Study Chapter 8 Exam 4 Next Week

1. Motivation and Emotion
Steven Mendoza, Ph.D.,MSCP
Los Angeles Community
College District
Chapter Eight
Lecture Slides
By Glenn E. Meyer, Ph.D.
Trinity University
&
Shari Wind, MA, LPC
Front Range Community College

2. Introduction: Motivation
and Emotion
Three basic
characteristics
Click here
Activation is
demonstrated by
initiation or
production of
behavior.
Persistence is
demonstrated by
continued efforts
or determination
to achieve a
particular goal.
Intensity is seen
in the greater
vigor of
responding that
usually
accompanies
motivated
behavior.
Motivation refers to
forces acting on or
within an organism to
initiate and direct
behavior: biological,
emotional, cognitive, or
social forces.
Emotion is a
psychological state
involving three distinct
components:
• Subjective
experience
• Physiological
response
• Behavioral or
expressive response

3. Motivational Concepts and Theories
Instinct Theories
• People are motivated to
engage in certain behaviors
because of evolutionary
programming.
• In the 1920s, instinct
theories had fallen out of
favor as an explanation of
human motivation, primarily
because of their lack of
explanatory power.
• The general idea that
human behaviors are innate
and genetically influenced
remained important.

4. Drive Theories
Biological Needs as Motivators
Instinct theories were replaced by drive theories.
• Drive
• Need or internal motivational state
• Drive theories
• Behavior motivated by desire to reduce internal tension
caused by unmet biological needs and restore
homeostasis
• Drive state
• Created by unmet biological needs; drives are
triggered by internal mechanisms of homeostasis
• Homeostasis
• Body monitors and maintains internal states, such as
body temperature and energy supplies, at relatively
constant levels; in general, tendency to reach or
maintain equilibrium
• Homeostasis cannot explain all drives

5. Incentive Motivation
Goal Objects as Motivators
Incentive Theories
• Behavior is motivated by “pull” of external goals,
such as rewards, money, or recognition
• Incentive theories based learning principles from
Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Tolman
• Tolman stressed importance of cognitive factors
and expectation of goal in motivation

6. Arousal Theory
Optimal Stimulation as a Motivator
• People experience both
very high levels of
arousal and very low
levels of arousal as being
quite unpleasant
• When arousal is too low,
we experience boredom
and become motivated to
increase arousal
• When arousal is too high,
we seek to reduce
arousal in a less-
stimulating environment
• People are motivated to
maintain an optimal level
of arousal
Supported by
• Sensation-seeking
behavior
• Animals seek out
novel environmental
stimulation

7. Humanistic Theory
Human Potential as a Motivator
Rogers and Maslow
emphasized:
• Importance of
psychological and
cognitive factors
in motivation
• Notion that people
are motivated to
realize their
personal potential
• Most famous
humanistic model
of motivation—
Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs

8. Biological Motivation
Hunger and Eating
• Hunger — biological motive
• Eating behavior — complex interaction of biological,
social, and psychological factors

9. Energy Homeostasis
Calories consumed = Calories
expended
• Food is broken down by enzymes,
absorbed by intestines
• Glucose, or blood sugar, is
converted as a source of energy
• Insulin helps control glucose and
regulate eating and weight
• Basal metabolic rate is resting rate
• Adipose tissue (body fat) is main
source of stored calories
• Baseline body weight—cluster of
genetic and environmental factors
that cause a person’s weight to
settle within a given range
• When your caloric intake exceeds
the amount of calories expended for
energy, you experience positive
energy balance.
• When you diet or fast, a negative
energy balance occurs.
Regulatory process
called energy
homeostasis helps you
maintain your baseline
body weight

10. Short-term Signals that Regulate Eating
Physiological changes
• Slight drop in blood glucose
• Slight increase in insulin – 30 minutes before eating
• Ghrelin:
• Hormone manufactured in stomach lining
• Stimulates secretion of growth hormone by pituitary
gland in brain
• Stimulates appetite
• Blood levels of ghrelin rise sharply before and fall
abruptly after meals
• Increase in body temperature
• Decrease in metabolism

