(of(the(ancients(as(to(the(Celts(on(the(Loire(and(
Seine(we(find(almost(every(one(of(the(characteristic(traits(
which(we(are(accustomed(to(recognize(as(marking(the(Irish.$
Every$feature$reappears:$the$laziness$in$the$culture$of$the$fields;$
the$delight$in$tippling$and$brawling;$the$ostentation—we$may$
recall$that$sword$of$Caesar$hung$up$in$the$sacred$grove$of$the$
Arvernians$after$the$victory$of$Gergovia,$which$its$alleged$
former$owner$viewed$with$a$smile$at$the$consecrated$spot$and$
ordered$the$sacred$property$to$be$carefully$spared;$the$language$
full$of$comparisons$and$hyperboles,$of$allusions$and$quaint$
turns;$the$droll$humour—an$excellent$example$of$which$was$the$
rule,$that$if$any$one$interrupted$a$person$speaking$in$public,$a$
substantial$and$very$visible$hole$should$be$cut,$as$a$measure$of$
police,$in$the$coat$of$the$disturber$of$the$peace;$the$hearty$
delight$in$singing$and$reciting$the$deeds$of$past$ages,$and$the$
most$decided$talent$for$rhetoric$and$poetry;$the$curiosity—…no$
trader$was$allowed$to$pass,$before$he$had$told$in$the$open$street$
what$he$knew,$or$did$not$know,$in$the$shape$of$news—and$the$
extravagant$credulity$which$acted$on$such$accounts,$for$which$
reason$in$the$better$regulated$cantons$travellers$were$prohibited$
on$pain$of$severe$punishment$from$communicating$
unauthenticated$reports$to$others$than$the$public$magistrates;$$
$$
Mommsen$echoes$Spenser’s$$belief$in$the$
endurance$of$racial$characteristics$he$
identifies$in$his$ancient$sources$and$
ascribes$to$the$Irish.$
Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome (London: Richard Bentley, 1867), 286-287.

|16
Theodore
Mommsen
(1817-1903), The
History of Rome
…the$childlike$piety,$which$sees$in$the$priest$a$father$and$asks$
him$for$his$advice$in$all$things;$the$unsurpassed$fervour$of$
national$feeling,$and$the$closeness$with$which$those$who$are$
fellow;countrymen$cling$together$almost$like$one$family$in$
opposition$to$the$stranger;$the$inclination$to$rise$in$revolt$under$
the$first$chance$leader$that$presents$himself$to$form$bands,$but$
at$the$same$time$the$utter$incapacity$to$preserve$a$self;reliant$
courage$equally$remote$from$presumption$and$from$
pusillanimity,$to$perceive$the$right$time$for$waiting$and$for$
striking,$to$attain$or$even$barely$tolerate$any$organization,$any$
sort$of$fixed$military$or$political$discipline.$$
It(is,(and(remains,(at(all(times(and(places(the(same(
indolent,(poetical,(irresolute(and(fervid,(inquisitive,(
credulous,(amiable,(clever,(but–in(a(political(point(of(view—
thoroughly(useless(nation;(and(therefore(its(fate(has(been(
always(and(everywhere(the(same.((
Hildesheim%Cathedral,%Germany.%Bernward%Column%(ca.%1000)%This%
is%one%of%many%medieval%Christian%columns,%depicting%victories%of%
spiritual%rather%than%earthly%powers,%but%note%how%these%columns%
coAopt%the%presentation%of%Roman%ones.%This%column%copies%the%
helix%pattern%of%Trajan’s%column%with%its%individual%scenes%of%the%
subjugation%of%unruly%peoples.%

|17
Barbarism and
Paternalism in the
Age of Empire
Émile$Faguet:$
The(barbarian(is(of(the(same(
race,(after(all,(as(the(Roman(
and(the(Greek.(He(is(a(
cousin.(The(yellow(man,(the(
black(man,(is(not(our(cousin(
at(all.(Here(there(is(a(real(
difference,(a(real(distance,$
and$a$very$great$one:$an$
ethnological$distance.$After$
all,$civilization(has(never(yet(
been(made(except(by(
whites.$.$.$If$Europe$becomes$
yellow,$there$will$certainly$be$
a$regression,$a$new$period$of$
darkness$and$confusion,$that$
is,$another$Middle$Ages.$$
J.$R.$Seeley,$The%Expansion%of%
England%(1883):%
We$do$not$now$read$...$
[history]$simply$for$pleasure,$
but$in$order$that$we$may$
discover$the$laws$of$political$
growth$and$change$...$We$
have$also$learnt$that(there(
are(many(good(things(in(
politics(beside(liberty;(for(
instance(there(is(nationality,(
there(is(civilisation.$Now(it(
often(happens(that(a(
Government(which(allows(no(
liberty(is(nevertheless(most(
valuable(and(most(
favourable(to(progress(
towards(these(other(goals.((
As%European%empires%expanded,%
the%colonial%encounter%with%
civilizations%comprised%of%
individuals%of%very%different%races%
led%to%a%reAevaluation%of%what%
being%a%“barbarian”%might%mean%
and%the%value%of%sharing%
“civilization”.%
Francis$Haverfield,$“The$Romanization$of$Roman$Britain”,$
Proceedings%of%the%British%Academy%(1905):$
Uncivilized(Africans(or(Asiatics(seem$sundered(for(ever(from(
their(conquerors(by$a$broad$physical$distinction.$$