11. Psychological
Factors that
Trigger Eating
Psychological changes
Classical conditioning
• Time of day at which you normally
eat (conditioned stimulus) elicits
reflexive internal physiological
changes (conditioned response)
• Blood levels of insulin, glucose, and
ghrelin change
• Increased body temperature
• Decreased metabolism
• Internal physiological changes
increase your sense of hunger
• Stimuli can be associated with
anticipation of eating
Operant conditioning
• Preference for certain tastes: sweet,
salty, and fatty (positive incentive
value)

12. Satiation Signals
When to stop eating
Satiation signals
• Stretch receptors
communicating
sensory information
• Signals from stomach
(cholecystokinin [CCK])
slowing rate at which
stomach empties
• Sensory-specific
satiety: reduced desire
to continue consuming
a particular food; now
we want dessert!
Long-term signals
• Leptin
• Hormone indicating amount of fat in body; receptors in
hypothalamus, stomach, and gut
• Leptin level in brain increases, food intake is reduced
• Increased leptin levels also intensify satiety-producing
effects of CCK
• Signals indicating amount of food molecules in blood
• Insulin-increased brain levels of insulin associated with
a reduction in food intake
• Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a neurotransmitter regulated
by leptin and insulin; increased brain levels of
neuropeptide Y trigger eating behavior, reduce body
metabolism, and promote fat storage

13. Regulating
Appetite and
Body Weight
Your appetite is:
• stimulated (+) by
increased levels
of ghrelin and
neuropeptide Y
• suppressed (-) by
increased levels
of leptin, insulin,
and CCK

14. Eating and Body Weight
Over the Lifespan
Set-point theory
Body has optimal body weight that
body defends from becoming
higher or lower by regulating
feelings of hunger and body
metabolism
Settling-point models
• Body weight settles at a balance
between energy intake and
expenditure
• Your settling-point weight will stay
relatively stable as long as factors
influencing food consumption and
energy expenditure don’t change
Set-point theory
Click here
Settling-point models
Click here

15. Excess Weight and Obesity
• Many different factors contribute to high rates
of overweight and obesity
• Thin ideal is pervasive in American culture
• More than two-thirds of American adults and
almost one-third of children are above their
healthy weight
• Healthy weight determined by:
• Body mass index (BMI)—numerical scale
indicating height in relation to weight
• Obesity—condition characterized by
excessive body fat and a BMI equal to or
greater than 30.0
• Overweight—condition characterized by
BMI between 25.0 and 29.9
• More than one-third of adult U.S.
population considered overweight
• One and a half billion adults are
overweight, and about 500 million of those
are clinically obese
• Percentage of overweight people
increases throughout adulthood, peaking
in fifth and sixth decades of life

16. Factors
Involved in
Becoming
Overweight
Too little sleep:
disrupts hunger hormones;
blood levels of appetite-
suppressing hormone leptin
fall;appetite-increasing
hormone ghrelin soars Positive
incentive value:
anticipated
pleasures of
highly palatable
foods
“Supersize It”
syndrome:
caloric intake has
increased nearly
10 percent for
men and 7
percent for
womenCafeteria diet
effect:
when offered a
variety of highly
palatable foods,
such as at a
cafeteria or an all-
you-can-eat buffet,
we consume more
Sedentary lifestyles:
1 in 5 persons worldwide
leads a sedentary
lifestyle
Sedentary lifestyles are
more common in
urbanized, developed
countries
Four out of 10 American
adults never exercise
Basal metabolic rate
(BMR): individual
differences and
lifespan change:
as BMR decreases with
age, less food is
required to meet your
basic energy needs

17. Basal Metabolic Rate
Rate at which body uses
energy for vital functions
while at rest
Factors that influence BMR
• Age
• Sex
• Size
• Genetics
• Food intake

18. Factors Involved in
Obesity
300,000 adult deaths in United
States are directly attributable
to obesity
Interaction of genetics and environment
• People with a family history of obesity are two to three
times more likely than people with no such family history
to become obese
• Obesity also occurs in about 30 percent of children with
parents who are of normal weight
• Key phrase here is susceptibility to obesity