|18
The Racial
Hierarchies of
Empire
The(regeneration(of(the(inferior(or(degenerate(races(by(the(
superior(races(is(part(of(the(providential(order(of(things(for(
humanity.$With$us,$the$common$man$is$nearly$always$a$
déclassé$nobleman,$his$heavy$hand$is$better$suited$to$handling$
the$sword$than$the$menial$tool.$Rather$than$work,$he$chooses$
to$fight,$that$is,$he$returns$to$his$first$estate.$Regere$imperio$
populos,$that$is$our$vocation.$Pour$forth$this$all;consuming$
activity$onto$countries$which,$like$China,$are$crying$aloud$for$
foreign$conquest.$Turn$the$adventurers$who$disturb$European$
society$into$a$ver$sacrum,$a$horde$like$those$of$the$Franks,$the$
Lombards,$or$the$Normans,$and$every$man$will$be$in$his$right$
role.$Nature$has$made$a$race$of$workers,$the$Chinese$race,$who$
have$wonderful$manual$dexterity$and$almost$no$sense$of$honor;$
govern$them$with$justice,$levying$from$them,$in$return$for$the$
blessing$of$such$a$government,$an$ample$allowance$for$the$
conquering$race,$and$they$will$be$satisfied;$a$race$of$tillers$of$the$
soil,$the$Negro;$treat$him$with$kindness$and$humanity,$and$all$
will$be$as$it$should;$a$race$of$masters$and$soldiers,$the$European$
race.$Reduce$this$noble$race$to$working$in$the$ergastulum$like$
Negroes$and$Chinese,$and$they$rebel.$In(Europe,(every(rebel(is,(
more(or(less,(a(soldier(who(has(missed(his(calling,(a(creature(
made(for(the(heroic(life,(before(whom(you(are(setting(a(task(
that(is(contrary(to(his(race—a(poor(worker,(too(good(a(
soldier.(But(the(life(at(which(our(workers(rebel(would(make(a(
Chinese(or(a(fellah(happy,(as(they(are(not(military(creatures(
in(the(least.(Let(each(one(do(what(he(is(made(for,(and(all(will(
be(well.((
Ernest$Renan$(1823;1892)$wrote$at$
length$about$how$1)$certain$races$were$
destined$to$particular$forms$of$labor$
according$to$a$racialized$hierarchy$and$2)$
that$“inferior$or$degenerate$races”$would$
be$regenerated$by$the$“superior”$(read:$
European)$races.$This$passage$from$Le%
Reforme%Intellectuelle%et%Morale$is$
peppered$with$Latin$phrases$that$evoke$
justifying$discursive$role$of$the$Roman$
Empire.$

British
Imperial
Missionaries
A$Christian$British$Empire$
Paul$as$Model$Missionary$
where$Rome$is$Model$
Empire$
Paul$as$Exemplar$in$Death$
and$Suffering$
Christianity$v.$Heathenism$
Equating$Ancient$
“Heathenism”$with$
Colonial$“Heathenism”$
Language$of$Light,$
“Heathen$Darkness”,$and$
Race$
Racism$and$Paternalistic$
Appropriation$in$
Missionary$Thought$
The$Compatibility$of$
Mission$and$Empire$

|20
A Christian British
Empire
Rudyard$Kipling$and$C.R.L.$
Fletcher,$A%School%History%of%
England%(1911):%
The(justice(and(mercy,$
which$these$countries$had(not(
known(since(the(fall(of(the(
Roman(Empire(is(now(in(full(
measure(given$them$by(the(
British.((
A$popular$poem$from$
Victorian$Christian$circulars:$
The(earth$with$all$its$fullness$
is(the(Lord’s.$
Great$things$attempt$for$Him,$
great$things$expect,$$
$Whose(love(imperial(is,(
Whose(power(sublime.(
Richard$Hakluyt$the$Elder$(c.
1553;1616)$to$Sir$Walter$
Raleigh:$
Nothing(more(glorious(or(
honourable$can$be$handed$
down$to$the$future$than(to(
tame(the(barbarian,$to(bring(
back(the(savage$and$the$
pagan$to$the$fellowship$of$civil$
existence$and$to(induce(
reverence(for(the(Holy(Spirit$
into$atheists$and$others$
distant$from$God.$$

|21
Paul as Model
Missionary where
Rome is Model
Empire
Sam$Stevenson,$“The$Source$
of$Missionary$Enthusiasm,”$in$
The%Lightbearer,$vol.$8$
(1912),$78$
“The$love$of$Christ$is$our$
incentive”$II.$Corinthians$v.$14.$
This$passage$of$Scripture$is$St.$
Paul’s$answer$to$his$enemies$
who$charged$him$with$being$
mad.$His$movements$and$
methods$of$work$were$so$
much$out$of$the$ordinary$as$to$
appear$extravagant.$His$zeal$
in$Christ’s$service$was$
untamed$by$opposition,$his$
interest$unflagging.$$
He(is(the(unique(Missionary.(
The(need(of(to`day(
undoubtedly(is—men(and(
women(consumed(with(the(
love(of(God,(men(and(women(
ready(to(emulate(the(
apostle’s(example.(The$only$
hope$for$this$coming$about$is$
to$get$people$to$go$to$the$
source$of$the$apostle’s$
inspiration.$And$what$that$
was,$is$told$us$in$the$passage$
quoted$above—“The$love$of$
Christ”$$
$$
Florence,%Italy.%Colonna%di%san%
Zanobi%(before%1333).%This%
simple%column%is%crowned%with%
a%cross.%

|22
Paul as Model
Missionary where
Rome is Model
Empire
Stevenson,$“The$Source$of$
Missionary$Enthusiasm,”$78$
His(missionary(tours(are(
marvels(of(accomplishment.(
They(put(to(shame(our(feeble(
achievements(in(the(Mission(
field.(His$writings$too$are$
marvellous.$They$are$all$the$
product$of$that$fiery$ardour.$
They$are$not$mere$memoirs;$
they$are$his$spirit$and$his$life.$
And$the$explanation$of$all$his$
accomplishments$is$given$in$
Galatians$ii.20—‘I$am$crucified$
with$Christ,$nevertheless$I$live$
by$the$power$of$the$indwelling$
Christ.’$
Paul$was$in$union$with$Christ$
and$shared$the$value$of$
Christ’s$death$and$the$power$
of$His$resurrection.$$
The$love$of$Christ$created$in$
Paul$a$fire$of$love$that$acted$
like$the$sacrificial$fire$on$the$
altar$consuming$the$sacrifice,$
for$Paul(was(consumed(as(he(
spent(himself(in(sacrificial(
service.(This,(then—the(love(
of(Christ—is(the(dynamo(of(
spiritual(power.(It(is(the(cure(
for(the(manifest(apathy(
shown(toward(Missions(to(
the(heathen.($
$$
Munich,%Germany.%Mariensäule%
(1638).%This%column%features%
Mary%with%the%infant%Christ;%she%
appears%as%the%Queen%of%
Heaven%standing%on%a%crescent.%

|23
Paul as Model
Missionary where
Rome is Model
Empire
The%Indian%Female%Evangelist%(London:$James$Nisbet$&$Co.,$
1875),$60$
And(so(it(has(been,$not$only$with(Abraham(and(Paul,$but$
with$all$God’s$people—with(the(teachers(of(our(own(day;$with$
the$founders$of$the(most(successful(missions,$both$at$home$
and$abroad.$$
Blenheim%Palace,%England.%Column%of%Victory%(1730).%
This%column%marks%a%return%to%victory%columns%that%
celebrate%military%heroes%and%victories.%

|24
Paul as Exemplar in
Death and in
Suffering
The%Missionary%Papers,%1816A1878,$Church$Missionary$Paper,$
No.$CCX.$June,$1868$
I$passed$by$the$place$in$a$boat,$but$severe$illness$prevented$my$
remaining.$In$a$day$or$two$after,$the$catechist$and$a$few$of$the$
Christians$came$all$the$way$to$ascertain$the$nature$of$my$
illness,$and$to$assure$me$that,$from$the$moment$they$heard$I$
had$been$ill,$continual$prayer$had$been$made$by$them$all$for$my$
speedy$recovery.$I$need$not$say$what$real$pleasure$this$
assurance$afforded$me.$The(joy(thus(felt(can(be(realized,(I(
believe,(only(by(the(Missionary(under(similar(circumstances,(
and(the(feelings(of(the(Apostle(St.(Paul(are(better(
understood(from(such(experiences(than(from(the(most(
learned(disquisitions(of(all(his(commentators.(I$visited$Ming;
ang;teng$for$the$first$time$three$years$ago:$I$was$then$hooted$
and$laughed$at.$There$was$not$a$Christian$there$at$that$time,$nor$
one$who$knew$any$thing$of$Jesus$Christ.$Now,$when$I$am$weak$
and$sick,$from$the$very$place,$and$from$among$the$very$people,$
comes$a$message$of$affectionate$sympathy,$and$an$assurance$
that$continued$prayer$is$offered$on$my$behalf$at$the$throne$of$
grace$by$a$goodly$number$of,$I$believe$and$hope,$earnest$and$
sincere$brethren$and$sisters$in$Christ.$$
Stowe%Park,%England.%The%Grenville%Column%(1749)%

|25
Paul as Exemplar in
Death and in
Suffering
Dublin,%Ireland.%Nelson’s%Column%(1809)%
Richard$Lovett,$The%History%of%the%London%Missionary%
Society,$vol.$2$(London:$Henry$Frowde;$Oxford$University$Press,$
1899),$136.$$
Throughout$his$life$[Mr.$Hay]$kept$the$thin,$spare,$erect$frame$
he$had$when$he$came$to$the$country.$Looking(at(his(well`
poised(head,(his(clear`cut(face,(and(his(lofty,(dome`like(
forehead,(you(felt(the(presence(of(an(old(warrior`saint,(such(
an(one(as(Paul(the(aged,(whom$no$opposition$could$daunt$and$
whose$indomitableness$no$obstacle$could$conquer.$$

|26
Christianity v.
Heathenism
…their(feet(have(been(swift(to(shed(blood,(and(human(
sacrifices(have(been(almost(universally(practiced.(Such(was(
Corinth,(when(St.(Paul(first(preached(the(Gospel(there,$and$
established$a$Christian$Church.$He$then$addressed$them,$Ye$
know$that$ye$were$Gentiles,$carried$away$unto$dumb$Idols,$even$
as$ye$were$led.$Such(were(Greece(and(Rome,(with$all$their$
boasted$refinement;$such(are(Pagan(Countries(and(Idolatrous(
Islands(to(the(present(day.($
Such(once(was(Britain!(Is(it(possible,(that(an(inhabitant(of(
this(favoured(Island(can(look(at(the(Altar(of(Human(Sacrifice(
without(horror;(without(gratitude(to(God,(who(has(
redeemed(him(from$such$horrible$cruelties;$and$without(
sympathy(and$compassion$to(the(many$thousands,$yea,$
millions,$who$are$now(remaining(in(darkness(and(the(land(of(
the(shadow(of(death?($
The%Missionary%Papers,%1816A1878,$no.$
LIII.$Lady;Day,$1829$$
For$this$detestable$impiety,$this$contempt$of$
the$pure$and$holy$worship$of$JEHOVAH,$the$
One$Living$and$True$God,(the(Almighty(
hath,(in(righteous(indignation,(given(them(
up(to(follow(their(own(devices.$Idolatry$has$
proved$the$fatal$source$of$crimes$the$most$
flagrant$and$abominable$nations$which$
worship$Idols$have$been,$and$now$are,$
distinguished$for$pride$and$cruelty,$
intoxication$and$lust,$indolence,$tyranny,$
and$revenge:$

|27
Equating
“Heathenism” in the
Colonies and
Ancient Heathenism
The%Church%Missionary%
Quarterly%Token:%“A%Book%of%
Missionary%Incident%and%
Instruction”$(Church$
Missionary$House,$
1856;1865),$no.$11$October$
1858$$
But$what$can$one$expect$
from$those$who$have$been$
born$and$brought$up$in$
heathen$darkness?$
‘Unmerciful’(is(one(of(the(
terms(St.(Paul(applies(to(the(
heathen(in$the$first$chapter$of$
the$Epistle$to$the$Romans.$
They(were(so(in(the(Apostle’s(
days,(and(they(are(so(still.$$
The%Missionary%Papers,%
1816A1878,$Missionary$Papers,$
No.$XXXIX.$Michaelmas,$1825$$
This$is$the(testimony(of(
these(Heathens(against(
themselves:$and$it(proves(
that$the(awful(description(of$
the$Gentiles$given(by(St.(Paul(
in$the$latter$part$of$the$First$
Chapter$to$the$Romans$is$true$
of$these$miserable$men.$They$
celebrate$with$feasting$and$
shouts$the$acts$of$Falsehood$
and$Impurity$of$their$
pretended$god$[Krishna],$and$
to$Falsehood$and$Impurity$
they$are$themselves$devoted!$$
Paris,%France.%Colonne%
Vendôme%(1809).%This%column%
recalls%the%helix%pattern%of%
Trajan’s%column.%Napoleon%
stands%at%the%top.%