19. Dopamine Receptors and Obesity —
Role of Pleasure in Eating and Obesity
• Compulsive binge eating compensates for reduced
dopamine function in obese people by stimulating the
brain’s reward system
• Much like brain changes associated with drug addiction
• Dopamine response in junk food–addicted rats was
significantly reduced
• Similar in humans
• People eat more to compensate for reduced brain
rewards
• Overeating reduces dopamine reward system levels
even further

20. Human Sexuality
Psychologists consider the drive to have
sex a basic human motive.
What motivates that drive remains a
complex question?
Multiple factors are involved in
understanding human sexuality.

21. Human Sexuality
The Stages of the Human Response Cycle
• Pioneers William Masters and
Virginia Johnson — 1950s and
1960s
• Masters and Johnson observed
hundreds of individuals engaged in
more than 10,000 episodes of
sexual activity in their laboratory
• Their findings indicated that the
human sexual response could be
described as a cycle with four stages
• Critics thought the Masters and
Johnson research had violated
“sacred ground” and dehumanized
sexuality
• However, Masters and Johnson
were also praised for advancing the
understanding of human sexuality
and dispelling misconceptions

22. Stage 1:
Excitement
the
beginning of
sexual
arousal;
preparation
for
intercourse
Stage 2:
Plateau
physical
arousal
builds
Stage 3: Orgasm
third and shortest phase of the
sexual response cycle
• Both men and women describe
the experience of orgasm in
similar and positive terms
• The vast majority of men
experience one intense
orgasm. But many women are
capable of experiencing
multiple orgasms
• Males ejaculate while females
experience vaginal contractions
Stage 4: Resolution
• Arousal slowly
subsides and
returns to normal
levels
• Males experience a
refractory period
during where they
are incapable of
having another
erection or orgasm
Human Sexuality
The Stages of the Human
Response Cycle

23. What Motivates Sexual Behavior?
• Sex is necessary for the
survival of the species but
not of the individual
• Lower animals motivated
by hormonal changes in
the female
• Estrus = frantic desire
• Higher species less
influenced by hormones
and more by learning and
environmental influences
• Sexual activity can
occur any time
• Defines social
functions, cements
relationships
• Sexual motivation is
biologically influenced
by the levels of the
hormone testosterone
in the body for both
sexes

24. Romantic Love and
the Brain
• Brain loci: Looking at a photo of
one’s romantic partner produced
heightened activity in four brain areas
associated with emotion
• Anteriorcingulate cortex
• Caudate nucleus
• Putamen
• Insula
• Same brain areas are activated in
response to euphoria-producing
drugs, such as opiates and cocaine.
• Men tended to overestimate their
partner’s enjoyment of sex
• 85 percent of men thought that
their partner had experienced an
orgasm in their last sexual
encounter; only 64 percent of
women agreed

25. Evolution and Mate
Preferences
• Men were more likely than women to
value youth and physical attractiveness
in a potential mate
• Attractiveness signals physical
health and high-quality genes
• Women were more likely than men to
value financial security, access to
material resources, high-status
education, and good financial
prospects.
• Seek “good” genes: healthy and
attractive
• Need to make sure that children
survive to carry genes into future
generations – financial variable
• Evolutionary psychologists reject the
idea that people, cultures, or societies
are powerless to overcome tendencies
that evolved over hundreds of
thousands of years
David Buss: Gender
differences may reflect
evolutionary-based
“mating strategies” of
men and women.