|28
Equating
“Heathenism” in the
Colonies and
Ancient Heathenism
Robert$Ward,$Life%Among%the%Maories%of%New%Zealand:%Being%
a%Description%of%Missionary,%Colonial%and%Military%
Achievements%(Canada:$G.$Lamb,$1872),$98;99$$
We$cannot$conclude$this$chapter$in$more$appropriate$language$
than$that$used$by$the(apostle(Paul(in(describing(the(effects(of(
heathenism(eighteen(centuries(ago;$only$remarking$that$the(
inspired(expressions(were(applicable(to(the(people(of(New(
Zealand,(and(of(Polynesia(in(general,(in(an(intenser(degree(
than(they$were$probably$applied,$at$least,$in$some$respects,$to$
the(heathen(of(ancient(times:“God$also$gave$them$up$to$
uncleanness$through$the$lusts$of$their$own$hearts,$to$dishonour$
their$own$bodies$between$themselves.$.$.$to$vile$affections.$.$.$to$
a$reprobate$mind,$to$do$those$things$which$are$not$convenient;$
being$filled$with$all$unrighteousnessness,$fornication,$
wickedness,$covetousness,$maliciousness;$full$of$envy,$murder,$
debate,$deceit,$malignity;$whisperers,$backbiters,$haters$of$God,$
despiteful,$proud,$boasters,$inventors$of$evil$things,$disobedient$
to$parents,$without$understanding,$covenant$breakers,$without$
natural$affections,$implacable,$unmerciful.$
Great%Yarmouth,%England.%Britannia%Monument%(1819).%Britannia%
tops%this%column%and%stands%on%a%globe%of%the%world,%supported%by%
caryatids.%

|29
Language of Light,
“Heathen Darkness”
and Race
Mary$Gaunt,$Alone%in%West%Africa%(New$York:$Scribner,$1912),$
78;9$
Now$most$settlements$along$the$Coast$[of$West$Africa]$are$
busy,$prosperous,$and$above$all,$sanitary.$Only$in$Liberia,$the$
civilised$black$man’s$own$country,$does$a$different$state$of$
things$prevail;$only$here$has$the$movement$been$retro;$grade.$.$.$
Who$shall$say$that$some$ultimate$good$may$not$yet$come$for$
beautiful,$wealthy,$poverty;stricken$Liberia.$That$the$civilised$
nations,$sinking$their$own$jealousies,$may$step$in$and$save$her$
despite$herself,$I$think,$is$the$only$hope.$But(it(must(be(as(Paul(
would(have(saved,(not(as(the(pitiful(Christ...to(me(Liberia(
seems(to(be(stretching(out(her(hands(crying(dumbly(to(the(
white(man(the(cry(that(came(across(the(water(of(old,(the(cry(
the(missionary(girl(listened(to,(the(cry(of(Macedonia,(‘Come(
over(and(help(us.($
Nantes,%France.%Column%of%Louis%XVI%(1823).%Louis%XVI%appears%at%
the%top%of%this%column%in%a%toga,%directly%referencing%the%Roman%
past.%

|30
Language of Light,
and Race
William$Carey,$An%Enquiry%into%the%Obligations%of%the%
Christians:%to%use%means%for%the%Conversion%of%the%Heathens.%
In%which%the%religious%state%of%the%different%nations%of%the%
world,%the%success%of%former%undertakings,%and%the%
practicability%of%further%undertakings,%are%considered%
(Leicester:$Printed$/$Sold$by$Ann$Ireland$[etc.],$1792),$10$
Alas!$the$far(greater(part(of(the(world,$as$we$shall$see$
presently,$are$still(covered(with(heathen(darkness!$Nor$can$we$
produce$a$counter;revelation,$concerning$any$particular$nation,$
like$that$to$Paul$and$Silas,$when$forbidden$to$preach$to$those$
heathens,$went$elsewhere,$and$preached$to$others.$Neither$can$
we$alledge$[sic]$a$natural$impossibility$in$the$case.$$
Baltimore,%Maryland.%Washington%Monument%(1829)%

London,%England.%Nelson’s%Column%(1843).%This%is%probably%the%
most%famous%modern%victory%column.%Admiral%Nelson%appears%at%
the%top,%surveying%Trafalgar%Square%below.%
|31
Language of Light,
and Race
C.$F.$Pascoe,$Two%Hundred%Years%of%the%S.P.G:%An%Historical%
Account%of%the%Society%for%the%Propagation%of%the%Gospel%in%
Foreign%Parts,$vol.$1$(London:$Published$at$the$Society’s$Office,$
1901),$316d;e$
[The$Church]$trying$to$do$her$duty$to$the$natives—$‘to$give$them$
the$best$we$can,$to$train$them.$.$.$that$we$may$use$them$for$
carrying$on$the$light$which$they$gain$here$to$the(darkest(
corners(of(South(Africa’—$and$the$Bishop’s$charge$contained$a$
stirring$appeal(to(Churchmen(to(take(up(their(share(of(‘the(
white(man’s(burden’;$doing$what$we$can$to$spell$out$this$
mystery$which$is$being$unfolded$to$us,$as$great$as$was$the$
mystery$seen$by$St.$Paul—the$place$of$the$native$of$Africa$in$the$
Christian$Church$of$the$world.$God$has$set$us$our$task,$we$must$
bear$it.’$$