26. Sexual Orientation
The Elusive Search for an Explanation
According to the most recent
estimates, about 7 percent of women
and 5 percent of men report having
ever engaged in homosexual behavior.
Sexual orientation
refers to whether a
person is sexually
attracted to and
sexually aroused
by members of the
same sex, the
opposite sex, or
both sexes.
• direction of a person's emotional and erotic
attractions
Sexual orientation
• sexual attraction to the opposite sexHeterosexual
• sexual attraction to the same sexHomosexual
• typically used to describe male
homosexuals
Gay
• typically used to describe female
homosexuals
Lesbian
• sexual attraction to both sexesBisexual
Click on each label to reveal definition

28. What Determines Sexual Orientation?
• A close degree of genetic relationship is predictive of homosexuality
• Genetics contributes to homosexual orientation in both men and women, although to
a much lesser degree in women than men
• The greater the number of older brothers a man has, the more likely he is to be
homosexual
• Successive male children might trigger some sort of immune response
• Differences found in the hypothalamus and amygdala of homosexual and
heterosexual men (LeVay, 2007; Savic & Lindström, 2008).
• Homosexuality was not result of disturbed or abnormal family relationships
• Sexual orientation determined before adolescence and before beginning of sexual
activity
• Sexual orientation may be established as early as age 6
• Once sexual orientation is established, whether heterosexual or homosexual, it is
highly resistant to change
• Homosexuality is no longer considered a sexual disorder by clinical psychologists or
psychiatrists (American Psychiatric Association)
Genetics… Click here
Prenatal environment… Click here
Brain structure… Click here
Other findings… Click here

29. U.S. Congressman Barney Frank
One of the first openly gay politicians,
Frank has been a member of the U.S.
Congress since 1981. Frank first
realized he was gay in his early
teenage years.
When asked if heterosexuality was
ever an option for him, Frank (1996)
responded, “I wished it was. But it
wasn’t. I can’t imagine that anybody
believes that a 13-year-old in 1953
thinks, ‘Boy, it would really be great to
be part of this minority that everybody
hates and to have a really restricted
life.’ You can’t make yourself a different
person. I am who I am. I have no idea
why.”
You Can’t Make Yourself a Different
Person

30. When and How is Sexual
Orientation Determined?
• Several researchers now believe that sexual orientation
is established as early as age 6
• Evidence suggests that male and female homosexuals
are less likely to have followed the typical pattern of
gender-specific behaviors in childhood including style of
dress, choice of toys and playmates
• Once sexual orientation is established, it is highly
resistant to change
• It is a mistake to assume that homosexuals have
deliberately chosen their sexual orientation any more
than heterosexuals have
Psychological, biological,
social and cultural factors are
all involved in determining
sexual orientation

31. Psychological Needs as Motivators
According to motivation theories of Maslow and of Deci and
Ryan, psychological needs must be fulfilled for optimal
human functioning
• Are there universal psychological needs?
• Are we internally or externally motivated to satisfy
psychological needs?
• What psychological needs must be satisfied for optimal
human functioning?

32. Maslow’s Hierarchy
of Needs
Self-actualization:
Person’s “full use and
exploitation of talents,
capacities, and potentialities.”
Critiques
• Vague and almost impossible to
define in a way that would allow
it to be tested scientifically
• Initial studies on self-
actualization were based on
limited samples with
questionable reliability
• Most people do not experience
or achieve self-actualization
Important contribution:
encouraged psychology to
focus on motivation and
development of
psychologically healthy
people

33. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

34. Optimal human functioning
can occur only when these
psychological needs are
met.
Click here
Autonomy
need to
determine, control,
and organize
one’s own
behavior and
goals so that you
are in harmony
with one’s own
interests and
values
Competence
need to learn
and master
appropriately
challenging
tasks
Relatedness
need to feel
attached to
others and
experience
senses of
belonging,
security, and
intimacy
Deci and Ryan’s Self-
Determination Theory
• Intrinsic motivation: desire to
engage in tasks that person
finds inherently satisfying and
enjoyable, novel, or optimally
challenging
• Extrinsic motivation: external
influences on behavior, such as
rewards, social evaluations,
rules, and responsibilities
A person who
has satisfied
needs for
competence,
autonomy, and
relatedness
actively
internalizes and
integrates
different external
motivators as
part of his or her
identity and
values.