|32
Racism and
Paternalistic
Appropriation in
Missionary Thought
H.$R.$Fox$Bourne,$The%Claims%of%Uncivilised%Races:%A%Paper%
Submitted%to%the%International%Congress%on%Colonial%
Sociology,$Paris$(Aborigines$Protection$Society,$1900),$7$$
It$may$be$true$not$only$that$enlightened(Europeans(have(a(
right,(but(it(is(also(their(duty,(to(aim(at(the(overthrow(of(
barbarism(and(at(the(improvement(of(regions(which(have(
hitherto(been(insufficiently(or(improperly(used,(as(well(as(of(
people(who(have(hitherto(been(the(victims(of(their(own(or(
others’(faults.$But$the$economic,$as$well$as$the$ethical,$
principles$which$our$modern$civilisation$boasts$that$it$has$firmly$
established,$in$theory$at$any$rate,$forbid(the(perpetration(of(a(
crime(in(order(that(other(and(even(greater(crimes(may(be(
averted.$Condemning,$with$St.$Paul,$the$doctrine,$“Let$us$do$
evil$that$good$may$come,”$those$principles$support$the$Christian$
rule.$“As$ye$would$that$men$should$do$to$you,$do$ye$also$to$them$
likewise.”$The(abominations(indulged(in(by(ignorant(savages(
are(no(excuse(for(any(approach(towards(imitation(of(them(by(
people(claiming(to(be(civilised(and(to(be(engaged(in(civilising(
work.$‘Thou$shalt$not$kill;$thou$shalt$not$steal;$thou$shalt$not$
covet$thy$neighbour’s$goods,’$are$commandments(more(
binding(on(educated(white(men(than(on(benighted(blacks.$$
Berlin,%Germany.%Siegessäule%(1873).%Liberty%appears%at%
the%top%of%this%enormous%column.%She%carries%a%victory%
wreath%and%a%staff%with%a%cross%and%fillets.%

|33
Racism and
Paternalistic
Appropriation in
Missionary Thought
The(great(service(which$the$European(nations$and$peoples$of$
the$Western$civilisation(can(render(to(the(Asiatic,(African,(
American,(and(Oceanean(peoples(is(the$imparting(to$them$
the(fullest(knowledge(of(the(arts(and(sciences(which$have$
matured$in$Europe.$.$.$$
In(exchange(the(Asiatic,(African,(American,(and(Oceanean(
peoples(will(cheerfully(and(heartily(co`operate(with(the(
European(peoples(in(the(great(work(of(developing(to(the(
uttermost(degree(the(vast(economic(resources(of$the$tropical$
and$sub;tropical$regions$wherein$the$European$variety$of$the$
Genus$Homo$endowed$with$an$‘unpigmented$skin’$can$neither$
work$nor$fight$in$the$open$continuously$and$simultaneously$
continue$their$own$variety$of$the$Genus$Homo.$.$.$$
The(Christian(principles(and(methods(of(Federal(
Government(were(enunciated(by(St.(Paul(in$the$following$
paraphrased$or$adapted$quotations$from$chapter$12$of$his$first$
epistle$to$the$Corinthians,$which$are$applicable(not(only(to(the(
organisation(of(spiritual(power,(but(are(applicable,(also,(to(
the(organisation(of(temporal(power.((
‘Now$concerning$spiritual$gifts,$brethren,$I$would$not$have$you$
ignorant.$.$.$Now$there$are$diversities$of$gifts,$but$the$same$spirit$
of$scientific$and$artistic$excellence.$.$.$And$there$are$differences$
of$administrations,$but$the$same$Lord$of$emotional$and$
sympathetic$devotion.$.$.$$$
Jas$C.$Smith,$“Now$We$Are$
The$Body$of$the$British$
Empire”,$in%The%African%Times%
and%Orient%Review,$ed.$Duse$
Mohamed,$vol.$1$(London:$
African$Times$/$Orient$Review,$
1912),$14;15.$(Cont.)$

|34
Racism and
Paternalistic
Appropriation in
Missionary Thought
And$there$are$diversities$of$operations,$but$it$is$the$same$God$of$
truth$and$righteousness$which$worketh$all$in$all.$But$the$
manifestation$of$the$spirit$“of$patriotism”$is$given$to$every$man$
to$profit$withal.$.$.$But$all.$.$.$worketh$that$one$and$the$self;same$
spirit$“of$patriotism,”$di$viding$to$every$man,$severally,$as$he$
will.$For$as$the$body$is$one,$and$hath$many$members,$and$all$
the$members$of$that$one$body,$being$many,$are$one$body,$so$
also$is$the$one$body$of$the$British$Empire.’$$
For(by(one(Spirit(of(Patriotism(are(we(baptised(into(one(
United(Empire,(whether(we(be(Europeans,(Asiatics,(
Africans,(Americans,(or(Oceaneans;(and(have(been(all(sworn(
to(bear(faithful(and(true(allegiance(unto(one(Sovereign(King`
Emperor,(according(to(one(law(of(the(devolution(of(the(
Crown.((
…Nay,$much$more,$those$peoples$of$the$British$Empire,$which$
seem$to$be$more$backward,$are$equally$necessary$for$executing$
the$work$of$the$development$of$the$resources$of$territories$
situate$within$the$tropical$and$sub;tropical$regions$of$this$
planet,$and,$also,$for$the$military$and$naval$protection$and$
defence$of$these$territories,$as$are$those(nations(and$peoples,$
of$the$British$Empire,$which$are$now$the$most(advanced,$which$
execute(the(work(of(development(of(the(resources(of$our$
territories$within$the$temperate$regions,$and$for$the$military(
and(naval(defence(of(these(territories.$$
$$
Jas$C.$Smith,$“Now$We$Are$
The$Body$of$the$British$
Empire”,$in%The%African%Times%
and%Orient%Review,$ed.$Duse$
Mohamed,$vol.$1$(London:$
African$Times$/$Orient$Review,$
1912),$14;15.$(Cont.)$

Richard$Hakluyt$the$Elder’s$(1553;1616)$“Reasons$for$
Colonisation”$(c.$1585),$written$to$support$English$expansion$
into$Virginia.$$
The$ends$of$this$voyage$are$these:$
To$plant(Christian(religion.$
To$traffic.$ $ $ $Or,$to(do(all(three.$$
To$conquer.( $ $$
|35
The Compatibility of
Mission and Empire
Rev.$Barde:*$
[if$global$resources]$remained$
divided(up$indefinitely,$as$
they$would$be$without$
colonization,$they(would(
answer(neither(the(purposes(
of(God(nor(the(just(demands(
of(the(human(collectivity.$
Rev.$Müller:*$
humanity(must(not,(cannot(
allow(the(incompetence,(
negligence,(and(laziness(of(
the$uncivilized(peoples(to(
leave(idle(indefinitely$the(
wealth(which$God(has$
confided(to(them,$charging$
them$to$make$it$serve$the$
good$of$all.$$
* As cited by Aimé Césaire, Discourse on Colonialism, 17

Anti-Imperial
Biblical
Scholarship
An$Anti;imperialism$with$
No$Threat$to$the$Status$
Quo$
Paul’s$Lasting$Significance$
as$a$Model$to$Christians$
Binary$Divisions$of$
Ancient$Society$Based$
on$Allegiance$to$Paul$
Paternalism$
Paul’s$Imperial$Language$
as$a$Positive$
Imperial$Language$Used$
as$a$Positive$

Joseph$B.$Lightfoot,$St.%Paul’s%
Epistle%to%the%Galatians%
(1866),%1A2,%64.%
We$may$expect$to$have$light$
thrown$upon$the$broad$
features$of$national(
character(which$thus$
confront$us,$by$the$
circumstances$of$the$descent$
and$previous$history$of$the(
race,$while$at$the$same$time$
such$a$sketch$will$prepare$the$
way$for$the$solution$of$some$
questions$of$interest,$which$
start$up$in$connexion$to$the$
epistle.$
(64)$He$is$dealing$with(a(
thoughtless(half`barbarous(
people.$They$have$erred$like$
children,$and$must$be$
chastised$like$children.$
Rebuke(may(prevail(where(
reason(will(be(powerless.(
|37
Discourses Present
in Imperial Biblical
Scholarship
Joseph$B.$Lightfoot,$St.%Paul’s%
Epistle%to%the%Galatians%
(1866),%187.$
The$life$of$the$greatest$and$
best$of$English(kings$presents$
so(close(a(parallel(to(the(
Apostle's(thorn(in(the(flesh,$
that$I$cannot$forbear$quoting$
the$passage$[from$Jowett]$at$
length,$though$the$illustration$
is$not$my$own.$$
In%J.%B.%Lightfoot’s%writings,%we%
find%(1)%Paul%compared%to%
English%kings,%(2)%his%audiences%
derided%as%stupid%barbarians%
(the%Galatians)%or%vicious%
Greeks%(the%Corinthians)%,%and%
(3)%Paul’s%activities%evaluated%
through%a%paternalistic%lens:%his%
great%spiritual%gifts%are%lost%on%
his%audiences%because%of%the%
inherent%failings%of%their%race(s).%

|38
Discourses Present
in Imperial Biblical
Scholarship
Joseph$B.$Lightfoot,$St.%Paul’s%Epistle%to%the%Galatians%(1866),$
30.$
These(errors(found(in(Galatia(a(congenial(soil.$The$corruption$
took$the$direction$which$might$have$been$expected$from$the$
religious$education$of$the$people.$A$passionate$and$striking$
ritualism$expressing$itself$in$bodily$mortifications$of$the$most$
terrible$kind$had$been$supplanted$by$the$simple$spiritual$
teaching$of$the$Gospel.(For(a(time(the(pure(morality(and(lofty(
sanctions(of(the(faith(appealed$not$in$vain$to$their$higher$
instincts,$but(they(soon(began(to(yearn(after(a(creed(which(
suited(their(material(cravings(better,$and$was$more$allied$to$
the$system$they$had$abandoned.(This(end(they(attained(by(
overlaying(the(simplicity(of(the(Gospel(with(Judaic(
observances.(This$new$phase$of$their$religious$life$is$ascribed(
by(St.(Paul(himself(to(the(temper(which(their(old(heathen(
education(had(fostered.$It$was$a$return$to$the$`weak$and$
beggarly$elements'$which$they$had$outgrown,$a$renewed$
subjection$to$the$`yoke$of$bondage'$which$they$had$thrown$off$in$
Christ.$They$had$escaped$from$one$ritualistic$system$only$to$bow$
before$another.(The(innate(failings(of(a(race(`excessive(in(its(
devotion(to(external(observances'(was(here(reasserting(itself(
Surprisingly,%some%aspects%of%these%
discourses—these%ways%of%framing%history,%
identity,%and%the%contemporary—continue%
to%resonate%in%contemporary%“antiA
imperial”%biblical%scholarship.%

|39
An Anti-Imperialism
with No Threat to the
Status Quo
Wright,$N.$T.$Paul:$Fresh%
Perspectives.%London:$SPCK,$
2005,$78$
Precisely$because$of$all$the$
counter;imperial$hints$Paul$
has$given$not$only$in$this$letter$
and$elsewhere$but$indeed$by$
his$entire$gospel,$it(is(vital(
that(he(steer(Christians(
away(from$the$assumption$
that$loyalty$to$Jesus$would$
mean$the$kind$of$civil(
disobedience(and(revolution(
that(merely(reshuffles(the(
political(cards$into$a$different$
order.$
2005,$76;77$
[On$Paul’s$message$in$
Romans]$Jesus$is$the$world’s$
true$Lord,$constituted$as$such$
by$his$resurrection.$He(claims(
the(whole(world,(summoning(
them$to$the(‘obedience(of(
faith’,$that$obedient$loyalty$
which(outmatches(the(
loyalty(Caesar(demanded.$…
Through$the$gospel,$in$other$
words,$the(one(true(God(is(
claiming(the(allegiance(of(
the(entire(world,$since$the$
gospel$itself$carries$the$same$
power$which$raises$Jesus$from$
the$dead,$unveiling$the$true$
salvation$and$the$true$justice$
before$a$world$where$those$
were$already$key$imperial$
buzzwords.$
New%Haven,%Connecticut.%Soldiers%
and%Sailors%Monument%(1887).%The%
soliders%at%the%base%represent%
diferent%wars%(Revolutionary%War,%
War%of%1812,%Civil%War,%and%
SpanishAAmerican%War).%