35. Competence and Achievement
Motivation
Competence Motivation
Desire to direct behavior
toward demonstrating
competence and exercising
control in a situation
Achievement Motivation
• Desire to direct your behavior toward
excelling, succeeding, or
outperforming others at some task
• Measures of achievement motivation
generally correlate well with various
areas of success
Thematic
Apperception Test
(TAT)
Projective test
developed by Henry
Murray involving
creating stories about
ambiguous scenes that
can be interpreted in a
variety of ways –
including achievement
motivation
Motivation and Culture
• Individualistic cultures’ focus
on personal, individual
success, rather than success
of group; is closely linked to
success in competitive tasks.
• Collectivistic cultures’
orientation is toward social
harmony and promoting one’s
group and/or family.

36. Emotion
A complex
psychological
state that
involves
subjective
experience, a
physiological
response, and
a behavioral or
expressive
response.
Mood
A milder emotional
state that is more
general and
pervasive, such as
gloominess or
contentment.

37. Functions of Emotion
• Early psychologists considered emotions to be disruptive
forces that interfered with rational behavior.
• Today’s views:
• Emotion moves us to act, set goals, and make
rational decisions
• People who have lost the capacity to feel emotion
because of damage to specific brain areas tend to
make disastrous decisions
Emotional Intelligence
Involves ability to manage and
understand one’s own emotional
experiences, as well as be attuned to
the emotions of others

38. Evolutionary Explanations
of Emotion
Charles Darwin: Emotions reflect evolutionary
adaptations to problems of survival and reproduction
• Fear prompts us to flee an attacker or evade a
threat
• Anger moves us to turn and fight a rival
• Love propels us to seek out a mate and care for
our offspring
• Disgust prompts us to avoid a sickening stimulus
Emotional displays serve
important functions
• Inform other organisms about
our internal state
• Move us toward resources
and away from danger

39. Subjective Experience of Emotion
• Limited number of basic emotions and responses
• Innate and hard-wired in brain
• People often experience a blend of emotions; mixed
emotions

40. Culture
• General agreement across culture about basic
emotions
• Classified along two dimensions: pleasant or
unpleasant
• Level of activation or arousal associated with
emotion
• Example: joy > contentment
• Cultural variations do exist
• Interpersonal engagement reflects idea that
some emotions result from your connections
and interactions with other people
• Japanese participants rated anger and shame
as being about the same in terms of
unpleasantness and activation, but rated
shame as being much higher than anger on the
dimension of interpersonal engagement;
collectivist culture
Culture, Gender,
and Emotional
Experience
Gender
• Both men and women tend to
view women as more
emotional
• Men and women do not differ
in their self-ratings of
experience of emotions, but
do differ in their expression of
emotions

41. Neuroscience of Emotion
Emotion and the sympathetic nervous system
• Emotions are associated with distinct patterns of
responses by the sympathetic nervous system and in the
brain.
• Sympathetic nervous system is aroused by emotions
(fight-or-flight response)
• Different emotions stimulate different responses
• Fear—decrease in skin temperature (cold feet)
• Anger—increase in skin temperature (hot under the
collar)
• Differing patterns of sympathetic nervous system
activation are universal, reflecting hard-wired biological
responses to basic emotions

42. Detecting Lies
Microexpressions: Fleeting indicators of deceit
Ekman (2003):
• Deception associated with a variety of nonverbal cues
• Fleeting facial expressions, vocal cues, and nervous body movements
• Microexpressions last about 1/25 of a second
Problems
• No unique pattern of
physiological arousal
associated specifically with
lying (Vrij &others, 2010)
• Some people can lie without
experiencing anxiety or
arousal
• People may be innocent of
any wrongdoing but still be
fearful or anxious when asked
incriminating questions
• Generally agreed that
polygraphs are not a valid
method to detect lies and
should not be used as
evidence
Polygraph
• Doesn’t really detect
lies or deception
• Polygraph measures
physiological changes
associated with
emotions like fear,
tension, and anxiety
• Heart rate, blood
pressure, respiration