|40
Paul’s Lasting
Significance as a
Model to Christians
Barcelona,%Spain.%Columbus%Monument%
(1888)%
Horsley$and$Silberman.$The%Message%and%the%Kingdom:%How%
Jesus%and%Paul%Ignited%a%Revolution%and%Transformed%the%
Ancient%World.%New$York:$Grossett/Putnam,$1997,$231$
The$movement$that$began$with$Jesus$of$Nazareth$was$
primarily$concerned$with$the$way$that$people$could$somehow$
resist$exploitation$by$the$rich$and$powerful,(without(either(
surrendering(their(traditions(or(resorting(to(violence.$
Likewise,$the$Apostle$Paul;;;in$his$wide;ranging$travels$
throughout$the$lands$of$the$Eastern$Empire;;;engaged$in$a$
career$of$confrontation$with$the$forces$of$patronage$and$empire$
and$died$in$the$attempt.$Time(and(again(over(the(succeeding(
centuries(the(same(struggle(would(be(waged.$Whether(in(the$
heretical$Christian$sects$of$Asia$Minor,$the$mystical$
brotherhoods$of$the$Middle$Ages,(the(radical(religious(groups(
of(the(Reformation,(the(utopian(communities(of(nineteenth`
century(America,(or(the(visionary,(idealistic(political(
movements(of(the(present,(the(quest(for(the(Kingdom(of(God(
lives(on.$To$many$scholars,$the$often;failed$protests$of$common$
people$are$merely$footnotes$to$the$mainstream$history$of$
Christianity,$which$is$traced$through$the$official$chronicles$of$
church$councils$and$the$respectful$biographies$of$church$leaders$
and$kings.$Certainly$the$words$and$deeds$of$the$rich$and$famous$
should$not$be$ignored$or$neglected,$but$they$are$only$part$of$a$
great,$complex$mosaic$of$social$and$religious$change.$$
Photo by David Iliff. License: CC-BY-SA 3.0

|41
Richard$Horsley,.$"1$
Corinthians:$A$Case$Study$of$
Paul's$Assembly$as$an$
Alternative$Society."$in$Paul%&%
Empire:%Religion%and%Power%
in%Roman%Imperial%Society,%
edited$by$Richard$A.$Horsley.$
Harrisburg,$PA:$Trinity$Press$
International,$1997,$244.$
…In$1$Corinthians(his(gospel,(
mission,$and$the$struggles$of$
his$assembly$are(part(of(
God’s(fulfillment(of(history(
in(the(doom(and(destruction(
of(Roman(imperial(rule.(
Binary Divisions of
Ancient Society
Based on Allegiance
to Paul
Richard$Horlsey,$“1$
Corinthians”,$$244.$
But$it$is$through$the$
despicably$crucified$Christ$and$
now$his$lowborn,$weak,$and$
despised$followers,$the$
Corinthian$believers$
themselves,$that$God(has(
shamed(the(pretentious(elite(
questing(after(power,(
wealth,(wisdom,(noble(birth,(
and(honorific(public(office$
(1:21;23,$26;29;$4:8,10).$These$
terms,$of$course,$in$their$literal$
meaning,$describe$not$simply$
a$cultural$elite$but$the$
provincial$(Corinthian)$political$
elite.$$

|42
Binary Divisions of
Ancient Society
Based on Allegiance
to Paul
Richard$Horsley,$“1$Corinthians”,$245;6.$
Second,$beside$urging$group$solidarity,$Paul(insisted(that$the$
Corinthian$assembly(conduct(its(own(affairs(autonomously,(in(
complete(independence(of(“the(world”,(as$he$writes$in$no$
uncertain$terms$in$1$Corinthians$5;6.$That$did$not$mean$
completely$shutting$themselves$off$from$the$society$in$which$
they$lived.$The$purpose(of(the(mission,$of$course,$was$to$bring(
people(into(the(community.$The$believers$should$thus$not$cut$
off$all$contact$with$“the$immoral$of$this$world,$or$the$greedy,$
and$robbers”$(5:10).$The$assembly,$however,$should$not$only((a)(
maintain(ethical(purity(and(group(discipline(in(stark(
opposition(to(the(injustice(of(the(dominant(society,(but(also(
(b)(it(should(handle(its(own(disputes(in(absolute(
independence$of$the$established$courts…$
The(assembly(stands(diametrically(opposed(to(“the(world”(
as(a(community(of(“saints”.(

|43
Binary Divisions of
Ancient Society
Based on Allegiance
to Paul
Richard$Horsley,$“1$
Corinthians”,$248.$
In$contrast(to(the(dominant(
society(in$which$many$
overlapping$social$bonds$were$
established$in$sacrifices$to$
multiple$gods,$however,$the$
assembly$of$sharers$in$the$
body$of$Christ$was$exclusive.$It$
was$simply(impossible(and(
forbidden(therefore(for(
members(of(the(body(politic(
established(and(perpetuated(
in(the(cup(and(table(of(the(
Lord(to(partake(also(in(the(
cup(and(table(of(demons.(
Richard$Horsley,$“1$
Corinthians”,$249.$
In$his$concern$to$“build$up”$
the(assembly(of(saints(over(
against(the(networks(of(
power(relations(by(which(the(
imperial(society(was(
constituted,$he$could$not$
allow$those$who$had$joined$
the$assembly$to$participate$in$
the$sacrificial$banquets$by$
which$those$social$relations$
were$ritually$established.$

|44
Paternalism
SaintADenis,%Réunion.%Colonne%
de%la%Victoire%(1923)%
Horsley$and$Silberman.$The%Message%and%the%Kingdom:%How%
Jesus%and%Paul%Ignited%a%Revolution%and%Transformed%the%
Ancient%World.$New$York:$Grossett/Putnam,$1997,$169$
The$idea$that$villagers$of$the$Galatian$highlands$should$
abandon$their$own$village$traditions$and$adopt$the$festivals,$
laws,$and$ceremonies$of$Israel$in$order$to$gain$a$share$in$God's$
kingdom$struck$Paul$as$a$direct$challenge$to$all$the$work$that$he$
had$been$carrying$out$for$the$previous$years.$Having$grown$to$
understand$the$economic$and$political$plight$of$the$Galatians$
during$his$sojourn$among$them,$Paul(believed(that(he(knew(
far(better(than$the$newly$arrived$apostles$how(the(Galatian(
peasantry(could(best(survive(under(the(new(conditions(of(
empire(and(so(inherit—on(their(own(terms—the(Kingdom(of(
God.$%

A%napoleonic%coin%claiming%the%Bourbon%Isles%(later%Réunion)%for%
“France%et%Bonaparte”.%Note%the%laurel%wreath%on%the%reverse%and%
the%Napoleonic%eagle,%evocative%of%and%based%on%the%Roman%
eagles.%
|45
Paternalism Richard$Horsley,$“1$Corinthians”,$243.$
Populated$by$the$descendants$of$Roman$riffraff$and$
deracinated$former$slaves,$Corinth$was$the$epitome$of$
urban$society$created$by$empire:$a$conglomeration$of$
atomized$individuals$cut$off$from$the$supportive$
communities$and$particular$cultural$traditions$that$had$
formerly$constituted$their$corporate$identities$and$
solidarities$as$Syrians,$Judeans,$Italians,$or$Greeks.$As(
freedpeople(and(urban(poor(isolated(from(any(horizontal(
supportive(social(network,(they(were(either(already(part(
of(or(readily(vulnerable(for(recruitment(into(the(lower(
layers(of(patronage(pyramids(extending$downwards$into$
the$social$hierarchy$as$the$power$bases$of$those$clambering$
for$high$honor$and$office$expanded.$
Coin of the British Museum (1857, 1221.20).

|46
Paul’s Imperial
Language as a
Positive
Wright,$N.$T.$"Paul$and$Empire."$In$The$Wiley;Blackwell$
Companion$to$Paul,$edited$by$Stephen$Westerholm,$285;298.$
Malden,$MA;$Oxford:$Wiley;Blackwell,$2011,$292.$
Often,$in$fact,$such$allusions$[to$“the$structures$of$power$and$
those$who$embodied$and$enforced$them”]$are$the(only(way,(or(
perhaps(the(best(way,(to(get(the(point(across.$But$in$the$case$
of$Paul,$the(echoes(of(imperial(language((not$necessarily$
explicitly$“cultic”$language,$though$as$we$have$seen$the$cult$
merges$into,$and$flows$out$from,$the$wider$ideology)$are(strong:(
“good(news,”(“son(of(God,”((universal(allegiance,(Jesus(as(
part(of(an(ancient(royal(family(and(as(kyrios((“lord”),$and$
then,$in$what$is$generally$reckoned$the$thematic$statement$of$
the$letter$[to$the$Romans]$(1:16;17),$this$“good$news”$as$being$
the$means$of$“salvation”$and$“justice”$(dikaiosynē,$
“righteousness”).$The(fact(that(these(notions(have(been(given(
very(different(and(essentionally(non`political,(meanings(in(
some(Christian(theology(ought(not(to(make(us(deaf(to(the(
echoes(they(would(almost(certainly(have(awakened(in(Rome.(

|47
Paul’s Imperial
Language as a
Positive
Horsley,$“1$Corinthians”,$250;251$
In$his$explanation$of$why$he$did$not$accept$[financial]$support,$
he$simply$resorted$to(the(imagery(of(household(
administration((“commission,”$9:17),$with$the(implied(image(
of(God(as(the(divine(estate(owner(and(himself(as(the(
steward.$Such$imagery$fits$with$similar(controlling(
metaphors,$such$as$God(as(a(monarch,(Christ(as(the(
alternative(emperor,(and(himself(as(the(Lord’s(“servant”(or(
“slave”.$He$used(his(overall(controlling(vision(of$the$
“kingdom”$of$God$as(a(basis(for(rejecting(the(patronage(
system,$but$remained$within$that$traditional$biblical$vision.$

|48
Imperial Language
Used as a Positive
2005,$69$
For$Paul,$Jesus$is$Lord$and$
Caesar$is$not…$if$Jesus$is$
Israel’s$Messiah$then$he$is$the$
world’s(true(Lord.$
Wright,$N.$T.$Paul:%Fresh%
Perspectives.$London:$SPCK,$
2005,$75$
In$1$Corinthians$15,$Paul$
describes$the(resurrection$of$
Jesus$as$inaugurating(that(
period(of(history$which$is$
characterized$by$the(
sovereign(rule(of(Jesus$which$
will$end$with$the(destruction(
of(all(enemies,(putting(all(
things(under(his(feet.$%
Washington,%D.C.%The%Capital%
Columns%(1985)%

|49
Imperial Language
Used as a Positive
Wright,$N.$T.$"Paul$and$
Empire”,$289.$
When$we$consider$“Paul$and$
Empire”,$we(are(not(talking(
about(a(political(slideshow,$a$
subcategory$of$“Pauline$
ethics”$(“What$about$the$
State?”).$We(are(talking(
about(the(kingdom(of(God(
and(the(lordship(of(Jesus(the(
Messiah.$
Wright,$N.$T.$"Paul$and$
Empire”,$290.$
Paul’s$gospel,$arguably,$
remained$firmly$rooted$in$the$
soil$of$ancient$Jewish$
expectation.$He$believed$that$
in$Jesus,$and$particularly$in$his$
death$and$resurrection,$Israel’s$
god$had$been$true$to$his$
promises.$It(was(therefore$
time(for(the(world(to(be(
brought(under(the(lordship(
of(this(god(and(his(anointed(
king.(
Silver%medal%(1783)%of%American%Liberty.%Here%
she%appears%with%flowing%hair%and%her%pileus,%
the%hat%of%a%freed%slave,%on%a%pole.%On%the%
reverse,%Artemis%with%the%fleurAdeAlis%of%France%
shields%the%infant%Hercules%%(the%US)%from%the%
lion%of%the%British%monarchy%as%he%strangles%
two%snakes%representing%British%forces%at%
Saratoga%and%Yorktown.%The%legend%reads,%
“non$sine$diis$animosus$infans”,%a%quote%from%
Horace.%“The%infant%is%not%bold%without%(the%
help%of%)%the%gods”.%%

Thank you.
Please direct feedback on
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Rome and Paul in British Imperial Ideology

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Rome and Paul in British Imperial Ideology