43. Emotional Brain
Fear and the Amygdala
Amygdala
• Part of limbic system
• Activates when you see something
threatening, fearful faces, or hear
sounds related to fear
• Evaluates significance of stimuli and
generates emotional responses
• Generates hormonal secretions and
autonomic reactions that accompany
strong emotions
• Rats with a damaged amygdala can’t
be classically conditioned to acquire a
fear response
• Humans with a damaged amygdala
have “psychic blindness” — an inability
to recognize fear in facial expressions
and voice
Le Doux’s Model
• Two neural pathways for
sensory information that
project from thalamus
• One leads to cortex
• One leads directly to
amygdala by passing
cortex
• Thalamus – amygdala
pathway – stimulates
sympathetic nervous
system
Example: People detect
and react more quickly to
angry or threatening faces
than they do to friendly
faces.

44. Expression of Emotion
• Darwin (1872): Human emotional expressions
are innate and culturally universal
• Ekman (1980) estimates the human face is
capable of creating more than 7,000 different
expressions
• Each basic emotion is associated with a
unique facial expression
• Facial expressions are innate and “hard-
wired”
• Spontaneous facial expressions of children
and young adults who were born blind do not
differ from those of sighted children and adults
• Innate facial expressions are the same across
many cultures
• Display rules: social and cultural rules that
regulate emotional expression, especially
facial expressions

46. Emotion in Nonhuman Animals
Laughing Rats, Silly Elephants, and Smiling Dolphins?
• Darwin believed animals had emotions
• Behaviorists don’t
• But who can say?
• Just observing behavior can lead to anthropomorphism
• We can’t know animals’ subjective experience
• Smiling dolphins? Just a coincidence

47. Culture and Emotional Expression
• Ekman (1982) showed photographs of facial expressions
to people in 21 different countries
• All participants identified the emotions being expressed
with a high degree of accuracy
• Some specific nonverbal gestures, which are termed
emblems, vary across cultures
• When and where we display our emotional expressions
are strongly influenced by cultural norms
• Cultural differences in the management of facial
expressions are called display rules
• In many cultures women are allowed a wider range of
emotional expressiveness

48. Theories of Emotion
Common sense view of emotion
For example, you saw a threat and:
1. recognized a threatening situation,
2. reacted by feeling fearful, and this
subjective experience
3. activated your sympathetic nervous
system, which
4. triggered fearful behavior

49. James–Lange Theory of Emotion
• We perceive a
stimulus
• Physiological
and behavioral
changes occur
• We experience
these changes
as a particular
emotion

50. James–Lange Theory of Emotion
Challenged by Walter
Cannon
• Body reactions are similar
for many emotions, yet our
subjective experience of
various emotions is very
different.
• Our emotional reaction to
a stimulus is often faster
than our physiological
reaction.
• Artificially inducing
physiological changes
does not necessarily
produce a related
emotional experience.
Individuals with spinal
cord injuries report similar
or stronger emotions.
Supported by:
• PET scan — each of basic
emotions produced a distinct
pattern of brain activity
• Participants who were highly
sensitive to their own internal
body signals were more likely
to experience anxiety and
negative emotions
• Facial feedback hypothesis
• Expressing a specific
emotion, especially
facially, causes us to
subjectively experience
that emotion
• Botox injections can
dampen emotional
experience and the ability
to perceive it

51. Cognitive Theories of Emotion
Two-factor theory of
emotion (Schachter and
Singer)
Emotion is the interaction
of physiological arousal
and the cognitive label
that we apply to explain
arousal
Cognitive appraisal
theory of emotion
• Emotions result from
cognitive appraisal of a
situation’s effect on
personal well-being
• Similar to two-factor,
but theory’s emphasis
is on cognitive
appraisal as essential
trigger for emotional
response.

52. Turning Your Goals into Reality
Implementation intentions: Turning goals into actions
Step 1: Form a goal intention.
Step 2: Create implementation intentions.
• Motivation to strive for achievement is closely linked to what
you believe about your ability to produce necessary or
desired results in a situation
• Bandura (1997, 2006): self-efficacy—the degree to which
you are convinced of your ability to effectively meet the
demands of a particular situation
Mental rehearsal: Visualize the process